Fluid Mechanics for Chemical

Engineers: with Microfluidics, CFD, and

COMSOL Multiphysics 5 3rd Edition
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 Example 4.3—Pressure Drop in a Packed-Bed Reactor
4.5 Filtration
4.6 Fluidization
4.7 Dynamics of a Bubble-Cap Distillation Column
4.8 Cyclone Separators
4.9 Sedimentation
4.10 Dimensional Analysis
Example 4.4—Thickness of the Laminar Sublayer
Problems for Chapter 4
PART II—MICROSCOPIC FLUID MECHANICS
CHAPTER 5—DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID
MECHANICS
5.1 Introduction to Vector Analysis
5.2 Vector Operations
Example 5.1—The Gradient of a Scalar
Example 5.2—The Divergence of a Vector
Example 5.3—An Alternative to the Differential Element
Example 5.4—The Curl of a Vector
Example 5.5—The Laplacian of a Scalar
5.3 Other Coordinate Systems
5.4 The Convective Derivative
5.5 Differential Mass Balance
Example 5.6—Physical Interpretation of the Net Rate of Mass
Outflow
Example 5.7—Alternative Derivation of the Continuity Equation
5.6 Differential Momentum Balances
5.7 Newtonian Stress Components in Cartesian Coordinates
Example 5.8—Constant-Viscosity Momentum Balances in
Terms of Velocity Gradients
Example 5.9—Vector Form of Variable-Viscosity Momentum
Balance
Problems for Chapter 5
CHAPTER 6—SOLUTION OF VISCOUS-FLOW PROBLEMS

8
 6.1 Introduction
6.2 Solution of the Equations of Motion in Rectangular Coordinates
Example 6.1—Flow Between Parallel Plates
6.3 Alternative Solution Using a Shell Balance
Example 6.2—Shell Balance for Flow Between Parallel Plates
Example 6.3—Film Flow on a Moving Substrate
Example 6.4—Transient Viscous Diffusion of Momentum
(COMSOL)
6.4 Poiseuille and Couette Flows in Polymer Processing
Example 6.5—The Single-Screw Extruder
Example 6.6—Flow Patterns in a Screw Extruder (COMSOL)
6.5 Solution of the Equations of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates
Example 6.7—Flow Through an Annular Die
Example 6.8—Spinning a Polymeric Fiber
6.6 Solution of the Equations of Motion in Spherical Coordinates
Example 6.9—Analysis of a Cone-and-Plate Rheometer
Problems for Chapter 6
CHAPTER 7—LAPLACE’S EQUATION, IRROTATIONAL AND
POROUS-MEDIA FLOWS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Rotational and Irrotational Flows
Example 7.1—Forced and Free Vortices
7.3 Steady Two-Dimensional Irrotational Flow
7.4 Physical Interpretation of the Stream Function
7.5 Examples of Planar Irrotational Flow
Example 7.2—Stagnation Flow
Example 7.3—Combination of a Uniform Stream and a Line
Sink (C)
Example 7.4—Flow Patterns in a Lake (COMSOL)
7.6 Axially Symmetric Irrotational Flow
7.7 Uniform Streams and Point Sources
7.8 Doublets and Flow Past a Sphere
7.9 Single-Phase Flow in a Porous Medium

9
 Example 7.5—Underground Flow of Water
7.10 Two-Phase Flow in Porous Media
7.11 Wave Motion in Deep Water
Problems for Chapter 7
CHAPTER 8—BOUNDARY-LAYER AND OTHER NEARLY
UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOWS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Simplified Treatment of Laminar Flow Past a Flat Plate
Example 8.1—Flow in an Air Intake (C)
8.3 Simplification of the Equations of Motion
8.4 Blasius Solution for Boundary-Layer Flow
8.5 Turbulent Boundary Layers
Example 8.2—Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers
Compared
8.6 Dimensional Analysis of the Boundary-Layer Problem
8.7 Boundary-Layer Separation
Example 8.3—Boundary-Layer Flow Between Parallel Plates
(COMSOL)
Example 8.4—Entrance Region for Laminar Flow Between Flat
Plates
8.8 The Lubrication Approximation
Example 8.5—Flow in a Lubricated Bearing (COMSOL)
8.9 Polymer Processing by Calendering
Example 8.6—Pressure Distribution in a Calendered Sheet
8.10 Thin Films and Surface Tension
Problems for Chapter 8
CHAPTER 9—TURBULENT FLOW
9.1 Introduction
Example 9.1—Numerical Illustration of a Reynolds Stress Term
9.2 Physical Interpretation of the Reynolds Stresses
9.3 Mixing-Length Theory
9.4 Determination of Eddy Kinematic Viscosity and Mixing Length
9.5 Velocity Profiles Based on Mixing-Length Theory

10
 Example 9.2—Investigation of the von Kármán Hypothesis
9.6 The Universal Velocity Profile for Smooth Pipes
9.7 Friction Factor in Terms of Reynolds Number for Smooth Pipes
Example 9.3—Expression for the Mean Velocity
9.8 Thickness of the Laminar Sublayer
9.9 Velocity Profiles and Friction Factor for Rough Pipe
9.10 Blasius-Type Law and the Power-Law Velocity Profile
9.11 A Correlation for the Reynolds Stresses
9.12 Computation of Turbulence by the k−ε Method
Example 9.4—Flow Through an Orifice Plate (COMSOL)
Example 9.5—Turbulent Flow in an Obstructed U-Duct
(COMSOL)
9.13 Analogies Between Momentum and Heat Transfer
Example 9.6—Evaluation of the Momentum/Heat-Transfer
Analogies
9.14 Turbulent Jets
Problems for Chapter 9
CHAPTER 10—BUBBLE MOTION, TWO-PHASE FLOW, AND
FLUIDIZATION
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Rise of Bubbles in Unconfined Liquids
Example 10.1—Rise Velocity of Single Bubbles
10.3 Pressure Drop and Void Fraction in Horizontal Pipes
Example 10.2—Two-Phase Flow in a Horizontal Pipe
10.4 Two-Phase Flow in Vertical Pipes
Example 10.3—Limits of Bubble Flow
Example 10.4—Performance of a Gas-Lift Pump
Example 10.5—Two-Phase Flow in a Vertical Pipe
10.5 Flooding
10.6 Introduction to Fluidization
10.7 Bubble Mechanics
10.8 Bubbles in Aggregatively Fluidized Beds
Example 10.6—Fluidized Bed with Reaction (C)

11
 Problems for Chapter 10
CHAPTER 11—NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Classification of Non-Newtonian Fluids
11.3 Constitutive Equations for Inelastic Viscous Fluids
Example 11.1—Pipe Flow of a Power-Law Fluid
Example 11.2—Pipe Flow of a Bingham Plastic
Example 11.3—Non-Newtonian Flow in a Die (COMSOL)
11.4 Constitutive Equations for Viscoelastic Fluids
11.5 Response to Oscillatory Shear
11.6 Characterization of the Rheological Properties of Fluids
Example 11.4—Proof of the Rabinowitsch Equation
Example 11.5—Working Equation for a Coaxial-Cylinder
Rheometer: Newtonian Fluid
Problems for Chapter 11
CHAPTER 12—MICROFLUIDICS AND ELECTROKINETIC FLOW
EFFECTS
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Physics of Microscale Fluid Mechanics
12.3 Pressure-Driven Flow Through Microscale Tubes
Example 12.1—Calculation of Reynolds Numbers
12.4 Mixing, Transport, and Dispersion
12.5 Species, Energy, and Charge Transport
12.6 The Electrical Double Layer and Electrokinetic Phenomena
Example 12.2—Relative Magnitudes of Electroosmotic and
Pressure-Driven Flows
Example 12.3—Electroosmotic Flow Around a Particle
Example 12.4—Electroosmosis in a Microchannel (COMSOL)
Example 12.5—Electroosmotic Switching in a Branched
Microchannel (COMSOL)
12.7 Measuring the Zeta Potential
Example 12.6—Magnitude of Typical Streaming Potentials
12.8 Electroviscosity

12
 12.9 Particle and Macromolecule Motion in Microfluidic Channels
Example 12.7—Gravitational and Magnetic Settling of Assay
Beads
Problems for Chapter 12
CHAPTER 13—AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTATIONAL
FLUID DYNAMICS AND ANSYS FLUENT
13.1 Introduction and Motivation
13.2 Numerical Methods
13.3 Learning CFD by Using ANSYS Fluent
13.4 Practical CFD Examples
Example 13.1—Fluent: Developing Flow in a Pipe Entrance
Region
Example 13.2—Fluent: Pipe Flow Through a Sudden Expansion
Example 13.3—Fluent: A Two-Dimensional Mixing Junction
Example 13.4—Fluent: Flow over a Cylinder
References for Chapter 13
CHAPTER 14—COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS FOR SOLVING FLUID
MECHANICS PROBLEMS
14.1 COMSOL Multiphysics—An Overview
14.2 The Steps for Solving Problems in COMSOL
14.3 How to Run COMSOL
Example 14.1—Flow in a Porous Medium with an Impervious
Hole (COMSOL)
Example 14.2—Drawing a Complex Shape (COMSOL)
14.4 Variables, Constants, Expressions, and Units
14.5 Boundary Conditions
14.6 Variables Used by COMSOL
14.7 Wall Functions in Turbulent-Flow Problems
14.8 Streamline Plotting in COMSOL
14.9 Special COMSOL Features Used in the Examples
14.10 Drawing Tools
14.11 Fluid Mechanics Problems Solvable by COMSOL
14.12 Conclusion—Problems and Learning Tools

13
APPENDIX A: USEFUL MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS
APPENDIX B: ANSWERS TO THE TRUE/FALSE ASSERTIONS
APPENDIX C: SOME VECTOR AND TENSOR OPERATIONS
GENERAL INDEX
COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS INDEX
THE AUTHORS

14
Preface

THIS text has evolved from a need for a single volume that embraces a
very wide range of topics in fluid mechanics. The material consists of two
parts—four chapters on macroscopic or relatively large-scale phenomena,
followed by 10 chapters on microscopic or relatively small-scale
phenomena. Throughout, I have tried to keep in mind topics of industrial
importance to the chemical engineer. The scheme is summarized in the
following list of chapters.
Part I—Macroscopic Fluid Mechanics

1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

3. Fluid Friction in Pipes
2. Mass, Energy, and Momentum
4. Flow in Chemical Balances Engineering Equipment
Part II—Microscopic Fluid Mechanics

5. Differential Equations of Fluid

6. Solution of Viscous-Flow Problems Electrokinetic Flow Effects
7. Laplace’s Equation, Irrotational
8. Boundary-Layer and Other Dynamics and Fluent Nearly
Unidirectional Flows
9. Turbulent Flow
10. Bubble Motion, Two-Phase Flow, and Fluidization
11. Non-Newtonian Fluids Mechanics
12. Microfluidics and
13. An Introduction to and Porous-Media Flows Computational Fluid
14. COMSOL Multiphysics for Solving Fluid Mechanics Problems
In our experience, an undergraduate fluid mechanics course can be
based on Part I plus selected parts of Part II, and a graduate course can be
based on much of Part II, supplemented perhaps by additional material on
topics such as approximate methods and stability.
Third edition. I have attempted to bring the book up to date by the
major addition of Chapters 12, 13, and 14—one on microfluidics and two
on CFD (computational fluid dynamics). The choice of software for the
CFD presented a difficulty; for various reasons, I selected ANSYS Fluent

15
and COMSOL Multiphysics, but there was no intention of “promoting”
these in favor of other excellent CFD programs. The use of CFD examples
in the classroom really makes the subject come “alive,” because the
previous restrictive necessities of “nice” geometries and constant physical
properties, etc., can now be lifted. Chapter 9, on turbulence, has also been
extensively rewritten; here again, CFD allows us to venture beyond the
usual flow in a pipe or between parallel plates and to investigate further
practical situations such as turbulent mixing and recirculating flows.
Example problems. There is an average of about six completely
worked examples in each chapter, including several involving COMSOL
(dispersed throughout Part II) and Fluent (all in Chapter 13). The end of
each example is marked by a small square: □. All the COMSOL examples
have been run with Version 5.2a, both on a Mac Book Pro computer and
on Linux and Windows platforms; those using other releases of COMSOL
may encounter slightly different windows than those reproduced here. The
format for each COMSOL example is: (a) problem statement, (b) details of
COMSOL implementation, (c) results, and (d) discussion.
The numerous end-of-chapter problems have been classified roughly as
easy (E), moderate (M), or difficult/lengthy (D). The University of
Cambridge has given permission, kindly endorsed by Professor J.F.
Davidson, F.R.S., for several of their chemical engineering examination
problems to be reproduced in original or modified form, and these have
been given the additional designation of “(C).”
Acknowledgments. I gratefully acknowledge the valuable contributions
of my former Michigan colleague Stacy Birmingham (non-Newtonian
fluids), Brian Kirby of Cornell University (microfluidics), and Chi-Yang
Cheng of ANSYS, Inc. (CFD). My former doctoral student and good
friend Kevin Ellwood has been enormously helpful with this third edition.
Although I wrote most of the original examples and Chapter 14 (in
COMSOL 3.2), Kevin has supplied all the necessary expertise to rewrite
them in the longer and more comprehensive COMSOL 5.2a.
I have had much help from many people at COMSOL Inc. and
COMSOL AB. On their part, it has been a great cooperative effort all the
way, involving the COMSOL Development, Licensing, and Applications
teams, and I am very grateful to all for their assistance. At ANSYS, Inc.,
Chi-Yang Cheng was ideally suited for writing and updating the chapter
on Computational Fluid Dynamics and Fluent.
I have appreciated the assistance of several other friends and colleagues,
including Nitin Anturkar, Mark Burns, John Ellis, Scott Fogler, Tom
Grindley, Amy Horvath, Leenaporn Jongpaiboonkit, Lisa Keyser, Ronald

16
Larson, Susan Montgomery, Sunitha Nagrath, Michael Solomon, Sandra
Swisher, Robert Ziff, my wife, Mary Ann Gibson Wilkes, and the late
Stuart Churchill, Kartic Khilar, Donald Nicklin, Margaret Sansom, and
Rasin Tek. I also drew much inspiration from my many students and
friends at the University of Michigan and Chulalongkorn University in
Bangkok. Others are acknowledged in specific literature citations.
Also exceptionally helpful, with prompt attention for this third edition,
were the Prentice Hall editing and production team, to whom I extend my
gratitude: Kathleen Karcher, Carol Lallier, Laura Lewin, Julie Nahil, and
Dana Wilson.
Further information. The website http://fmche.engin.umich.edu is
maintained as a “bulletin board” for giving additional information about
the book—hints for problem solutions, errata, how to contact the authors,
etc.—as proves desirable. My own Internet address is wilkes@umich.edu.
The text was composed on an old but very faithful Power Macintosh G5
computer using the TEXtures “typesetting” program. Eleven-point type
was used for the majority of the text. Most of the figures were constructed
using MacDraw Pro, Excel, and Kaleida-Graph.
Professor Terence Fox, to whose memory this book is dedicated, was a
Cambridge engineering graduate who worked from 1933 to 1937 at
Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd., Billingham, Yorkshire. Returning to
Cambridge, he taught engineering from 1937 to 1946 before being selected
to lead the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of
Cambridge during its formative years after the end of World War II. As a
scholar and a gentleman, Fox was a shy but exceptionally brilliant person
who had great insight into what was important and who quickly brought
the department to a preeminent position, which it still maintains. He
succeeded in combining an industrial perspective with intellectual rigor.
Fox relinquished the leadership of the department in 1959, after he had
secured a permanent new building for it (carefully designed in part by
himself).1
1 The department—now Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology—has just
(2017) moved to a new building on the West Cambridge site.

17
 T.R.C. Fox

Fox was instrumental in bringing an outstanding cast of faculty

members into the department during my student years there—Stan Sellers,
Kenneth Denbigh, John Davidson, Peter Danckwerts, Denys Armstrong,
and Peter Gray. He also kindly accepted me in 1956 as a junior faculty
member, and I spent four good years in the Cambridge University
Department of Chemical Engineering. Danckwerts subsequently wrote an
appreciation2 of Fox’s talents, saying, with almost complete accuracy:
“Fox instigated no research and published nothing.” How times have
changed—today, unless he were known personally, his résumé would
probably be cast aside and he would stand little chance of being hired, let
alone of receiving tenure! However, his lectures, meticulously written
handouts, enthusiasm, genius, and friendship were a great inspiration to
me, and I have much pleasure in acknowledging his positive impact on my
career.
2 P.V. Danckwerts, “Chemical engineering comes to Cambridge,” The
Cambridge Review , pp. 53–55, February 28, 1983.
James O. Wilkes
August 18, 2017

18
 Part I: Macroscopic Fluid
Mechanics
Some Greek Letters

α alpha
β beta
γ, Γ gamma
δ, Δ delta
ε, ε epsilon
ζ zeta
η eta
θ, ϑ, Θ theta
ι iota
κ kappa
λ, Λ lambda
μ mu
ν nu
ξ, Ξ xi
º omicron
π, Π pi
ρ, ϱ rho
σ, ς, Σ sigma
τ tau
υ, Υ upsilon
φ, ϕ, Φ phi

19
χ chi
ψ, Ψ psi
ω, Ω omega

20
Chapter 1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

1.1 Fluid Mechanics in Chemical Engineering

A knowledge of fluid mechanics is essential for the chemical engineer
because the majority of chemical-processing operations are conducted
either partly or totally in the fluid phase. Examples of such operations
abound in the biochemical, chemical, energy, fermentation, materials,
mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, polymer, and waste-processing
industries.
There are two principal reasons for placing such an emphasis on fluids.
First, at typical operating conditions, an enormous number of materials
normally exist as gases or liquids or can be transformed into such phases.
Second, it is usually more efficient and cost-effective to work with fluids
in contrast to solids. Even some operations with solids can be conducted in
a quasi-fluidlike manner; examples are the fluidized-bed catalytic refining
of hydrocarbons and the long-distance pipelining of coal particles using
water as the agitating and transporting medium.
Although there is inevitably a significant amount of theoretical
development, almost all the material in this book has some application to
chemical processing and other important practical situations. Throughout,
we shall endeavor to present an understanding of the physical behavior
involved; only then is it really possible to comprehend the accompanying
theory and equations.

1.2 General Concepts of a Fluid

We must begin by responding to the question, “What is a fluid?”
Broadly speaking, a fluid is a substance that will deform continuously
when it is subjected to a tangential or shear force, much as a similar type
of force is exerted when a water-skier skims over the surface of a lake or
butter is spread on a slice of bread. The rate at which the fluid deforms
continuously depends not only on the magnitude of the applied force but
also on a property of the fluid called its viscosity or resistance to
deformation and flow. Solids will also deform when sheared, but a
position of equilibrium is soon reached in which elastic forces induced by
the deformation of the solid exactly counterbalance the applied shear
force, and further deformation ceases.
A simple apparatus for shearing a fluid is shown in Fig. 1.1. The fluid is
contained between two concentric cylinders; the outer cylinder is

21
stationary, and the inner one (of radius R) is rotated steadily with an
angular velocity ω. This shearing motion of a fluid can continue
indefinitely, provided that a source of energy—supplied by means of a
torque here—is available for rotating the inner cylinder. The diagram also
shows the resulting velocity profile; note that the velocity in the direction
of rotation varies from the peripheral velocity Rω of the inner cylinder
down to zero at the outer stationary cylinder, these representing typical no-
slip conditions at both locations. However, if the intervening space is filled
with a solid—even one with obvious elasticity, such as rubber—only a
limited rotation will be possible before a position of equilibrium is
reached, unless, of course, the torque is so high that slip occurs between
the rubber and the cylinder.

Fig. 1.1 Shearing of a fluid.

There are various classes of fluids. Those that behave according to nice
and obvious simple laws, such as water, oil, and air, are generally called
Newtonian fluids. These fluids exhibit constant viscosity but, under typical
processing conditions, virtually no elasticity. Fortunately, a very large
number of fluids of interest to the chemical engineer exhibit Newtonian
behavior, which will be assumed throughout the book, except in Chapter
11, which is devoted to the study of non-Newtonian fluids.
A fluid whose viscosity is not constant (but depends, for example, on
the intensity to which it is being sheared), or which exhibits significant
elasticity, is termed non-Newtonian. For example, several polymeric
materials subject to deformation can “remember” their recent molecular
configurations, and in attempting to recover their recent states, they will

22
exhibit elasticity in addition to viscosity. Other fluids, such as drilling mud
and toothpaste, behave essentially as solids and will not flow when subject
to small shear forces, but will flow readily under the influence of high
shear forces.
Fluids can also be broadly classified into two main categories—liquids
and gases. Liquids are characterized by relatively high densities and
viscosities, with molecules close together; their volumes tend to remain
constant, roughly independent of pressure, temperature, or the size of the
vessels containing them. Gases, on the other hand, have relatively low
densities and viscosities, with molecules far apart; generally, they will
compleetely fill the container in which they are placed. However, these
two states—liquid and gaseous—represent but the two extreme ends of a
continuous spectrum of possibilities.
The situation is readily illustrated by considering a fluid that is initially
a gas at point G on the pressure/temperature diagram shown in Fig. 1.2. By
increasing the pressure, and perhaps lowering the temperature, the vapor-
pressure curve is soon reached and crossed, and the fluid condenses and
apparently becomes a liquid at point L. By continuously adjusting the
pressure and temperature so that the clockwise path is followed, and
circumnavigating the critical point C in the process, the fluid is returned to
G, where it is presumably once more a gas. But where does the transition
from liquid at L to gas at G occur? The answer is at no single point, but
rather that the change is a continuous and gradual one, through a whole
spectrum of intermediate states.

Fig. 1.2 When does a liquid become a gas?

1.3 Stresses, Pressure, Velocity, and the Basic Laws

Stresses. The concept of a force should be readily apparent. In fluid
mechanics, a force per unit area, called a stress, is usually found to be a
more convenient and versatile quantity than the force itself. Further, when

23
considering a specific surface, there are two types of stresses that are
particularly important.
1. The first type of stress, shown in Fig. 1.3(a), acts perpendicularly to
the surface and is therefore called a normal stress; it will be tensile or
compressive, depending on whether it tends to stretch or to compress the
fluid on which it acts. The normal stress equals F/A, where F is the normal
force and A is the area of the surface on which it acts. The dotted outlines
show the volume changes caused by deformation. In fluid mechanics,
pressure is usually the most important type of compressive stress, and will
shortly be discussed in more detail.

Fig. 1.3(a) Tensile and compressive normal stresses F/A, acting on a

cylinder, causing elongation and shrinkage, respectively.
2. The second type of stress, shown in Fig. 1.3(b), acts tangentially to
the surface; it is called a shear stress τ and equals F/A, where F is the
tangential force and A is the area on which it acts. Shear stress is
transmitted through a fluid by interaction of the molecules with one
another. A knowledge of the shear stress is very important when studying
the flow of viscous Newtonian fluids. For a given rate of deformation,
measured by the time derivative dγ/dt of the small angle of deformation γ,
the shear stress τ is directly proportional to the viscosity of the fluid (see
Fig. 1.3(b)).

Fig. 1.3(b) Shear stress τ = F/A, acting on a rectangular parallelepiped,

shown in cross section, causing a deformation measured by the angle γ
(whose magnitude is exaggerated here).

24
 Pressure. In virtually all hydrostatic situations—those involving fluids
at rest—the fluid molecules are in a state of compression. For example, for
the swimming pool whose cross section is depicted in Fig. 1.4, this
compression at a typical point P is caused by the downward gravitational
weight of the water above point P. The degree of compression is measured
by a scalar, p—the pressure.

Fig. 1.4 (a) Balloon submerged in a swimming pool; (b) enlarged view
of the compressed balloon, with pressure forces acting on it.
A small inflated spherical balloon pulled down from the surface and
tethered at the bottom by a weight will still retain its spherical shape (apart
from a small distortion at the point of the tether), but will be diminished in
size, as in Fig. 1.4(a). It is apparent that there must be forces acting
normally inward on the surface of the balloon and that these must
essentially be uniform for the shape to remain spherical, as in Fig. 1.4(b).
Although the pressure p is a scalar, it typically appears in tandem with
an area A (assumed small enough so that the pressure is uniform over it).
By definition of pressure, the surface experiences a normal compressive
force F = pA. Thus, pressure has units of a force per unit area—the same
as a stress.
The value of the pressure at a point is independent of the orientation of
any area associated with it, as can be deduced with reference to a
differentially small wedge-shaped element of the fluid, shown in Fig. 1.5.

25
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"I told you," he said to Halfrich, "Just a blowhole, that's all."
"The blips on the record moved," said Halfrich. "There was more than
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And then he suddenly yelled, "I see them! They—"
Halfrich swung around with ponderous swiftness. There was nothing
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They came flashing down out of the sky. There were four of them this
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Kellard pointed upward. "There."
"Those flakes of flame?"
"Not flakes of flame," said Kellard. "They are the children of the
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The five bright things had flashed down toward the great fire-fountain.
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There was something so humanly purposeful in its sudden movement
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"Stand still," said Kellard.
"But—" Halfrich protested.
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And now all five of the flashing flames were around them, darting,
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Halfrich spoke, trying to keep his voice steady but forming the words
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"Something—in my mind—"
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He had time to say nothing more before the impact hit him, just as it
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But that half-apprehension was staggering. He was no longer Hugh
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He was one of the children of the stars.
His memory stretched far back, for his life was almost unlimited in
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temperatures, atomic conditions within the mighty suns. Born, as the
end product of an evolutionary chain almost as old as the universe
itself, a grouping of photons that grew toward consciousness, toward
individuality and volition. Their bodies were force, rather than matter,
their senses had nothing to do with sight or hearing, their movement
was an effortless flash and glide as fast as the photons of light itself.

With the other kind of life in the universe, the heavy slow-moving
things of matter that grew upon the comparatively cold, dark planets,
they had had nothing to do at all. They were of the suns, not the
planets, and those chill worlds of fixed, solid matter so repelled them
that they would not even approach most of them.
Star-child, star-child, at home in the bursting splendors of the stellar
fires, and able to move like light from star to star. And again Kellard
felt the agony of that ecstasy that was his in this shared memory.
"We things of matter, we men, who thought that space and the stars
would be ours—"
But how could the wide universe belong to solid, heavy, physical
creatures who must painfully move in bubbles of air, who crawled
between the petty planets encased in metal tombs, who could not
even approach the glories of the great suns?
No, the ecstasy was one that men would never know except at
secondhand through this brief contact! The glorious rush together of
the star-children through the vast abysses, drinking up the energy of
the radiation about them. The audacious and dangerous coasting
along the shores of dark nebulae, racing the lumbering comets and
leaving them behind, on until you felt through all your photons the
beckoning warmth of the star you approached. Ignore the cinders
called planets that creep around it, speed faster, faster, brothers, the
way has been long but we are almost there! And now the radiation
that was so weak in the outer darks is strong and lusty-roaring, and
the great prominences reach out like arms to gather us in. The shock,
the joy, of the first plunge once more into the star. Dive deep,
brothers, deep through the outer fires into the throbbing solar
furnaces where the atoms are hammered as in forges, changing,
shifting their shapes, exploding into force.
Spin in the vortices of the great stellar tornadoes, fling off and fall
headlong and then dive laughing in again. Search for the others of
your kind, if there are none here there will be at the next star. Up
again, out of the boiling fires, and then drift quiet, dreaming, in the
pearly glow of the corona, endless afternoon of warmth and light and
peace.

But on the sunward side of the tiny planet nearby, a plaything

beckons. Fire and light fountain up from the solid rock. There at least
we can go, for that place is washed by tides of solar life, not chilled
and dead. Speed down toward it, as the fire, the life it spouts higher
out of the repellantly fixed and solid matter. Frolic in the fountain,
through and around it as it rises higher. And what are the things that
move on the rock near it, the things that look grotesquely as though
matter had been endowed with life? Reach out with your thought-
senses and try to apprehend them. Mind, life—in matter! Try to
understand how matter thinks, how matter feels, plumb the grotesque
memories of them, the vistas of crawling things at the bottom of
whelming air-oceans, things of clay too frail to endure, yet things that
in their brief living have come here. But the mind recoils from such
memories, such a life.
Brothers, we go! First to refresh ourselves in the deepest streams of
the star, and then away across the abysses to another star we know.
There is nothing to hold us here—
And the oneness was gone from Kellard's mind, and he was no child
of light and stars, he was a man of clay, standing stupid and sick and
shaking by the falling fires of the fountain.
He looked at Halfrich. But Halfrich stood, with his head bowed, and
Kellard felt only pity.
He touched his arm. "We'll go back to the ship."
For a long moment, Halfrich did not respond. Then he turned and
walked, plodding with head down, not looking up once at the flaring
sky.
In the little ship, he sat later with Kellard. He had not spoken yet, and
Morgenson and the others, bewildered and awed, had still not dared
ask questions. Finally Halfrich looked at Kellard, pain still in his eyes.
"I was thinking," he said. "I was remembering my little boy, years ago.
He had just learned to walk, and he started out the door, eager to
explore the whole town. He stubbed his toe, and he sat down and
cried."
"You tried to spare me this," said Halfrich after a little while. "Thanks
for that, Kellard. It didn't work, but thanks anyway."
Kellard said, "Look, no one else knows. No one else is ever likely to
know. The only place where the men of matter and the children of
stars could meet is a place like Sunside, and how many such
meetings would ever by chance happen? We don't have to tell
everyone, to take the heart and eagerness out of them by letting them
know they'll always be second-best in space."
Halfrich thought about that. And then he shook his head. "No. We've
stubbed our toe. We've learned we're not and never will be the sole
inheritors of the universe. All right, we'll accept the fact and go on.
The planets will be ours, just the same. And someday—" He paused,
then said, "—someday, maybe, the sons of the planets and the
children of stars will take hands, know each other. No, Kellard. We'll
tell them."
THE END
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