Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REVERBERATIONS OF: Long-Distance Trade Networks 114 SOURCES FROM THE PAST: Socrates’ View of Death 145
Economic and Social Difficulties 115 Rational Thought and Philosophy 145
The Later Han Dynasty 116 Popular Religion and Greek Drama 146
Summary 117 Hellenistic Philosophy and Religion 147
Study Terms 117 ROME: FROM KINGDOM TO REPUBLIC 147
For Further Reading 117 The Etruscans and Rome 148
The Roman Republic and Its Constitution 148
CHAPTER 7 The Expansion of the Republic 148
State, Society, and the Quest FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 149
for Salvation in India 118 Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems 149
CHRONOLOGY 120 The Foundation of Empire 150
THE FORTUNES OF EMPIRE IN CLASSICAL INDIA 120 Continuing Expansion and Integration of the Empire 151
The Mauryan Dynasty and the Temporary Unification ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN THE ROMAN
of India 120 MEDITERRANEAN 152
The Emergence of Regional Kingdoms and the Revival Trade and Urbanization 152
of Empire 122 REVERBERATIONS OF: Long-Distance Trade Networks 153
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL Family and Society in Roman Times 154
DISTINCTIONS 123
THE COSMOPOLITAN MEDITERRANEAN 154
Towns and Trade 123
Greek Philosophy and Religions of Salvation 154
REVERBERATIONS OF: Long-Distance Trade Judaism and Early Christianity 155
Networks 124
Summary 157
Family Life and the Caste System 125
Study Terms 157
RELIGIONS OF SALVATION IN CLASSICAL INDIA 126 For Further Reading 157
Janism and the Challenge to the Established Cultural
Order 126 CHAPTER 9
Early Buddhism 127
Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads
Mahayana Buddhism 129
During the Late Classical Era 158
The Emergence of Popular Hinduism 130
CHRONOLOGY 160
SOURCES FROM THE PAST: Ashoka Adopts and
Promotes Buddhism 131 LONG-DISTANCE TRADE AND THE SILK ROADS
Summary 133 NETWORK 160
Study Terms 133 Trade Networks of the Hellenistic Era 160
For Further Reading 133 The Silk Roads 161
CULTURAL AND BIOLOGICAL EXCHANGES
CHAPTER 8 ALONG THE SILK ROADS 163
Mediterranean Society The Spread of Buddhism and Hinduism 163
under the Greeks and the Romans 134 The Spread of Christianity 164
CHRONOLOGY 136 The Spread of Manichaeism 165
The Spread of Epidemic Disease 166
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK SOCIETY 136
Minoan and Mycenaean Societies 137
The World of the Polis 138
GREECE AND THE LARGER WORLD 139
Greek Colonization 139
Conflict with Persia 141
The Macedonians and the Coming of Empire 141
The Hellenistic Era 142
THE FRUITS OF TRADE:
GREEK ECONOMY AND SOCIETY 143
Trade and the Integration of the Mediterranean Basin 143
Family and Society 144
THE CULTURAL LIFE OF CLASSICAL GREECE 144
CONTENTS ix
SOURCES FROM THE PAST: Cosmas Indicopleustes on EFFECTS OF EARLY AFRICAN MIGRATIONS 274
Trade in Southern India 241 Agriculture and
Caste and Society 242 Population
Growth 274
RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH ASIA 243
Political
The Increasing Popularity of Hinduism 243 Organization 275
Islam and Its Appeal 244
AFRICAN SOCIETY
REVERBERATIONS OF: The Spread of Religious AND CULTURAL
Traditions 245 DEVELOPMENT 276
THE INFLUENCE OF INDIAN SOCIETY Social Classes 276
IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 245 African Religion 277
The States of Southeast Asia 245 The Arrival of
The Arrival of Islam 248 Christianity 278
CONTENTS xi
REVERBERATIONS OF: The Diffusion of Technologies 280 STATES AND EMPIRES IN MESOAMERICA
ISLAMIC KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES 280 AND NORTH AMERICA 310
Trans-Saharan Trade and Islamic States in West Africa 280 The Toltecs and the Mexica 310
Indian Ocean Trade and Islamic States in East Africa 283 Mexica Society 312
Mexica Religion 313
SOURCES FROM THE PAST: Ibn Battuta on Muslim
Society at Mogadishu 285 SOURCES FROM THE PAST: Mexica Expectations of
Boys and Girls 314
Summary 287
Study Terms 287 Peoples and Societies of North America 314
For Further STATES AND EMPIRES IN SOUTH AMERICA 316
Reading 287 The Coming of the Incas 316
Inca Society and Religion 318
CHAPTER 16 THE SOCIETIES OF OCEANIA 319
Christian Western The Nomadic Foragers of Australia 319
Europe during the The Development of Pacific Island Societies 320
Middle Ages 288 REVERBERATIONS OF: The Diffusion of
Technologies 321
CHRONOLOGY 290
Summary 324
THE QUEST FOR ORDER AND THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF REGIONAL STATES 290 Study Terms 324
The Franks and the Temporary Revival of Empire 290 For Further Reading 324
The Holy Roman Empire 292 CHAPTER 18
Regional Monarchies in France and England 292
Regional States in Italy and Iberia 294
Cross-Cultural Interactions 326
CHRONOLOGY 328
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT 294 LONG-DISTANCE TRADE AND TRAVEL 328
REVERBERATIONS OF: The Diffusion of Technologies 295 Patterns of Long-Distance Trade 328
Organizing a Decentralized Society 295 SOURCES FROM THE PAST: Ibn Battuta on Customs in
Serfs, Manors, and the Growth of the Agricultural the Mali Empire 329
Economy 295 Political and Diplomatic Travel 329
The Revival of Towns and Trade 296 Missionary Campaigns 332
Social Change 297 Long-Distance Travel and Cross-Cultural
Exchanges 332
SOURCES FROM THE PAST: Privileges Granted in
London to the Hanse of Cologne 1157–1194 298 CRISIS AND RECOVERY 333
EUROPEAN CHRISTIANITY DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 299 Bubonic Plague 333
The Politics of Conversion 300 CONNECTING THE SOURCES: Individual experiences of
The Papacy 300 the bubonic plague 334
Monasticism 300 Recovery in China: The Ming Dynasty 336
Schools, Universities, and Scholastic Theology 301 Recovery in Western Europe: State Building 337
Popular Religion 302 Recovery in Western Europe: The Renaissance 338
THE MEDIEVAL EXPANSION OF EUROPE 303 EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION 340
Atlantic and Baltic Colonization 303 REVERBERATIONS OF: The Diffusion of Technologies 341
The Reconquest of Sicily and Spain 305 The Chinese Reconnaissance of the Indian Ocean Basin 341
The Crusades 305 European Exploration in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans 342
Summary 307 Summary 344
Study Terms 307 Study Terms 344
For Further Reading 307 For Further Reading 345
BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: Part 4 346
CHAPTER 17
Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania 308 Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
CHRONOLOGY 310 Index I-1
Preface
How do the themes of traditions and encounters
help make sense of the entire human past?
World history is about both diversity and connections. successively in the seven parts of this book, represent coherent
We began this text with a simple goal: to help our students epochs that form the larger architecture of world history as we
understand the unique histories of the world’s rich variety of see it. Every region of the world is discussed in each of the
peoples while allowing them to see the long histories of con- seven eras. The eras owe their coherence in large part to the
nections and interactions that have shaped all human commu- networks of transportation, communication, and exchange that
nities for millennia. To do this, we have written a story around have linked peoples of different societies at different times in
the dual themes of traditions and encounters, so that we can the past. This structure allows us to make cross-cultural com-
highlight the many different religions and customs embraced parisons that help frame world history for students to put events
by the world’s peoples while also exploring the encounters in a perspective that renders them more understandable.
with other cultures that brought about inevitable change.
The interaction of these traditions and encounters pro-
vides the key to making sense of our past. Human communi- Highlights of the Fourth Edition
ties furthered themselves not by remaining isolated, but by In preparing this fourth edition of Traditions and Encoun-
interacting with others and exploring the benefits and risks of ters: A Brief Global History, we have revised and updated
reaching out. The vitality of history—and its interpretation— the text to stay current with recent world historical schol-
lies in understanding the nature of individual traditions and arship and to stay true to the goals of a brief textbook.
the scope of encounters that punctuated every significant Significant modifications to the fourth edition include
event in human history. new material on the ancient peoples of South and Central
Traditions & Encounters: A Brief Global History provides Asia, revised material on the 16th century Americas, ad-
a global vision of history that is increasingly meaningful in a ditional material on the Ottoman Empire during World
shrinking world. The theme of traditions draws attention to the War I, new scholarship on the Communist International,
formation, maintenance, and sometimes collapse of individual and thoroughly updated material on the 21st century. In
societies. Because the world’s peoples have also interacted reg- addition, the visual art program has been extensively re-
ularly with one another since the earliest days of human history, freshed, and the Sources of the Past feature in each chap-
the theme of encounters directs attention to communications, ter includes a variety of new sources.
interactions, networks, and exchanges that have linked individ-
Additional significant changes to the fourth edition include
ual societies to their neighbors and others in the larger world.
the following:
The themes of traditions and encounters are at the heart
of every chapter in the text. They provide a lens through Chapter 1, “The Foundations of Complex Societies”: revised
which to interpret the affairs of humankind and the pressures to reflect current scholarship on nomadic peoples as well as
that continue to shape history. All aspects of the text support the centrality of religion to Sumerian culture.
these themes—from the organization of chapters, engaging Chapter 3, “Early Societies in South and East Asia”: revised
stories of the world’s peoples, to the robust map program to reflect current scholarship on early South Asian peoples.
and critical-thinking features.
Chapter 18, “Cross-Cultural Interactions”: New “Thinking
about Traditions” about comparative cultural revivals in
Organization: Seven Eras of Global History Ming China and Renaissance Europe. New “Thinking about
We discuss the world’s development through time by organiz- Encounters” box about long-distance travel and cross-
ing it into seven eras of global history. These eras, treated cultural exchange.
xii
Primary Source Documents
Chapter 1 The Flood Story from the Epic of Chapter 11 The Quran on Allah and His Expectations
Gilgamesh 17 of Humankind 203
Chapter 2 Harkhuf’s Expeditions to Nubia 32 Chapter 12 The Arab Merchant Suleiman
Chapter 3 Peasants’ Protest* 56 on Business Practices in Tang China 226
Chapter 4 The Popol Vuh on the Creation Chapter 13 Cosmas Indicopleustes
of Human Beings 70 on Trade in Southern India 241
Chapter 5 Zarathustra on Good and Evil 97 Chapter 14 William of Rubruck on Gender Relations among
Chapter 6 Confucius on Good Government 104 the Mongols* 257
Chapter 7 Ashoka Adopts Buddhism* 131 Chapter 15 Ibn Battuta on Muslim Society
at Mogadishu 285
Chapter 8 Socrates’ View on Death* 145
Chapter 16 Privileges Granted in London to the Hanse
Chapter 9 St. Cyprian on Epidemic Disease
of Cologne 1157–1194* 298
in the Roman Empire 167
Chapter 17 Mexica Expectations of Boys and Girls* 314
Chapter 10 The Wealth and Commerce
of Constantinople 189 Chapter 18 Ibn Battuta on Customs in the Mali
Empire* 329
ConnectingtheSourcesDocuments
CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 11
Document 1: Stela (inscribed stone) from the tomb Document 1: Poem attributed to Rabi’a al-’Adawiyya. 212
of a man named Mentuhotep, from the 11th dynasty Document 2: Selection from Alchemy of Happiness
(2133–1991 B.C.E.). 36 by Abu Hamid al-Ghazali. Early 12th century. 212
Document 2: Declaration freeing slaves,
from the 20th dynasty (1185–1070 B.C.E.) 37 CHAPTER 18
Document 1: Metrica,
CHAPTER 6 by Francesco Petrarca (1304–1374). 334
Document 1: Selection from the Analects of Confucius, Document 2: Essay on the Report of the Pestilence,
“On Women and Servants.” 112 1348, by Ibn al-Wardi (c. 1290–1349). 334
Document 2: Excerpt from Ban Zhao’s Lessons for Women,
written in about 80 C.E. 112
xiii
Acknowledgments
M any individuals have contributed to this book, and the authors take pleasure in re-
cording deep thanks for all the comments, criticism, advice, and suggestions that
helped to improve the work. Special thanks to the editorial, marketing, and production
teams at McGraw-Hill: Laura Wilk, Rhona Robbin, Nomi Sofer, and Rick Hecker, who provided
crucial support by helping the authors work through difficult issues and solving the innumerable
problems of content, style, organization, and design that arise in any project to produce a
history of the world.
Academic Reviewers
This edition continues to reflect many discerning suggestions made by instructors of the world
history course. We would like to acknowledge the contributions of the following reviewers who
suggested many of the changes implemented in this print and digital program:
Heather J. Abdelnur W. H. Bragg
Blackburn College Georgia College and State University
Wayne Ackerson Kathryn Braund
Salisbury University Auburn University
Valerie Adams David Brosius
Arizona State University U.S. Air Force Academy/USAFA
Patrick Albano Robert Brown
Fairmont State University UNC Pembroke
William H. Alexander Gayle Brunelle
Norfolk State University California State University, Fullerton
Michael Balyo Samuel Brunk
Chemeketa Community College University of Texas, El Paso
Diane Barefoot Marybeth Carlson
Caldwell Community College, Watauga Campus University of Dayton
Gene Barnett Kay J. Carr
Calhoun Community College Southern Illinois University
Christopher M. Bellitto Robert Carriedo
Kean University U.S. Air Force Academy/USAFA
Michael J. Bennett Annette Chamberlin
Winston Salem State University Virginia Western Community College
Patricia Boelhower Jim Chelsvig
Marian University MacMurray College
John Boswell Patricia Colman
San Antonio College Moorpark College
Beau Bowers John Davidann
Central Piedmont Community College Hawaii Pacific University
Jeff Bowersox Kevin Dougherty
University of Southern Mississippi University of Southern Mississippi
xiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv
In addition, we would like to thank the following individuals who participated in McGraw-Hill history
symposia and focus groups and on the Connect Board of Advisors; these individuals helped shape our
digital program:
Gisela Ables James Jones Geri Ryder
Houston Community College Prairie View A & M University Ocean County College
Sal Anselmo Mark Jones Linda Scherr
Delgado Community College Central Connecticut State University Mercer County Community College
Simon Baatz Philip Kaplan Susan Schmidt-Horning
John Jay College University of North Florida St. John’s University
Mario A. J. Bennekin Stephen Katz Donna Scimeca
Georgia Perimeter College Philadelphia University College of Staten Island
Manu Bhagavan Carol A. Keller Jeffrey Smith
Hunter College San Antonio College Lindenwood University
C. J. Bibus Greg Kelm Rachel Standish
Wharton County Junior College Dallas Baptist University San Joaquin Delta College
Olwyn M. Blouet Michael Kinney Matthew Vaz
Virginia State University Calhoun Community College City College of New York
Michael Botson Jessica Kovler Roger Ward
Houston Community College John Jay College Colin County Community College–Plano
Cathy Briggs David Lansing Christian Warren
Northwest Vista College Ocean County College Brooklyn College
Brad Cartwright Benjamin Lapp Don Whatley
University of Texas at El Paso Montclair State University Blinn College
Roger Chan Julian Madison Scott M. Williams
Washington State University Southern Connecticut State University Weatherford College
June Cheatham David Marshall Carlton Wilson
Richland College Suffolk County Community College North Carolina Central University
Karl Clark Meredith R. Martin Geoffrey Willbanks
Coastal Bend College Collin College Tyler Junior College
Bernard Comeau Linda McCabe Chad Wooley
Tacoma Community College North Lake College Tarrant County College
Kevin Davis George Monahan
North Central Texas College Suffolk County Community College Connect Board of Advisors
Michael Downs Tracy Musacchio Michael Downs
Tarrant County College–Southeast John Jay College University of Texas–Arlington
Laura Dunn Mikal Nash Jim Halverson
Brevard Community College Essex County College Judson University
Arthur Durand Sandy Norman Reid Holland
Metropolitan Community College Florida Atlantic University Midlands Technical College
David Dzurec Michelle Novak Stephen Katz
University of Scranton Houston Community College–Southeast Rider University
Amy Forss Veena Oldenburg David Komito
Metropolitan Community College Baruch College Eastern Oregon University
Jim Good Jessica Patton Wendy Sarti
Lone Star College–North Harris Tarrant County College–Northwest Oakton Community College
R. David Goodman Edward Paulino Linda Scherr
Pratt Institute John Jay College Mercer County Community College
Wendy Gunderson Craig Pilant Eloy Zarate
Colin County Community College County College of Morris Pasadena City College
Debbie Hargis Robert Risko
Odessa College Trinity Valley Community College
John Hosler Esther Robinson
Morgan State University Lone Star College–Cyfair
AboutTheAuthors
Jerry H. Bentley was professor of history at the University of Hawai‘i and editor of the
Journal of World History. His research on the religious, moral, and political writings of
Renaissance humanists led to the publication of Humanists and Holy Writ: New Testament
Scholarship in the Renaissance (Princeton, 1983) and Politics and Culture in Renaissance
Naples (Princeton, 1987). More recently, his research was concentrated on global history
and particularly on processes of cross-cultural interaction. His book Old World Encounters:
Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York, 1993) examines
processes of cultural exchange and religious conversion before the modern era, and his pam-
phlet Shapes of World History in Twentieth-Century Scholarship (Washington, D.C., 1996)
discusses the historiography of world history. His most recent publication is The Oxford
Handbook of World History (Oxford, 2011), and he served as a member of the editorial team
preparing the forthcoming Cambridge History of the World. Jerry Bentley passed away in
July 2012.
CHAPTER 1
The Foundations of
A bout 12,000 years ago, humans crossed an impor-
tant threshold when they began to experiment
with agriculture. It quickly became clear that cultivation
Complex Societies
3
The Foundations
of Complex Societies
CHAPTER 1
4
The Transition to Agriculture The Broader Influence of Mesopotamian Society
The Paleolithic Era Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews
The Neolithic Era The Phoenicians
The Quest for Order The Indo-European Migrations
Mesopotamia: “The Land between the Rivers” Indo-European Origins
The Course of Empire
The Formation of a Complex Society and
Indo-European Expansion and Its Effects
1
PART
EYEWITNESS:
Gilgamesh: The Man and the Myth
B y far, the most familiar individual of ancient Mesopotamian society was a man named Gilgamesh. According
to historical sources, Gilgamesh was the fifth king of the city of Uruk. He ruled about 2750 b.c.e., and he led
his community in its conflicts with Kish, a nearby city that was the principal rival of Uruk.
Gilgamesh was a figure of Mesopotamian mythology and folklore as well as history. He was the subject of
numerous poems and legends, and Mesopotamian bards made him the central figure in a cycle of stories known
collectively as the Epic of Gilgamesh. As a figure of legend, Gilgamesh became the greatest hero figure of ancient
Mesopotamia. According to the stories, the gods granted Gilgamesh a perfect body and endowed him with super-
human strength and courage. The legends declare that he constructed the massive city walls of Uruk as well as
several of the city’s magnificent temples to Mesopotamian deities.
The stories that make up the Epic of Gilgamesh recount the adventures of this hero and his cherished friend
Enkidu as they sought fame. They killed an evil monster, rescued Uruk from a ravaging bull, and matched wits
with the gods. In spite of their heroic deeds, Enkidu offended the gods and fell under a sentence of death. His
loss profoundly affected Gilgamesh, who sought for some means to cheat death and gain eternal life. He eventu-
ally found a magical plant that had the power to confer immortality, but a serpent stole the plant and carried it
away, forcing Gilgamesh to recognize that death is the ultimate fate of all human beings. Thus, while focusing on
the activities of Gilgamesh and Enkidu, the stories explored themes of friendship, loyalty, ambition, fear of death,
and longing for immortality. In doing so they reflected the interests and concerns of the complex, urban-based
society that had recently emerged in Mesopotamia.
Yet such interests and concerns had their foundation deep in the human past. By the time Mesopotamian society
emerged, our own species of human, Homo sapiens, had existed for about two hundred thousand years. These
humans, who themselves descended from earlier hominids, were already accomplished problem solvers and think-
ers long before urban societies developed. In fact, early human communities were responsible for laying the social,
economic, and cultural foundations on which their descendants built increasingly complex societies—especially
through the domestication of plants and animals and by establishing agricultural economies.
Indeed, productive agricultural economies supported the development of the first known complex societies
during the fourth millennium b.c.e. Such societies, in which sizable numbers of people lived in cities and extended
their political, social, economic, and cultural influence over large regions, emerged first in southwest Asia, par-
ticularly in Mesopotamia. As these complex societies developed and grew, people found that they needed to
resolve disputes that inevitably arose as individual and group interests conflicted. In Mesopotamia, settled agri-
cultural peoples in search of order recognized political authorities and built states. The establishment of states
Uruk (OO-rook)
hominid (HAW-mih-nihd)
5
CHRONOLOGY Apart from stimulating the establish-
ment of states, urban society in Mesopo-
4 million–1 million years ago Era of first hominids, Australopithecus
tamia also promoted the emergence of
2.5 million–200,000 years ago Era of Homo erectus social classes, thus giving rise to increas-
200,000 years ago Early evolution of Homo sapiens ingly complex social and economic struc-
40,000 years ago First appearance of Homo sapiens sapiens
tures. Cities fostered specialized labor, and
the efficient production of high-quality goods
10,000–8000 b.c.e. Early experimentation with agriculture in turn stimulated trade. Furthermore, early
4000–3500 b.c.e. Appearance of cities in southwest Asia Mesopotamia developed distinctive cultural
3200–2350 b.c.e. Era of Sumerian dominance in Mesopotamia traditions as Mesopotamians invented a
system of writing and supported organized
3000 b.c.e.–1000 c.e. Era of Indo-European migrations
religions.
2350–1600 b.c.e. Era of Babylonian dominance in Mesopotamia Mesopotamian and other peoples
2334–2315 b.c.e. Reign of Sargon of Akkad regularly interacted with one another,
1792–1750 b.c.e. Reign of Hammurabi which helped further the geographic reach
of Mesopotamian society. Some Indo-
1450–1200 b.c.e. Era of Hittite dominance in Anatolia
European peoples also had direct dealings
1000–612 b.c.e. Era of Assyrian dominance in Mesopotamia with their Mesopotamian contemporar-
1000–970 b.c.e. Reign of Israelite king David ies, with effects crucial for both Indo-
European and Mesopotamian societies.
970–930 b.c.e. Reign of Israelite king Solomon
Other Indo-European peoples probably
722 b.c.e. Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel never heard of Mesopotamia, but they
605–562 b.c.e. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar employed Mesopotamian inventions,
such as wheels and metallurgy, when
600–550 b.c.e. New Babylonian empire
undertaking extensive migrations that
586 b.c.e. New Babylonian destruction of the first temple in profoundly influenced historical develop-
Judah
ment throughout much of Eurasia from
western Europe to India and beyond.
in turn encouraged the creation of empires, as some states Even in the earliest days of city life, the world was the site
sought to extend their power by imposing their rule on neigh- of frequent and intense interaction between peoples of dif-
boring lands. ferent societies.
6
Chapter 1 The Foundations of Complex Societies 7
finally, the Americas. Thus by about fifteen thousand years The Early Spread of Agriculture The transition to
ago, communities of Homo sapiens had appeared in almost agriculture—including both the cultivation of crops and
every habitable region of the world. the domestication of animals—emerged independently in
For most of human existence—indeed, from the evo- several parts of the world. The earliest evidence of agri-
lution of the first hominids until about twelve thousand cultural activity discovered so far dates to the era after
years ago—our ancestors foraged for their food. In other 9000 b.c.e. in southwest Asia (modern-day Iraq, Syria, and
words, they hunted wild animals or gathered edible prod-
ucts of naturally growing plants. That reliance on forag-
Turkey). Between 9000 and 7000 b.c.e., agriculture also
emerged among African peoples inhabiting the southeast-
1
PART
ing characterized what historians and archaeologists call ern margin of the Sahara desert (modern-day Sudan), and
the paleolithic era, or the “old stone age.” then among the peoples of sub-Saharan west Africa (in the
The conditions of foraging economies decisively in- vicinity of modern Nigeria) between 8000 and 6000 b.c.e.
fluenced all dimensions of the human experience during In east Asia, residents of the Yangzi River valley began
the paleolithic era. For instance, because of constant mo- to cultivate crops as early as 6500 b.c.e., and their neigh-
bility in the search for food, a foraging economy virtually bors to the north in the Yellow River valley did the same
prohibits individuals from accumulating private property after 5500 b.c.e. In southeast Asia the cultivation of crops
and basing social distinctions on wealth. In the absence of dates from an indeterminate but very early time, probably
accumulated wealth, hunters and gatherers of paleolithic 3000 b.c.e. or earlier. In the western hemisphere, inhabit-
times probably lived a relatively egalitarian existence. ants of Mesoamerica (central Mexico) cultivated plants as
Some scholars believe that this relative social equality early as 4000 b.c.e., and residents of the central Andean
also extended to relations between the sexes, because all region of South America (modern Peru) followed suit after
members of a paleolithic group made important contribu- 3000 b.c.e. It is also possible that the Amazon River valley
tions to the survival of the community. Although meat was yet another site of independently invented agriculture.
from the hunt (provided by men) was the most highly Once established, agriculture spread rapidly. As a re-
prized item in the paleolithic diet, plant foods (provided sult, foods originally cultivated in only one region also
by women) were essential to survival and sustained com- spread widely, as merchants, migrants, or other travelers
munities when the hunt did not succeed. Because of the carried knowledge of these foods to agricultural lands that
thorough interdependence of the sexes from the view- previously had relied on different crops. However, agricul-
point of food production, paleolithic society probably did ture did not spread rapidly because it was easier than for-
not encourage the domination of one sex by the other. aging. On the contrary, agriculture involved long hours
of hard physical labor—clearing land, preparing fields,
planting seeds, pulling weeds, and harvesting crops—and
The Neolithic Era thus probably required more work than paleolithic forag-
Between twelve and six thousand years ago, human com- ing. Yet over time, agriculture made possible the produc-
munities in a variety of locations underwent profound tion of abundant food supplies, which in turn allowed
economic, social, and political changes when they began to human populations to grow to unprecedented levels. For
experiment with the domestication of plants and animals. example, historians estimate that before agriculture, about
Scientists refer to this period as the neolithic era, or “new 10,000 b.c.e., the earth’s human population was about
stone age,” because of the polished stone tools associated four million. By 500 b.c.e., after agriculture had spread to
with peoples who relied on cultivation for subsistence. most world regions, the human population had risen to
Neolithic peoples sought to ensure themselves more about one hundred million.
regular food supplies by encouraging the growth of edible
crops and bringing wild animals into dependence on The Development of Social Distinctions Such rap-
human keepers. Many scholars believe that women most idly increasing populations encouraged neolithic peoples
likely began the systematic care of plants. As the principal to adopt new forms of social organization. Because they
gatherers in foraging communities, women in neolithic devoted their time to cultivation rather than to foraging,
societies probably began to nurture plants instead of simply neolithic peoples did not continue the migratory life of
collecting available foods in the wild. Meanwhile, instead their paleolithic predecessors but, rather, settled near their
of just stalking game with the intention of killing it for meat, fields in permanent villages. Most people in neolithic
neolithic men began to capture animals and domesticate villages cultivated crops or kept animals, and many even
them by providing for their needs and supervising their
breeding. Over a period of decades and centuries, these
practices gradually led to the formation of agricultural paleolithic (pey-lee-oh-LITH-ik)
economies. neolithic (nee-uh-LITH-ik)
8 PART 1 The Early Complex Societies, 3500 to 500 b.c.e.
continued to hunt and forage for wild plants. But a surplus THE QUEST FOR ORDER
of food enabled some individuals to concentrate their
time and talents on enterprises that had nothing to do with The earliest known cities grew out of agricultural villages
the production of food, especially pottery making, metal- and towns in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
lurgy, and textile production. Moreover, the concentration in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq). During the fourth
of people into permanent settlements and the increasing millennium b.c.e., human population increased rapidly in
specialization of labor provided the first opportunity for the area, which in turn presented inhabitants with the chal-
individuals to accumulate considerable wealth. The insti- lenge of keeping order in a large-scale society. Over time,
tutionalization of privately owned landed property— by experimentation and adaptation, they created states and
which occurred at an uncertain date after the introduction governmental machinery that brought political and social
of agriculture—enhanced the significance of accumu- order to their territories. Moreover, effective political and
lated wealth. Because land was (and remains) the ultimate military organization enabled them to build regional em-
source of wealth in any agricultural society, ownership of pires and extend their authority to neighboring peoples.
land carried enormous economic power. When especially
successful individuals managed to consolidate wealth in Mesopotamia:
their families’ hands and kept it there for several genera-
tions, clearly defined social classes emerged. “The Land between the Rivers”
The place-name Mesopotamia comes from two Greek
Çatal Hüyük Within four thousand years of its intro- words meaning “the land between the rivers.” This was
duction, agriculture had dramatically transformed the one of four river-valley regions in which ancient civiliza-
face of the earth. Human beings multiplied prodigiously, tions were established. Each shared important geographi-
congregated in densely populated quarters, placed the cal features, including dry soils, an environment that was
surrounding lands under cultivation, and domesticated slowly drying and warming following the end of the last
several species of animals. Besides altering the physical ice age, and seasonally flooding rivers that made irriga-
appearance of the earth, agriculture transformed the tion agriculture possible. So, although Mesopotamia re-
lives of human beings. Even a modest neolithic village ceived little rainfall, the Tigris and Euphrates brought
dwarfed a paleolithic band of a few dozen hunters and large volumes of fresh water to the region. Early cultiva-
gatherers. In larger villages and towns, with their popula- tors realized that by tapping these rivers, building reser-
tions of several thousand people, their specialized labor, voirs, and digging canals, they could irrigate fields of
and their craft industries, social relationships became barley, wheat, and peas. Small-scale irrigation began in
more complex than would have been conceivable during Mesopotamia soon after 6000 b.c.e.
paleolithic times.
Excavations carried out at Çatal Hüyük, one of the Sumer Artificial irrigation led to increased food sup-
best-known neolithic settlements, have helped confirm that plies, which in turn supported a rapidly increasing human
view. Located in south-central Anatolia (modern Turkey), population and attracted migrants from other regions.
Çatal Hüyük grew from a small village to a bustling town Human numbers grew especially fast in the land of Sumer
of five thousand inhabitants between its settlement in in the southern half of Mesopotamia. By about 5000 b.c.e.
7250 b.c.e. and its abandonment in 5400 b.c.e. Archaeo- the Sumerians were constructing elaborate irrigation net-
logical evidence indicates that because the site was close works that helped them realize abundant agricultural har-
to large obsidian deposits, Çatal Hüyük became a center vests. By 3000 b.c.e. the population of Sumer approached
for production and trade in obsidian tools. The wealth one hundred thousand—an unprecedented concentration
generated from such trade in turn allowed increasing spe- of people in ancient times—and the Sumerians were the
cialization of labor, so that residents eventually manufac- dominant people of Mesopotamia.
tured and traded pots, textiles, leather, beads, and jewelry
at the site. Gradually, dense populations, specialized Semitic Migrants While supporting a growing popula-
labor, and complex social relations such as those that tion, the wealth of Sumer also attracted migrants from other
developed at Çatal Hüyük gave rise to an altogether new regions. Most of the new arrivals were Semitic peoples—so
form of social organization—the city. called because they spoke tongues in the Semitic family of
languages, including Akkadian, Aramaic, Hebrew, and
Phoenician. Semitic peoples were nomadic herders who
Çatal Hüyük (chat-l-hoo-yook) went to Mesopotamia from the Arabian and Syrian deserts
Sumerians (soo-MEHR-ee-uhns) to the south and west. They often intermarried with the
Semitic (suh-MIHT-ihk) Sumerians, and they largely adapted to Sumerian ways.
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dans ses yeux, grands ouverts et fixes, toute la vie, riche et oisive,
que sa beauté servie par la ruse devait lui conquérir.
Il fallait pourtant aller aux offices, à confesse. Comme elle
n’avouait que des péchés véniels, son directeur lui dit un jour
étourdiment : « Mais c’est la confession d’une morte que vous me
faites là ! » Elle en conclut que la plupart des pénitentes mondaines
étaient toujours en état de péché mortel, et que c’est une duperie
d’être plus sage que les autres. Ainsi les appels obstinés, mais naïfs,
du prêtre à sa conscience ne firent qu’affermir en elle la
préméditation du mensonge. Elle n’y gagna que de s’établir dans la
malice de ses projets en pleine connaissance de cause. Elle
consentit à tout ce que lui avaient dicté son instinct de perversité,
son goût de vengeance contre le monde égoïste et féroce. Elle ratifia
toutes ses résolutions de mal faire. Cela, en elle, se formula ainsi :
« Je vois bien comment va le monde, et que, décidément, le
mensonge seul et la ruse me mèneront où je veux, où je dois aller. »
Elle ne s’approuvait pourtant pas. Elle s’excusait, mais se
qualifiait très bien de mauvaise. Voici quel fut, en résumé, son
examen de conscience :
— Comment faudrait-il agir, dans ma situation, pour agir bien ?
Elle le savait nettement et se répondit : « La première vertu, c’est
la loyauté. Bien faire, ce serait, avant tout, ne pas épouser un
homme que je n’aime pas. »
Cette seule idée lui fit hausser les épaules.
— N’y aurait-il aucun moyen de l’épouser, sans le trahir ? — Il y
en a un ; ce serait d’aller dire à cet homme qui m’aime et que je sais
capable de toutes les compréhensions, de tous les pardons : « Voici
le fond de mon âme, voilà mes origines, voilà mes défauts, voilà
mon éducation. Je suis à la veille de vous tromper en vous laissant
me croire tout autre que je ne suis. Je viens tout vous dire, pour me
sauver de moi-même, de mes démons. Aidez-moi. Élevez-moi
jusqu’à vous. Sauvez-moi !… ou fuyez-moi ! Et si vous me fuyez,
même alors j’aurai gagné quelque chose : de m’être estimée
pendant la minute où je vous parle. »
Était-ce bien difficile à faire ? Pas tant que cela. Il y aurait eu
dans un tel acte plus de fierté vraie que d’humilité. Aussi, elle fut
tentée. De plus, elle se croyait sûre de réussir. Il était si bon ! Il
pardonnerait tout de suite…, comme un niais ! Ce fut justement ce
qui l’arrêta. La partie n’était pas assez compliquée. C’était une
joueuse, une chercheuse de périls effleurés, une aventureuse de
race.
Et puis, la partie une fois gagnée par ce moyen-là,
qu’adviendrait-il ? Ah ! probablement la méfiance, éveillée dans cet
homme, gênerait éternellement sa vie à elle. Car, pour sa vie à lui,
elle n’y songeait guère. Si elle se résolvait à prendre la voie honnête,
elle savait bien qu’elle y aurait quelques méchants faux pas… C’est
inévitable, cela ; la chair est faible ; pourquoi se faire des illusions ?
Elle se connaissait bien ! — Alors, ce serait l’éternel soupçon, les
jalousies, toutes les misères des petites vies. Vraiment, il valait bien
mieux lui apparaître toujours comme une vierge archangélique.
Elle voyait encore un autre moyen de se réconcilier avec elle-
même : tout en n’avouant rien du passé, prendre la résolution de
devenir telle que le comte Paul la croyait. Elle trouvait cela beaucoup
moins bien, car elle n’ignorait pas que l’amour est un don entier de
soi, et en agissant ainsi elle ne se fût pas donnée entièrement
puisqu’elle n’eût pas livré son passé.
Ce moyen lui plaisait d’ailleurs moins que l’autre : il n’amusait
pas son goût de lutte et de scènes théâtrales. Elle le repoussa
comme indigne d’elle. C’eût été un acte d’humilité intérieure, cachée,
et elle était une hautaine.
Les résolutions bonnes sont payées d’un bénéfice double : le
cœur en est réjoui aussitôt, d’abord parce qu’elles sont prises
(l’incertitude est une peine), et ensuite parce qu’elles sont bonnes.
La résolution mauvaise n’apporte qu’une seule de ces
satisfactions, mais elle en donne au moins une : l’exercice de la
volonté, même pour le mal, est payé de l’affirmation, heureuse en
nous, de la liberté. C’est dans le sentiment de la liberté que
commence l’idée de justice. Aussi voit-on souvent, après le crime
accompli, les criminels résolus se complaire à l’idée que la justice
qui les châtiera, existe. Beaucoup se livrent et avouent dans les
larmes. Le plus grand des maux est la trouble inconscience,
l’affolante incertitude. Le mal conscient a déjà fait un pas vers
l’affirmation du bien, sans laquelle il ne pourrait s’avouer qu’il est le
mal.
Marie Déperrier se trouva donc tranquillisée par sa résolution de
conquérir, à tout prix, les biens de la terre.
Et Dieu ? Dieu, comme dit le poète des Contes d’Espagne, tel est
le siècle : elle n’y pensa même pas !
Dans cette maison où le nom de Dieu était écrit sur tous les
murs, au dortoir, au réfectoire, et se répétait dans les devises qui
surmontaient toutes les portes, elle n’y songea pas plus qu’elle n’y
pensait à l’église où elle allait tous les dimanches. Peut-être était-ce
y avoir songé en quelque manière, que d’avoir débattu le choix entre
la Sincérité et le Mensonge ! Dieu, toutes les formes de la prière,
toutes les cérémonies du culte le lui voilaient plutôt : elle ne voyait
pas la signification des symboles ; elle ne voyait que des détails de
mise en scène. En somme, elle échappait toujours à tout.
Les jours s’écoulaient, et pour se distraire elle se mit à écrire des
pages romanesques où elle se racontait à elle-même son enfance.
Elle fut bientôt arrêtée. Elle recula devant certains souvenirs,
indignée de sa mère, effarée d’elle-même, se demandant comment
s’était formée en elle, si jeune, sa conception maligne de la vie.
Elle se revoyait, à huit ans, inquiète des visites fréquentes d’un
homme dans leur maison. Cet homme, elle le détestait, d’instinct.
Quand il la soulevait dans ses bras, elle criait, le frappant avec
colère de ses petits pieds qui se débattaient. Et, peu à peu, elle ne
savait comment, à cause des attitudes de sa mère vis-à-vis du père,
à cause de certains mouvements de gêne mal dissimulés et qu’elle
ne s’expliquait pas, cette idée confuse mais forte était venue en elle :
on faisait, dans la maison, quelque chose de mal ; son père ne
devait pas le savoir : ce n’était donc pas lui le coupable !… Et peu à
peu, une certitude se fit dans son intelligence d’enfant : puisqu’on se
cachait de lui, il ne fallait pas qu’il apprît la chose inconnue ; il aurait
trop de chagrin, s’il venait à savoir ! Et, elle en voulait à sa mère et
surtout « au monsieur » ! Et cependant un jour, voici ce qu’elle fit. Cet
homme était chez sa mère, dans le salon. Elle, seule, à jouer dans
sa chambre, avec ordre de rester là, bien sage, — lorsque arriva,
introduite par la bonne, une vieille tante. Et Marie se souvenait très
bien d’avoir eu aussitôt la pensée que sa tante ne devait pas entrer,
dans ce moment-là, chez sa mère, qu’il y avait à cela un grand
intérêt ; que la présence du monsieur devait rester secrète pour tout
le monde. Et, par mille petits moyens, elle avait détourné l’attention
de la tante, lui répétant : « Maman n’est pas là ; maman est sortie ! »
Elle lui avait montré ses joujoux en détail, bien longtemps, pour la
tromper ! Elle avait tiré des armoires les moindres colifichets de sa
poupée, avec le sentiment agréable d’être d’un grand complot, très
dangereux, — qui la faisait trembler comme au récit du conte de
Barbe-Bleue ; et sa finesse la rendait fière et contente, comme si elle
eût été le Petit Poucet.
Elle pensait quotidiennement à ces choses et à beaucoup
d’autres semblables, dans la chapelle de ce couvent, et dans sa
simple chambre ornée d’un crucifix de bois noir traversé d’un brin de
buis bénit… Elle retrouvait lentement les raisons qui l’avaient faite
mauvaise — mais le tour de son esprit la conduisit à y voir plus que
l’excuse : la légitimation de ses volontés de nuisance…
En un mot, tous les êtres lui paraissaient ennemis. Elle se
plaçait, non devant l’idéal à aimer assez fortement pour le réaliser un
peu, — mais devant la réalité à haïr et à combattre par des moyens
semblables à cela même qui la fait détester ! Elle se fût défendue
d’inventer le mal. Elle croyait rendre le mal. Accepter cette
conception, c’est vouloir faire du mal un cercle sans fin. C’est l’idée
chère au démon des légendes noires ; mais l’apparence de justice
que comporte cette idée rattache à l’humanité les monstres eux-
mêmes.
Encore toute jeune fille, à quinze ans, — l’âge de Juliette, — elle
avait eu à subir une tentative de séduction que rendait
particulièrement odieuse la qualité du séducteur. Ce souvenir
l’indignait, l’exaspérait comme aux premiers jours. Le « monsieur »
qu’elle détestait, la trouvant seule un soir, lui avait chuchoté à
l’oreille les premières paroles étranges qu’elle eût entendues… d’un
homme âgé. Et sa mère étant survenue brusquement, la scène que
la malheureuse fit à son amant, là, en présence de sa fille, n’avait
été qu’une scène de jalousie !
De ce moment, le peu de sécurité, le peu d’espérance qui
pouvait rester au fond du cœur de la petite Marie, avait été gâté,
perdu pour toujours : « Ah ! c’est ça, les hommes ! » Et concluant du
particulier au général, elle les avait tous confondus dans une même
réprobation infamante, se promettant de les soumettre un jour à ses
fantaisies et à son orgueil par les moyens qu’ils paraissaient tant
aimer !
Elle avait ce souvenir, cette brûlure au cœur, une plaie jamais
guérie, maintenant empoisonnée.
Du reste, comment la traitaient les autres, tous ces jeunes gens ?
Que de fois elle entendit des paroles semblables à celles que lui
avait dites un jour cet homme… l’amant de sa mère ! Cela, en même
temps la gardait. Elle en voulait aux paroles de l’amour, ou plutôt du
désir, de lui avoir été dites, pour la première fois, si bassement !
Mais, ici encore, son indignation contre le mal la poussait au mal.
De sens presque endormis, elle avait passé son temps, depuis
des années, à rêver à ces choses, à faire échouer près du port les
galanteries trop pressantes, — à attendre la grande occasion. Elle
avait tardé à paraître, cette occasion. « Enfin, la voici ! Je ne la
lâcherai pas ! » C’était, entre le monde et elle, une véritable guerre
déclarée. Elle ne croyait pas possible de vaincre par le bien comme
par le mal.
Elle avait choisi ses armes.
Les jours passaient dans ce couvent. Elle y était depuis deux
mois déjà. Elle avait échangé quelques lettres, rares, avec la
comtesse d’Aiguebelle, avec le comte. La composition de ces lettres
lui avait pris beaucoup de temps. Elle en avait pesé tous les termes,
parfaitement diplomatiques. Pour se reposer d’un si grand effort, elle
répondit un jour à une lettre de Léon Terral. — Elle s’y détendait
dans un brusque abandon de toute hypocrisie.
Voici ce qu’elle lui écrivit, avec une certaine fierté d’être sincère,
de se pouvoir confier à quelqu’un, même pour le mal :
Marie.
. . . . . . . . . . .
Si le meilleur de l’homme est tel
Que rien n’en périsse, je l’aime
Avec ce que j’ai d’immortel.