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ASIAN ETHICAL TRADITIONS
Eastern Vs Western Schools of Thought
 Eastern ethics is much more about doing what is right in
terms of what is expected of you by your family, society
and culture. Western Ethics, on the other hand, has more
of an emphasis on self and what is rationally or logically
true.
Themes of Asian Ethical Traditions:
 Religious thought is intertwined with philosophical and
ethical thinking
 The Quest for Emancipation
 Love and Compassion as a philosophical anchor
 Connectedness of personal cultivation and social
responsibility
 The Path to Enlightenment
 The Path to Transcendence
THE HINDU PHILOSOPHY
 Indian philosophy is one of the Asian ethical tradition and
may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical
thought that originated in India.
 This philosophy can also be associated with practice in
everyday life.
 It takes an introspective approach to reality, concerning
itself with knowledge of the inner life and self of man,
rather than with the nature and structure of the physical
world.
The Vedas and Upanishads
 The Vedas, meaning “knowledge,” are the oldest texts of
Hinduism containing different collections containing
hymns, poems, prayers, and religious instruction that
glorify the Vedic gods, who are representative of the
Divine power of the supreme God.
 The most basic insight of these writings is that RITA as the
founding principle of all things (right order of the universe)
can be experienced through the presence of the gods to
which each ritual or prayer is dedicated to.
 The performance of each rituals leads to the realization of
good life aligned to the order of the universe.
 However, the most people take the Vedas as a handbook
of prescribed rituals (the focus is on the external value of
rituals to realize good fortune).
 The writers of the UPANISHADS on the other hand, seek
to understand the fullness of human becoming by realizing
the deepest insight about the true nature of the universe.
 They seek to articulate why and how human beings could
come to fullness through enlightenment.
 Beyond rituals, the authors of the Upanishads share a
path of spiritual enlightenment.
What is the core teaching of HINDUISM?
 Samsara is the continuous cycle of birth, death and
rebirth. In order to escape this cycle, one must realize that
everything is one, everything is Brahman. In other words,
one's individual soul is the same as the universal soul.
 The Upanishads teach that by living a life of meditation
and purification, one achieves a state of spiritual
enlightenment.
 If one lives well, Karma will lead one to a better life. One
must live well according to one’s Darma (duty based on
status in life).
 If the duty is fulfilled, one can escape the Karmic Cycle
which is the state of Moksha or the liberation of the soul
from the cycle of birth.
How do these mystical views shape the concept of
morality in the Indian Society?
 If we as the question “How does a good person live her
life?”, then the answer is to live a life leading to
purification.
 One must act in a way that does not detract from insight
and enlightenment.
 One must be careful of doing action, so it does not incur
negative KARMA which keeps one imprisoned in the cycle
of birth.
BUDDHISM
 The Four Noble Truths
1. The truth of suffering
2. The truth of the cause of suffering
3. The truth of the end of suffering
4. The truth of the path that frees us from suffering
 The Eightfold Path
 Buddhism provides a way to understand what a good
human being ought to do to come to the fullness of human
life.
 The Eightfold Path provides a guideposts to acting in this
world. If one seeks to act mindful, these signposts are
exactly a way to discern if one’s actions are creative and
non-destructive to others.
 It provides a framework for living in a way that avoids the
destructive or evil ways of human beings.
CONFUCIAN ETHICS
Confucianism
 Confucianism is a system of thought attributed to the
teacher Confucius (Konqui).
 His main teaching is the possibility of building a
harmonious and ordered society.
 He believed that if people were able to internalize or take
as their own the ways of virtuous people, then the order of
society will be achieved because it would reflect the order
of the Heaven.
 There is one basic aspiration for any Confucian follower,
that is, to be a person who has the Virtue of Ren, to be a
person who has internalized the way of Heaven.
 Ren is translated as benevolence, kindness, human-
heartedness, humanity. And when Confucius was asked
for its meaning, he said, “REN IS TO LOVE HUMAN
BEINGS”.
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 Confucius held the ancient ways sacred because for him,
these bore the wisdom of ancestors who still understood
the ways of heaven.
 These ancestors governed the state and acted in their
personal life in ways attuned to the order of Heaven (Dao).
 The way to attunement is to focus on traditional ways.
 Rituals that honor the ancestors preserves harmony,
order, right relations and were manifestations of respect.
 The essence of filial piety reflects the wisdom of the
ancestors regarding the relationship with one’s parents in
a way that accords with the Dao.
 The main idea of Confucianism is the importance of
having a good moral character, which can then affect the
world around that person through the idea of “cosmic
harmony.” If the emperor has moral perfection, his rule
will be peaceful and benevolent.
 To cultivate a greater realization of Ren , a state needs
good education and moral leadership.
 Good Education meant an education of the heart and
virtues.
 Moral leadership in a society is particularly important as
people needs exemplars to live a life according to the
ways of heaven.
 The heart of the ancient Chinese Ethical Systems seek
perfect attunement to the Dao in order to realize genuine
humanity.
 Confucianism and Daoism oppose each other by their
ways of life where Confucianism focuses on rituals and
Daoism focuses on practices. Confucian puts great
emphasis on rituals. They believe that ritual enables them
to communicate effectively with the spiritual powers.
Daoism is more of a practical application of ethical
philosophies.
Conclusion
 Asian Ethical Systems seek to articulate human
connectedness and oneness to the deepest order of
reality. Thus, much of their cords of behavior are
concerned more with the process of coming to attunement
with the source of order and harmony.
 For Asians, the Good Person is the person in communion
with his/her fellow humans. Beings, and in harmony with
the Cosmic Forces.
 Once the communion is attained, one begins to act as a
good person, a person whose self-realization is
immediately harmonious and non-destructive.
5 VIRTUE ETHICS: ARISTOTLE
THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
Virtue Ethics
 Virtue ethics is a broad term for theories that emphasize
the role of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather
than either doing one’s duty or acting in order to bring
about good consequences.
 A virtue ethicist is likely to give you this kind of moral
advice: “Act as a virtuous person would act in your
situation.”
Aristotle and Nicomachean Ethics
 Unlike Plato, who believed that the good or purpose of
the human person is to be found in another realm, which
he called the World of Forms, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)
contradicts this by saying that the proper good of the
human person is achievable in this world through the
practical cultivation of Virtues (Arête).
 The Nicomachean Ethics emphasizes how spiritual
growth can be achieved only by working on yourself
everyday, and how the process never really ends,
although you become self-actualized on the way.
 Aristotle considers that morality is not merely a matter of
knowing the good but doing or practicing the good
habitually.
 If one has fully understood what being human essentially
aims to and do the necessary things to fulfill our function
(ergon) in the most excellent way possible, self-
actualization happens.
 Aristotle emphasized the questions regarding what is
good or bad for the human person with respect to his
ultimate goal of attaining self-fulfillment.
 His Ethical View is grounded in the formation of one’s
character-a way of being and living in harmony with the
human person’s highest purpose.
 To fulfil our function (ergon) in the most excellent way
possible is to live ethically, to achieve a state of flourishing
suited to a rational being.
ETHICS AS A WAY OF HUMAN FLOURISHING
Eudaimonia
 Aristotle assumes that any activity, practical or theoretical,
aims towards some end or good.
 He believes that almost all ends are not ends in
themselves but rather, conduits for a higher end-purpose.
 This highest purpose or the ultimate good of the human
person is what he calls as the Eudaimonia
(HAPPINESS).
 Happiness for Aristotle is the Ultimate Goal of the human
person because of the following:
1. Self-Sufficient- it makes human life complete.
2. Final- it is desired for itself and not for the sake of
something else.
3. Attainable- it is something that one does practically.
 Eudamonia as the Ultimate Goal of the Human Person
is something that we continually actualize (in practice).
 It is an activity of the soul in accordance with Virtue
 Happiness is a lifelong activity that essentially
corresponds to the proper nature of the human being
The Soul: What is the True Nature of the Human Person?
 Aristotle believes that the soul is the part of the human
being that animates the body. The soul has two aspects:
1. Rational Aspect- responsible for speculative
(knowledge and reasoning), and practical (choice and
action).
2. Irrational Aspect- responsible for the involuntary
functions of the body.
a. Vegetative – in charge of nutrition and growth
b. Appetitive – reflects the passions, desires, and
urges of the human person.
 The vegetative part of the soul is not relevant in discussing
happiness or virtue.
 The appetitive part however, shares in the rational element
of the soul and it can be influenced by reason.
 There is a part of the soul that calls for reason’s
governance.
 What happens if we give in to raw and unchecked
appetites?
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– Giving in to raw and unchecked appetites is
oftentimes
the reasons a person commits immoral acts.
 Why should the soul call for the reason’s
governance?
– Allowing ourselves to be taken over by our desires,
passions and urges blinds us from the path leading to
human flourishing and derails one from the Highest
Purpose of the human person.
VIRTUE, MEAN, and PRACTICAL WISDOM
Virtue
 Virtue (Arête meaning Excellence) is a way of how
human persons can fulfill their function (ergon) in
accordance with our true nature.
 To fulfill one’s function excellently in accordance with
reason, directed towards achieving the Highest Purpose
of Man, is to be a Virtuous Person.
 There are two kinds of Virtues:
1. Moral Virtue- excellence in the performance of
decisions relating to moral and practical activity.
2. Intellectual Virtue- capacity to harness reason’s
contemplative capacity for arriving at knowledge.
How does a person become virtuous?
 Aristotle emphasized the role of practice and habit in the
formation of moral virtue.
 We become morally virtuous by doing morally virtuous
acts (consistent practice of virtuous acts) or habituation
(ethos).
Mean
 Moral Virtues are states of Character aimed at an
intermediary point between excess and deficiency (vices)-
in a mean (mesotes) that can be considered as the
appropriate response to the demands of the different
situations.
 The mean is not a fixed point but rather a moving target.\
 It depends on your ability to adjust yourself to the
situation which determines whether you may be
considered virtuous or not in the given situation.
 To be morally virtuous, one must be able to respond to
situations not just with the correct feeling or action, but
in the proper degree, at the right time, towards the right
people, and for the right reasons.
Practical Wisdom (Prudence)
 Virtue is a state of character that is the result of choice.
 This choice is governed by Practical Wisdom or Prudence
(Phronesis).
 Phronesis is the human person’s instrument in dealing
with moral choices.
 It is the practical wisdom that is responsible for bringing
the human person closer to its Highest Purpose.
What do these ideas of Aristotle teach us?
 The Aristotelian Virtue Ethics emphasized that art of living
well through the habitual practice of virtue which
essentially translates into having a virtuous or excellent
character.
 Aristotle teaches that character is the most essential
components of ethics.
 A virtuous character is the result of the proper combination
of practical wisdom and habituation in the pursuit of the
mean (mesotes).
Conclusion
 Happiness being the Ultimate Good of the Human Person,
is attainable through the proper exercise of reason, both
morally and intellectually.
 Being Ethical is about being excellent in fulfilling one’s
essence as a rational being that has cultivated an
excellent character and is, therefore, capable of making
the most prudent decisions in all circumstances.
6 NATURAL LAW ETHIC
Natural Law
 The natural law tradition is one of two approaches to
theological ethics. The other approach is divine
command
 Natural law is theology-based because God is understood
to be the creator of the world.
 Natural Theory is a theory in ethics and philosophy that
says that human beings possess intrinsic values that
govern our reasoning and behavior.
 Natural Law maintains that these rules of right and wrong
are inherent in people and are not created by society or
court judges.
 Natural laws are prescriptive because they tell us how
we ought to behave.
 Natural laws are absolute, because the goods in which
they are grounded are incommensurable - that is,there is
no common metric that would allow us to compare them
Real and apparent goods
 A real good is good according to Natural Law.
 An apparent good is a rational decision to pursue
something that doesn’t perfect our nature, and “is
opposed to the universal judgement of reason” – Aquinas
Four Different Types of Laws
1) Eternal Law – By “Eternal Law’” Aquinas means God’s
rational purpose and plan for all things. Aquinas thinks that
everything has a purpose and follows a plan. If something
fulfils its purpose/plan, then it is following the Eternal Law.
2) Natural Law – These are internal rules which any rational
person can come to recognize by simply thinking and are
not external like the other rules. These are absolute and
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binding on all rational agents. The first primary precept is
that “good is to be pursued and done and evil avoided.”
 The Primary Precepts:
1. Protect and preserve human life.
2. Reproduce and educate one’s offspring.
3. Know and worship God.
4. Live in a society.
 These are rooted from man’s natural inclinations: Self-
preservation (Natural inclination to live), Procreation
(Natural inclination to reproduce), Knowledge (Natural
inclination to learn), and Sociability (Natural inclination to
love and seek affection)
 These precepts are primary because they are true for all
people in all instances and are consistent with Natural Law
3) Human Law – Human Laws are devised by man for
specific purposes. Aquinas also introduces what he calls
the Human Law which gives rise to what he calls
“Secondary Precepts”.
 Secondary precepts are not generated by our reason but
rather they are imposed by governments, groups, clubs,
societies etc.
 It is not always morally acceptable to follow secondary
precepts
 It is only morally acceptable if they are consistent with the
Natural Law. If they are, then we ought to follow them, if
they are not, then we ought not.
 Aquinas would argue that this secondary precept is
practically irrational because it treats people differently
based on an arbitrary difference (gender).
 Aquinas would think that this human law does not fit with
the Natural Law.
4) Divine Law – Divine Laws are those that man receives by
special revelation from God. Divine laws are those that
God has, in His grace, seen fit to give us and are those
“mysteries”, those rules given by God which we find in
scripture; for example, the ten commandments.
Two Important Principles of Natural Law (“Casuistry” in
Harris’s essay)
1. The Principle of Forfeiture
 According to the principle of forfeiture, a person who
threatens the life of an innocent person forfeits his or her
own right to life.
2. The Principle of Double Effect
 A wrong or evil result brought about because of some
morally right action (undertaken with intention to do good)
is not itself blameworthy. Sometimes it is permissible to
perform an action that has, besides its desired (good)
effects, a second effect that it would be impermissible to
bring about, either as an end or as a means
 Aquinas’s Doctrine of Double Effect which states that if
an act fulfils four conditions then it is morally acceptable.
Principles of the DDE:
1. the act must be a good one.
2. the act must come about before the consequences.
3. the intention must be good
4. must be for serious reasons
An action is judged via the Natural Law both externally
and internally
 Imagine a case where a soldier sees a grenade thrown
into her barracks. Knowing that she does not have time to
defuse it or throw it away, she throws herself on the
grenade. It blows up, killing her but saving other soldiers in
her barracks. Is this wrong or right?
 Aquinas says this is morally acceptable given DDE. If we
judge this act both internally and externally, we’ll see why.
The intention — the internal act — was not to kill herself
even though she could foresee that this was certainly what
was going to happen. The act itself is good, to save her
fellow soldiers (1). The order is right, she is not doing evil
so good will happen (2). The intention is good, it is to
save her fellow soldiers (3). The reason is serious, it
concerns people’s lives (4)
Conclusion
 Aquinas is an intellectual giant. He wrote an incredible
amount covering a vast array of topics. His influence has
been immense. His central idea is that humans are
created by God to reason — that is our function. Humans
do the morally right thing if we act in accordance with
reason, and the morally wrong thing if we don’t
 Aquinas is an incredibly subtle and complex thinker. For
example, his Doctrine of Double Effect makes us to reflect
on what we actually mean by “actions”, “intentions” and
“consequences”. His work remains much discussed and
researched and typically still plays a central role in a
Christian Ethics that rejects Divine Command Theory
QUIZ
1. Natural Laws are grounded on incommensurable goods,
meaning there is no common metric that would allow us to
compare them. This explains that Natural Laws are
__________Absolute
2. The idea that a wrong or evil result brough about by some
morally right action is not in itself blameworthy is based on
which principle under the Natural Law Tradition? Principle
of Double Effect
3. Which of the following are the two approaches of theology-
based ethics? Divine Command and Natural Law
Theory
4. These laws are imposed by governments, groups, clubs,
societies, etc that compel man to behave accordingly
because of punishments associated with violating these
laws. Human Laws
5. The first principle of the Doctrine of Double Effect states
that ____________. the act must be a good one
6. The third principle of the Doctrine of Double effect states
that ______________. the intention of doing the act
must be good
7. Based on this principle, if you take another life, you forfeit
your own right to life. Principle of Forfeiture
8. These laws are those that man receives by special
revelation from God. Divine Laws
9. These are goods that are in accordance with Natural
Laws. Real Goods