Academic Year 2020-2021

Semester 1

Food Science and Processing

Course No FSN-111 Credits: 3 (2+1)

Chapter No 1
Food and Food Groups
Food is any nourishing substance which is taken into the body, provides
energy, promotes growth and sustains life.

Food Groups
Foods have been classified into different groups depending upon the
nutritive value ,for the convenience of planning diets.
General classification
1. Cereals,Millets,Cereal products- Jowar, wheat, ragi, rice, bajra, maize and
flour made out of these cereals ,puffed rice, rice flakes, semolina, refined wheat
flour ,vermicelli etc.
2. Pulses and Legumes- Bengal gram whole ,black gram whole , green gram
whole , horse gram , lentil whole ,red gram whole, moth beans ,peas, rajmah,
soybean and dals made out of these legumes.
3. Vegetables-
a. Green leafy vegetables-Ambut chukka ,colocasia leaves, curry leaves,
fenugreek leaves, spinach, coriander leaves, shepu, tamarind leaves, mint ,
drum stick leaves, Bengal gram leaves , safflower leaves, cabbage ,onion
stalks etc.
b. Other vegetables-Ash gourd, bitter gourd , bottle gourd, brinjal ,beans,
cauliflower,cluster beans, cucumber, drumstick, ladies finger, tomato,
pumpkin, ridge gourd, tinda.etc.
c. Roots and Tubers- Carrots, colocasia , onion , potato, sweet potato, radish ,
turnip , beet root etc.
4. Fruits- Amla, apple , banana, grapes , guavas, jack fruit. Lime sweet lime, musk
melon, watermelon, orange, papaya, pine apple, pomegranate, sapota, mango,
custard apple, wood apple, ber etc.
5. Milk and milk products-Milk , butter milk , cheese, paneer, khoa, milk
powder.
6. Meat, fish, poultry, Egg
7. Fats and Oil Seeds- Hydrogenated oil (Dalda), cooking oil, ghee butter
8. Nuts and Oil seeds- Almond, areca nut, cashew nut, colconut dry and fresh,
groundnut, linseed, mustard seed, gingelly seed, niger seed.
9. Sugar and jiggery- Sugar, jiggery, honey.
10. Spices and Condiments- Cardamom, asafoetida , chillies red and green,
coriander seed, cumin seed, ginger, garlic, fenugreek seed, Coves,
omum,nutmeg, poppy seeds, pepper, tamarind pulp, turmeric etc.

Basic Four Classifications

1. Cereals, millets and pulses- jawar, wheat, ragi, rice, bajra, maize and flour
made out of these cereals puffed rice, rice flakes, semolina, refined wheat
flour, vermicelli etc. Bengal gram whole, black gram whole , green fram
whole, horse gram, lentil whole, red gram whole, moth bean, peas, rajmah,
soybean and dhal, made out of these legumes.
2. Vegetables and Fruits – Ambut chukka, colocasia leaves, curry leaves,
fenugreek leaves, spinach, coriander leaves, shepu, tamarind leaves, mint,
drum stick leaves, Bengal gram leaves, safflower leaves, cabbage, onion stalks
etc. Ash gourd, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, brinjal, beans, cauliflower, cluster
beans, cucumber, drumstick, ladies finger, tomato, pumpkin, ridge gourd, tinda
etc. Carrots, colocasia, onion, potato, sweet potato, radish, turnip, beet root etc.
3. Fruits – Amla, apple, banana, grapes, guavas, jack fruit. Lime sweet lime,
musk melon, watermelon, orange, papaya, pine apple, pomegranate, sapota,
mango, custard apple, wood apple, ber etc.
4. Milk, milk products and animal foods – Milk, butter milk, cheese, panner,
choa, milk powder. Meat, fish, poultry, egg.
 5. Oil, Fats and Oil Seeds- Hydrogenated oil (Dalda), cooking oil, ghee butter
Almond, areca nut, cashew nut, colconut dry and fresh, groundnut, linseed,
mustard seed, gingelly seed, niger seed.
Groups Nutrients
Cereals,Millets and pulses Energy, Protein, B-vitamins
Vegetables and Fruits Vitamins, Minerals and fibre
Milk, milk products and animal foods Protein, calcium, Bvitamins
Oil, Fats and Oil Seeds Energy, Protein (Nuts and Oilseeds)

Basic Five Classifications / ICMR Classification.

1. Cereals, grains and products- Jowar, wheat, ragi, rice, bajra, maize and flour
made out of these cereals ,puffed rice, rice flakes, semolina, refined wheat
flour ,vermicelli etc.
2. Pulses and Legumes- Bengal gram whole ,black gram whole , green gram
whole , horse gram , lentil whole ,red gram whole, moth beans ,peas, rajmah,
soybean and dals made out of these legumes.
3. Milk and meat products -Milk , butter milk , cheese, paneer, khoa, milk
powder. Meat, fish, poultry, Egg
4. Fruits and Vegetables- Amla ,apple , banana, grapes , guavas, jack fruit. Lime
sweet lime , musk melon , watermelon, orange, papaya, pine apple ,
pomegranate, sapota, mango, custard apple, wood apple, ber etc.
a. Green leafy vegetables-Ambut chukka ,colocasia leaves, curry leaves,
fenugreek leaves, spinach, coriander leaves, shepu, tamarind leaves,
mint , drum stick leaves, Bengal gram leaves , safflower leaves, cabbage
,onion stalks etc.
b. Other vegetables-Ash gourd, bitter gourd , bottle gourd, brinjal ,beans,
cauliflower,cluster beans, cucumber, drumstick, ladies finger,
tomato,pumpkin, ridge gourd, tinda.etc.
 c. Roots and Tubers- Carrots, colocasia , onion , potato, sweet potato,
radish , turnip , beet root etc
5. Fats and Sugars: Hydrogenated oil (Dalda), cooking oil, ghee butter, - Sugar,
jaggery, honey.
Groups Nutrients
1. Cereals, grains and products Energy ,protein, invisible fat, thiamin, folic
acid, riboflavin, iron,fibre.
2. Pulses and Legumes- Energy, protein, invisible fat ,thiamin, folic
acid, riboflavin, iron,fibre
3. Milk and meat products Protein, fat, Calcium, riboflavin
4. Fruits and Vegetables- Green Carotenoids, VitaminC, riboflavin
leafy vegetables. Other Folic acids,iron, fibre. Calcium.
vegetables
5. Fats and Sugars Energy,essential fatty acids ,fat soluble
vitamins,jaggery has iron.

Classification of food depending on Functions of Food

1. Energy yielding: This group includes foods rich in carbohydrates and also
pure fats. Cereals, roots and tubers, dry fruits ,sugar and fats are the important
energy yielding foods. Cereals provide in addition to energy the greater part of
the protein, certain minerals and vitamins in the diets. One gram of
carbohydrate gives 4 K calories, protein 4 K calories and fat 9 K calories.
2. Body building : Foods rich in protein are called body building foods. It
includes milk, egg, meat , fish pulses, oil seeds and nuts.
3. Protection and regulation : It includes foods rich in vitamins, minerals and
protein. These foods are called as protective foods.
Chapter No 2
Preliminary Preparations

The term used to describe the tasks done before or ahead the final
preparation of food is preliminary preparations. Preliminary treatment of food
includes cleaning, peeling and stringing, cutting and grating, sieving, soaking,
blanching, marinating, sprouting, fermenting, grinding, drying, filtering and
roasting.
1. Cleaning-The term cleaning is applicable to vegetables fruits and many other
food products. Other aspect of cleaning is washing. Washing fruits render
them dirt free.Washing cereals or dals helps to remove husk, mud and any
other unwanted matter.
Advantages
 Insecticides, sprays, chemicals and dirt are removed.
 Washing in warm water helps to kill the worms e.g. worms in cauliflower.
 Washing flesh foods helps to remove blood, dirt and unwanted impurities.
Disadvantages
 Washing cereals like rice causes loss of B vitamins especially thiamine. This
can be minimized by quick and thorough washing.
 Water-soluble vitamins are lost when fruit and vegetables are cut and then
washed.
2. Peeling and Stringing- Both these methods involve removal of non-edible or
fibrous portion of vegetables e.g. peeling of banana and potato, stringing of
beans.
Advantages
 Non-edible or fibrous portion is removed.
 Dirt and chemicals which is retained after cleaning on the skin can be
removed.
  Appeals better to eye after peeling and stringing e.g. potatoes and beans .
Disadvantages
 Some nutrients might be lost e.g. peeling and exposing fruits can bring loss
of vitamin C.
 Some edible portion might be removed along with peel.
3. Cutting and grating – This is dividing the food into smaller pieces, thus
helping in easy cooking.
Advantages
 The product is easily cooked.
 It is easily consumed.
 Spoiled portion of food can be discarded.
 Appearance of food can be improved .e.g. salad
 Grating helps in proper blending of the product.
Disadvantages
 Smaller the size , greater the surface area, greater the loss of nutrients.

4. Sieving –Sieving is done to remove coarse fibres and insects It is done in

preparing cake for blending of flour with baking powder.
Advantages
 Helps in removing dirt, worms, fibres and stones from the whole grains.
 The shelf life of food products can be improved.
 Flour becomes fine.
 Helps in blending.
Disadvantages
 Bran is lost, thereby some nutrients like fibres, proteins and B vitamins may
be lost.
 It requires time.
 5. Soaking: Soaking is done in water either plain or salted with sodium chloride
or sodium bi carbonate.
Advantages
 Hastens the process of cooking .
 It facilitates grinding e.g. idli or dosa
 Texture of food softens.
 Peel can be removed easily.
 Makes the extraction of tamarind pulp easier.
 It initiates fermentation process.
Disadvantages
 Water- soluble nutrients may be leached in to water.
 It requires time.

6. Blanching: This is plunging the food in boiling water and immediately

putting in cold water. This destroys the enzymes present in food hence used
as preparation for preservation.
Advantages
 Peel can be removed easily.
 It is preliminary method for canning and freezing.
 Micro-organisms present on the surface are partially removed.
 Enzymes bringing spoilage can be inactivated.
 Blanching improves colour of vegetables.
Disadvantages
 Part of water soluble nutrients may be lost.

7. Marinating - Marinating is soaking a food in a marinade to add flavour or to

tenderize it or both .Vegetables normally marinated are brinjal , onion radish
bitter gourd , potatoes and chillies.
Advantages
 Prevents browning reactions e.g. In potatoes and apple .
 Add flavour to the food.
 Texture of product is improved.
Disadvantages
 Water –soluble nutrients may leach into marinade.
8. Sprouting or Germination : The grain is soaked in water for 6 to 8 hours,
excess water is discarded , the grain is tied in muslin cloth and kept for
overnight for germination at warm or dry place. Sprouts come out in 12
hours. All kind of grams like green gram, Bengal gram, peas and cereals like
ragi and wheat are generally sprouted.
Advantages
 Digestibility can be increased as complex substances are converted to
simple substances e.g. starch to amylase.
 Discomfort due to flatulence can be reduced.
 This decreases cooking time as grain becomes tender.
 Water soluble vitamins are increased.
 Dehusking is easier.

9. Fermentation : The grains are soaked in water for 6 to 8 hours in sufficient

amount, ground, covered and kept for fermentation. Fermentation is the
process of breaking down of complex matter into simpler ones with aid of
enzymes and bacteria. Fermented foods are nutritious.
Advantages
 Texture and taste is improved.
 B vitamins are synthesized by micro-organism.
 Fermented foods are easily digestible.
Disadvantages
 Some times unwanted micro –organisms can develop and bring about
spoilage of foods.
 Acidity of product is increased .

10. Grinding-This includes both wet and dry grinding. Wet grinding includes
the grinding idli batter and preparation of chutneys. Dry grinding is grinding
spices for masala powder and wheat for wheat for wheat flour.
Advantages
 Grinding facilitates fermentation in case of idli ,dosa and dhokla.
 Proper blending of flavour is ensured.
 There is enhancement in taste and flavour .
 This is helpful in preparation of gravy preparations.
Disadvantages
 Infestation chances are more in flours than in whole food substances.
 Flavour is lost.
11. Drying: Drying or dehydration is removal of moisture from food products.
Removal of moisture helps to prolong the shelf life of food. Foodstuff
generally dried are cereals, pulses spices etc.
Advantages
 Shelf life can be prolonged.
 Dried food grinds easily.

12. Filtering: This process is generally done to remove dirt, unwanted particles
or to remove moisture from foodstuff. In the preparation of cottage cheese or
paneer, whey water is extracted. Foodstuffs filtered are coffee, tea, rice,
soups, fruit juices and tamarind water.
Advantages:
 Removel or dirt and unwanted particles.
 Better extraction of flavour compounds in making tea and coffee.
 Imporves taste.
Disadvantages:
 Nutrients are lost e.g., in whey water, and rice kanji. This loss can be
compensated by utilising the liquids for some other purposes rather than
discarding them.

13. Roasting: this process should be grouped under actual cooking methods but
certain recipes however demand roasting as preparation. Foods generally
roasted are rava and vermicelli.
Advantages:
 It prevents lump formation, e.g., upma.
 Gives characteristic flavour to a food product.
 Infestation can be reduced.
Chapter No 3
Cooking and Cooking Methods

The process of subjecting foods to the action of heat is termed as cooking.

The objectives of cooking are
1. Improves the taste and food quality: Cooking improves natural flavour and
texture of food. For example roasting of groundnuts, frying onions and papad
,improves flavour. Cooking meat with spices , rice with spices in making
pulav, addition of turmeric, curry leaves, pepper, blend flavour with one
another during cooking. Too much of cooking lowers the flavour as
flavouring compounds are volatile. Over-cooked pulav does not taste as good
as well cooked pulav.
2. Destruction of micro-organisms : Micro –organisms are present everywhere
and some are useful in making curds, cheese and bread. Some are harmful
and cause infections or produce toxin e .g .afla toxin in groundnuts .Cooking
food to the required temperature for a required length of time can destroy
all harmful micro-organisms in food e.g., pasteurized milk. By cooking food
is made safe for consumption .
3. Improves digestibility : Cooking softens the connective tissues of meat and
the coarse fibers of cereals, pulses and vegetables , so the digestive period is
shortened and gastrointestinal tract is less subjected to irritation. Cooking
improves texture ,hence it becomes more chewable and improves
digestibility.
4. Increases variety : By cooking same food can made into different dishes. For
example, rise can be made into plain, pulav, lemon rice, briyani, with pulses
and idli. Whenat can be made into chapattis, puri, paratha etc.
5. Increases consumption of food : Cooking improves the texture and makes
the food chewable. Improvement in texture and flavor by cooking increases
the consumption of food to meet our nutritional requirement.
 6. Increases availability of nutrients : Raw egg contains avidin which binds
biotin making biotin unavailable to the body. By cooking, avidin gets
denatured and biotin is available to the body. Trypsin inhibitors present in
soybean is destroyed by application of heat and quality of protein is
improved.

Cooking Methods
Heat may be transferred to the food during cooking by
conduction,convection, radiation or by the energy of microwaves- electronic heat
transfer. Water or steam and air or fat or combinations of these are used as cooking
media. Moist heat involves water and steam. Air or fat are used in dry heat . Foods
can also be cooked by microwaves. Classification of cooking methods is as
fallows.
Moist heat Dry heat Combinations methods
Boiling Roasting Braising
Simmering Grilling/Broiling
Poaching Toasting
Stewing Baking
Steaming Sautéing
Pressure cooking Frying

Moist Heat Methods

1. Boiling –Boiling is cooking foods by just immersing them in water at 100 0c
and maintaining the water at that temperature till the food is tender. Foods
may be boiled in any liquid which is bubbling at the surface such as stock,
milk, juices or syrups. Foods that are cooked by boiling are rice, eggs, dals,
potatoes , meat. Sago and beet root. Boiling can be done with excess amount
of water (Eggs ,potatoes) or with sufficient water.(dal, upma) .
Advantages / Merits
 It is most simple method. It does not require special skill or equipment.
 Uniform heating can be done.
Disadvantages/ Demerits
 Loss of nutrients: If excess water is used in cooking and water is discarded,
30 to 70 % water soluble nutrients like vitamin c may be lost. To prevent
this type of losses , require amount of water should be used or excess
cooked water should be used in soups , sambhar and dals.
 Loss of colour :Water soluble pigments , like betanin from beetroot may be
lost. Beet root should be cooked along with skin to prevent the loss of
colour.
 Time consuming-Boiling may take time and fuel may get wasted.
 Loss of flavour and colour : Boiled foods are not considered tasty because
flavor compounds leached into water . Over boiling of foods make them
mashy.
2. Simmering- When foods are cooked in a pan with a well fitting lid at
temperature just below the boiling point 82-990c of the liquid in which they are
immersed the process is known as simmering .
Advantages / Merits
 Foods get cooked thoroughly .
 Scorching or burning is prevented.
 Losses due to leaching is minimised.
Disadvantages/ Demerits
 There is a loss of heat sensitive nutrients, due to long period of cooking.
 Takes more time and more fuel.
 3. Poaching-This involves cooking in minimum amount of liquid at a
temperature of 80 -85oc that is below the boiling point. Foods generally
poached are eggs, fish and fruits.
Advantages / Merits
 Very quick method of cooking.
 Easily digestible since no fat is used.
Disadvantages/ Demerits
 It is bland in taste.
 Water soluble nutrients may be leached into water.
4. Stewing –This is a gentle method of cooking in a pan with a tight fitting lid,
using small quantities of liquid to over only half the food .The food above
the liquid is cooked by the steam generated within the pan.
Advantages / Merits
 Loss of nutrients by leaching does not take place.
 Flavour is retained.
Disadvantages/ Demerits
 This process is time consuming.
5. Steaming- This method is requires to be cooked in steam. The water should
be boiled before placing the food in steam . Steaming is generally done in
special equipment design for this purpose e.g.Idli cooker.
Advantages / Merits
 It does not require constant attention.
 Nutritive Value is maintained because there is no leaching of nutrients as
cooking time is less.
 Easily digested since there is no fat added. It is good for children and patients.
 There is less chance of burning , scorching or over cooking.
 Texture of food is better and becomes light and fluffy.
 Steamed food have good flavour.
Disadvantages/ Demerits
 Special equipment is required.
 Many foods can not prepared by this method.
6. Pressure cooking –In pressure cooking , escaping steam is trapped and kept
under pressure so that so that the temperature of boiling water and steam can
be raised above 1000c and reduced cooking time.
Advantages / Merits
 1.It takes less time to cook.
 Different items can be cooked at a time.
 Requires less attention.
 Fuel is saved.
 Nutrients and flavour loss is very less.
 Food is cooked thoroughly.
 There is an indication for completion of cooking.
 There is less chance of burning or scorching.
Disadvantages/ Demerits
 Thorough knowledge of using the equipment is required, otherwise accident
may happen.
 There may be mixing of flavor.
 Food may be undesirably soft.
3
Dry Heat Methods
Air as a medium of cooking
1. Grilling /Broiling : Grilling consist of placing the food below or above or in
between a red hot surface of heat .Foods cooked by grilling are corn cob ,
papad, brinjal, phulkas, sweet potatoes.
The term toasting is used to describe a process by which bread slices are
kept under the grill or between two heated elements to brown from both
 sides of the bread at the time .This can be adjusted to give the required
degree of brownness through temperature control.
Advantages / Merits

 Quick method of cooking.

 Less or no fat is required.
 Flavour is improved.
Disadvantages/ Demerits
 Constant attention is required.
2. Baking : Here food gets cooked by hot air. Basically it is dry heat method of
cooking. Foods baked are generally brown and crisp on the top, soft and
porous in the center e.g. cakes, breads. Baking is done in oven. The
temperature maintained are 1200c -2600c
Combinations of cooking methods
1. Braising- Braising is a combined method of roasting and stewing in a pan with
a tight –fitting lid. Many food preparations are made by a combination of
cooking methods.
e.g.Vermicelli-Roasting and simmering, Vegetable curry –Sauteing and
simmering ,Upma-Roasting and boiling, Meat cutlet- Boiling and deep frying.
Vegetable pulav-Frying and simmering .

Micro wave cooking

Electromagnetic waves from a power source magnetron are absorbed by
the food and food become hot at once. Thus, microwaves do not require any
medium of transfer of heat in cooking. The microwaves can be absorbed,
transmitted or reflected. They are reflected by metal and absorbed by food. When
food is kept in the cavity of the microwave oven ,for cooking, the microwaves
generated by the magnetron strike the food and the metal walls of oven.
Microwaves that strike the metal walls are reflected and bounced back so they
disperse throughout the oven and accomplish uniform heating of food.
 Microwave cooking can be done on paper dishes, plastics, glass, chinaware
and ceramics because these materials transmit the waves through them without
absorbing them like water. Aluminium foil can also be used. But brown paper
bags, stainless steel vessels, metal twist ties, convectional thermometers can not be
used.
After cooking in oven washing dishes is easier as food does not stick to the
sides of vessels and the paper dishes can be thrown away. Cleaning the oven
involves only wiping it dry with a damp cloth. Microwave cooking enhances the
flavour of food because it cooks quickly with little or no water and thus preserves
the natural colour of vegetables and fruits.
Leftovers from the previous days dinner can be heated in a minute and
reused for breakfast or lunch. Precooked processed foods available in Indian
markets like tikkas, kababs, dhals and chicken curry can be on the table in minutes.
Following the instructions supplied by the manufacturers, home makers can make
a cake in 8 minutes and chicken tikkas in about the same time. Stuffed capsicums
are ready in 6 minutes only. Some microwaves ovens have an infrared lamp fitted
into the oven cavity so that exterior colouring can be included while the micro
wave heating is occurred. An alternate method that is currently being developed in
domestic microwave oven to lengthen the cooking time allows some surface
colouring to occur so that the appearance of the food matches the conventional
product more closely. The increase in cooking time (2to 4 fold) still allows a
significant saving over conventional cooking time. An essential difference between
microwave and conventional cooking is done by time rather than temperature in
microwave cooking.

Solar cooking
 Solar cooker works on solar energy. Solar cooker can directly utilize solar
energy or can be use reflected solar energy from a large concentration rays surface.
Solar cooker consists of a well- insulated box, inside of which is painted dull
black and is trap heat inside the solar cooker. These covers allow the radiation
from the sun to come inside but do not allow the heat from the hot black
absorbing plate to come out of the box. Because of this, the temperature of
blackened plate inside the box increases and can heat up the space inside the
temperature up to 1400 c which is adequate for cooking. The second type of solar
cooker uses a lens or a reflector suitably designed to concentrate the solar radiation
over a small area. This cooker is able to provide higher temperatures on its
absorbing surface when suitably designed but is usually more expensive than box
cooker. Important parts of solar cooker are
1. The outer box- The outer box of a solar cooker may be made of wood,
iron sheet or fibre reinforced plastics having suitable dimensions.
2. The inner box- The inner box can be made from galvanized iron or mild
steel or aluminium sheet. All the four sides and the bottom of bottom of the
inner box which are exposed to the sun are coated with black paint.
3. Mirror- Mirror is used in solar cooker to increase the radiation input on the
absorbing surface. Sunlight which falls on the mirror gets reflected from it
and enters the box after passing through the glass covers. This radiation is
in addition to the radiation entering the box directly and helps to quicken
the cooking process by raising the inside temperature of the cooker. The use
of a mirror can enhance the solar radiation input the cooker by about 50%.
4. Cooking containers-The cooking containers with covers are generally
made of aluminium or stainless steel. The containers are painted dull black
on the outer surface so that they also absorb radiation directly.
5. Thermal insulation-The space between the outer and the inner box is fitted
with insulating material such as glass, wool or thermocol. This prevents
heat losses from cooker.
 6. The double glass covers:These covers have length and breadth slightly
greater than the inner box and can be fixed in a wooden frame maintaining
a small spacing between the two glasses. This space contains air which acts
as an insulator and prevents heat to escape from inside . The wooden frame
is attached to the outer box by means of hinges. A rubber stripe is affixed
all around on the edges of this frame to prevent any heat leakage.
Advantages
 It does not require any cooking gas or kerosene or any conventional fuel.
 Simultaneously more than one recipe can be prepared.
 Keeps the environment clean.
 Less expensive compared to conventional source of energy.
 Conserves the conventional source of energy.
 Constant attention is not required.
 Cost of the cooker and maintenance cost is low.
 No smoke and no soot hence cleaning the vessels is easy.
Disadvantages

 Depends on sun and on cloudy and rainy days it may not be possible to
used.
 Takes longer time and planning is required.
 Special vessels need to beused.
 Loss of vitamin Cis more compared to cooking on gas.

Chapter No 4
CEREALS AND MILLETS
 The cereal grains are seeds of the grass family .The word cereal is derived
from ceres,the Roman Goddess of grain .The principal cereal crops are rice, wheat,
maize or corn,jowar,ragi and bajra. The term cereal is not limited to these but also
flours,meals,breads and alimentary pastes or pasta. Cereals are the staple foods in
the diets of most population groups.
Structure
The percentage of endosperm, germ and bran of cereal are 83,14 1/2 and 21/2,
respectively.
Bran or pericarp
The outer layer, epidermis of the cereal consists of thin-walled long
rectangular cells. Next to the epidermis is the hypoderm of varying thickness. The
innermost layer of pericarp tears during the ripening of the seed and in the mature
grain they are represented by a layer of branching hypha –like cells called tube
cells.
The seed coat or testa is a thin single or double layer. The inner layer of
testa of wheat is often deeply pigmented which gives the grain its characteristic
colour .Next to testa is a hyaline layer (nucellar tissue) which is colourless and
devoid of any obvious cellular structure.
Aleurone cell layer
The endosperm is surrounded by one or more layers of cells known as
aleurone. In wheat, the aleurone is a single layer of thick-walled cubicle cells and
constitutes 7 percent of grain weight. The cells contain about 20 percent each of
protein ,oil and mineral matter. The cells are also rich in nicotinic acid. The
aleurone cells also contain tiny grains of phytic acid with some protein.

Endosperm-The endosperm itself consists of cells of various sizes,shapes and

different composition. The endosperm cell consists mainly of starch and protein,
the size and shape of the starch granule in the endosperm cells vary from one
cereal to another.
Embryo
The germ of embryo consists of many parts.It is separated from endosperm
by scutellum which has the function of mobilizing the stored food in the
endosperm and transmitting them to the embryo when the grain germinates. The
germ and scutellum are rich in protein and fat .Most of the B vitamins in the grain
is present in the scutellum.
Composition and nutritive value
Nutritive value of different cereal is given below.
Energy: Cereals are the main sources of energy, contributing 70-80 % of the
requirement. Hundred grams give more than 340 Kcal of energy.
Carbohydrate:80% of dry matter of cereal is carbohydrate contains crude fibre
and soluble carbohydrate. The fiber constituents are cellulose, hemicellulose and
pentosans. Starch is soluble carbohydrate. Small quantities of dextrin and sugars
are also present. Whole wheat ragi and bajra contain high amount of fibre.
Protein:The protein content of different cereals varies. Rice contains less amount
of protein compare to other cereals. The protein content of different varieties of the
same cereal also varies. Proteins are found in all the tissues of the cereal grain
Higher concentrations occur in the embryo, scutellum and aleurone layer than in
the endosperm, pericarp and testa. The type of protein present in cereals are
albumins, globulins ,prolamines (gliadins) and glutelins. The proportion of these
proteins differs in different cereals. The gladins and glutelins are known as gluten
proteins. The gluten has unique elasticity and flow properties which are used for
baking bread and other products. Cereals contain 6-12 % protein, which is
generally deficient in lysine and rich in methionine. They provide more than 50
percent of protein requirement as they are consumed in large quantities Cereals
when consumed with pulses the protein quality improves due to mutual
supplementation.
Lipids: Lipids are present to the extent of 1-2 % in wheat and rice, and 3% in
maize more lipids are present in germ and bran than in other parts of the grain.
Cereals also contain phospholipids and lecithin. Cereals together with pulses can
nearly meet the essential fatty acid requirement of an adult.
Minerals: About 95 % of minerals are the phosphates and sulphates of potassium,
magnesium and calcium. Phytates present in cereals decrease the absorption of
iron. Unrefined cereals contain more phytates than refined or polished cereals. On
germination of the grains the phytate content reduces due to enzymatic breakdown
and iron availability is improved. Copper, zinc and manganese are also present in
very small quantities in cereals. Ragi is a rich source of calcium and iron. Ragi,
bajra and jowar are rich in minerals and fibres.
Vitamins: Whole grain cereals are an important source of B vitamins in our diet.
Since most of these vitamins are in the outer bran, refining or polishing the grain
reduces B vitamin content. Since most of these vitamins are in the outer bran
,refining or polishing the grains reduces B vitamin content. Parboiling which
includes soaking in water and steaming of paddy results in seeping of vitamins
present in outer layer into the grain. Hence ,milled and polished parboiled rice
retains much of the B vitamins. Maida has less B vitamins than whole wheat flour.
Oils from cereals grains are rich in vitamin E.
Enzymes: Certain grains contain many enzymes and of these the amylases
proteases, lipases and oxido-reductases are important

CEREAL PROTEIN - GLUTEN

All the cereals are more or less similar in protein content. The unique
presence of glutelin and gliadin in the wheat makes it suitable for certain recipes.
Glutenin or glutelin is the protein, which gives toughness and rubberiness to
gluten. Gliadin gives elasticity. Glutenin is a much larger molecule than gliadin.
Baking quality of flour depends on both the quantity and quality of gluten that can
be formed from it. In making chapattis too little or too much gluten results is poor
quality.
Factors affecting the gluten formation
Mechanical action: If the dough is under mixed, enough gluten is not developed
to retain the gas well .With the result the loaf is heavy and poor in volume. Over-
kneading declines the elasticity of gluten and the dough becomes sticky and the
volume of the loaf poor. In making chapattis, too little or too much gluten results
in poor quality.
Proteolytic enzymes: These are group of enzymes present in wheat flour which
catalyse the hydrolysis of proteins. They are also present in malted flour and yeast
.Since the strength of the gluten depends on the intact protein, any reaction which
hydrolyses part of the protein reduces the amount of gluten. If too much of these
proteolytic enzymes are present, too much hydrolysis occurs and the dough
becomes sticky, difficult to machine in the mixers and yields bread of poor
volume. Some protease activity is desirable, since it improves the glutens. Doughs
of low proteolytic activity are tough and inelastic. It does not machine well and it
also produces loaves of poor volume since the dough will not stretch around the
gas bubbles. The quantity of proteolytic enzymes must be balanced so that enough
hydrolysis occurs to produce elastic gluten but not so much that the gluten is
sticky.
Oxidizing agents: Potassium bromate, potassium iodate are dough conditioners.
Chloine, chlorine dioxide and nitrosyl chloride, bleach, mature and improve the
flour. If an oxidizing agent is added either to flour or to gluten the strength of
gluten is increased. If large amounts are added gluten becomes tough with little
elasticity.
Reducing agents: They have the opposite effect .They reduce the strength of
gluten making it more extensible and sticky.

Other factors
Raw milk: Raw milk decreases the proteolytic enzymes and makes gluten sticky.
Heating the milk to 82.2oC for 30 minutes has no detrimental effect on gluten
strength. Milk should be scalded before use in dough.
Calcium salts: Calcium salts present in the hard water tend to increase the
elasticity of gluten.
NaCl: NaCl affects gluten formation.
Acid: Acid also alters gluten strength. Too much of vinegar diminishes gas
retention.
Fat: Fat in small amounts increase the ability of dough to retain gas.

CEREAL COOKERY
The major nutrient present in cereals is starch; hence cereal cookery is
mainly starch cookery. Starch is a complex structured polysaccharide containing
hundreds to thousands of glucose units. These are distributed in the cells of the
plants in the form of tiny packages called granules or aggregates of granules.
When dry or moist heat is applied to cereals, the changes that are observed are
mainly due to the starch present in them .Besides this, some changes in cereals like
wheat are also due to the protein present in them. The principles involved in cereal
cookery are as follows
Dextrinisation: We are all familiar with the characteristic aroma and change in
color of rawa when it is roasted for preparation of sheera or upama. These changes
are due to breakdown of starch and formation of dextrin. Dextrinisation is a
process, in which on application of dry heat, some starch granules break down into
dextrin,va brown colour, a typical flavour and a slightly sweet taste develops.
Process of dextrinisation is widely seen in preparation such as chapatti, toast,
sheera, puri.

Use in cookery
Change in colour: During baking of cake, dextrinisation of starch results in the
development of a brown colour, making it more attractive. This colour change is
also seen in preparations like paratha ,biscuits, samosa, karanji and others.
Change in flavour: A typical pleasant flavour develops during roasting of rawa,
in preparation like sheera, upma due to dextrinisation. Change in flavour also
occurs while roasting corn, baking cake, roasting chapatti, bhakri
Change in taste: During roasting of chapatti and phulka, a slightly sweet taste
develops.
Change in digestibility when cereal and other grains are roasted for preparation of
thalipith flour, some of the starch granules breakdown into its simpler form
dextrin, therefore digestibility improves.

GELATINISATION
When water is added to rice, rice flour, corn flour and cooked to prepare
dishes like boiled rice, steamed modak and custard, thickening takes place. This
thickening effect is due to the starch present in these foods. When starch or foods
containing starch are heated in water, the starch granules absorb water and swell
up, the solution starts thickening until a peak thickness is reached. The dispersion
becomes translucent and viscous. These changes are due to Gelatinisation. This
process is irreversible. Gelatinisation is a process, by which, starch granules, when
heated in water, absorb water and swell up making the solution thick and
translucent. Gelatinisation is complete in most starches at a temperature not higher
than 95oC .

Factors affecting Gelatinisation

Concentration of starch: If the proportion of starch in a liquid is higher,
gelatinisation is faster and would be more. This can be illustrated by the following
example.
 Sample A of rawa , using 5 g. of rawa in 100ml if milk and another sample,
using 25 g. of rawa in 100 ml of milk is prepared to observe difference in
gelatinisation in the two samples. Sample A would show less gelatinisation as
there are lesser starch granules to gelatinize in 5 g. of rawa whereas in sample B
gelatinisation of thickening is faster and more because there are more starch
granules to absorb water.
Types of starch: Starches vary in their thickening power. Among cereal starch,
corn has maximum thickening power followed by wheat and rice starch.
Size of the food grains: Size of the food grains affect the speed and extent of
gelatinisation Finer the food grains, quicker is the gelatinization as more surface
area is exposed to the liquid.
1. Agitation of Stirring: When starch is used as a thickening agent, a smooth and
creamy consistency without lumps is desired. To achieve this, the following steps
should be taken.
a) Starch granules must be separated before they are heated in the liquid. This is
achieved by preparing a suspension in small amount of cold liquid which is later
added to rest of the liquid.
b) All starch granules should swell evenly. Starch granules need water and a
specific temperature for swelling .Stirring helps in uniform availability of water
and temperature to all granules, so they swell simultaneously resulting in uniform
gelatinization and uniform thickening.
2. Effect of Acid : Acid results in hydrolysis of starch into products like dextrin
and maltose so the thickening power of starch decreases and it also decreases the
gel strength. Acidic foods like vinegar, lemon juice or other fruit juices should be
added at the end of the cooking as by then, gelatinization is almost complete and
there would be minimum starch hydrolysis.
3. Effect of other ingredients
Sugar: Sugar interferes with the process of gelatinization because of its
hygroscopic nature. It completes with starch granules for water, so less water is
available to the starch granules to swell completely .This will lead to incomplete
gelatinization and less thickening. Therefore in kheer and custard, sugar is added
after thickening has taken place.
Fat: Fat reduces the thickening power of starch as it forms a coating on the
granules which interferes with the absorption of water, resulting in incomplete or
partial gelatinisation. This is useful in preparations where complete gelatinisation
is not required to avoid stickiness as seen in pulao, upama and sheera. Roasting of
grains in fat before moist heat is applied, decreases the stickiness and increases the
palatability of the product. eg. Roasting rawa in preparation of upama and sheera.
Egg, milk and milk powder: Egg, milk and milk powder are hygroscopic, hence
decreases gelatinisation and interfere in gel formation.

Fermentation
Fermentation refers to breakdown of carbohydrates, under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions. Some common fermented products made from cereals are
idli, dosa, dhokla and bread.For preparations like idli and dosa, black gram dal and
rice are soaked separately, then ground along with some water and the mixture is
allowed to ferment for 6 to 16 hours at a temperature of 25 o to 30oC. The batter
becomes light and fluffy and a sour flavor and taste develops. These changes are
due to fermentation.Process of fermentation is used to prepare some baked
products like bread, pizza, buns and doughnuts .This process is also used to
prepare bhatura ,idli, dosa, jalebi, and other such products.
Advantages
 Texture and taste is improved.
 Quality of proteins is improved as availability of some amino acids increase.
 B Vitamins are synthesized by micro-organism.
 Shelf life of food products can be prolonged e.g. milk is converted to curds
 Fermented foods are easily digestible.
 Certain harmful substances like trypsin inhibitors, phytin are decreased
during fermentation.
 Variety in the diet is increased.
 Disadvantages
 Sometimes unwanted micro-organisms can develop and bring about
spoilage of food.
 Acidity of the product is increased.
 Chapter No 5

PULSES

Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of pod –bearing plants belonging to the
family of the leguminous.The major pulses are red gram dal, bengalgram dal,
black gram dal, green gram dhal and lentil. Some are used as whole grams,
cowpea,rajma and dry peas. Legumes not only have dietary values but also play an
important role in maintaining or improving soil fertility through their ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen.
Nutritive Value of pulses
Energy- Pulses give 340 calories per 100g which is similar to cereal calorie value.
Protein- In vegetarian diet, pulses are important source of protein. They give about
20-25 per cent protein that is double the amount of protein compared to cereals.
They contain chiefly globulins. Albumins can also be seen in pulses. The proteins
of pulses are deficient in methionine and red gram is deficient in tryptophan.
Bengal gram containshigher amounts of arginine and sufficient amount of tyrosine.
Pulses are rich in lysine. A mixture of cereals and pulses is superior to that of
either one.The effective combination to achieve maximum supplementary effect is
5 parts of cereal proteins and one part of pulse protein .In terms of grains 8 parts of
cereals and 1 part of pulses .This combination gives a protein quality equivalent to
animal protein.
Legumes are better than cereals as a source of the essential amino acids like
isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, threonine and valine. The quality of protein
decreases in infested pulses.
Carbohydrates
Pulses contain 55 to 60 percent starch. Soluble sugars, fiber and unavailable
carbohydrates are also present. The unavailable sugars in pulses include substantial
levels of oligosaccharides. Fermentation, germination, cooking, soaking and
autoclaving reduce considerable amount of oligosaccharides.
Lipids
Pulses contain 1.5 percent lipids on moisture free basis. They contain high
amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Along with cereals, they meet the
requirements of essential fatty acids for an adult. Apart from linoleic acid, most
legume seed oils contain high proportion of linolenic acid. Oleic, stearic and
palmitic acids are also present.
Minerals
They contain calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, potassium and phosphorus;80
percent of phosphorus is present as phytate phosphorus. Phytin complexes with
proteins and minerals and renders them biologically unavailable to human beings
and animals. Processing such as cooking, soaking, germination and fermentation
can reduce or eliminate appreciable amounts of phytin.
Vitamins
Legume seeds are excellent source of B complex vitamins particularly
thiamin, folic acid and pantothenic acid Like cereals they do not contain any
vitamin A or C but germinated legumes contain some vitamin C.
Digestibility of pulses
Among legumes, chick pea protein has high digestibility. Other legumes
including lentils and phaseolus varieties have low digestibility.Digestibility in
pulses range from 50 – 62 per cent.

Processing of pulses
Different processing techniques of pulses
1. Milling /Decortication : Legumes are generally milled to remove the outer
husk by wet or dry process .The dal obtained by the dry method is
hemispherical in shape,softens rapidly on cooking and gives good flavour.
Dal prepared by wet method is usually flat,has a small depression in the
centre due to shrinkage and softens slowly during cooking. Legumes are
consumed as a whole or dehusked one.
Advantages
 Improves keeping quality
 Reduce anti -nutrients
 Improves protein digestibility
 Reduce fibre and nutrient availability is increased
 Improves appearance texture cooking quality, palatability.
2. Soaking : Whole pulses are soaked in cold water overnight or in warm water
(60-70o) for 4-5 hours. Green gram, lentils and cow pea cook satisfactorily
without prior soaking.
Soaking makes the pulse tender and hastens the process. It also reduces phytic
acid and oligosaccharides. By rehydration moisture content is increased from
10 per cent to 60-70 per cent.
Advantages
 The pulse becomes tender, texture is improved.
 Cooking time reduced.
Disadvantages
 Some water soluble nutrients may leach in water, if this water is discarded.
Water used for soaking can be used in cooking to minimize these losses.
3. Puffing /Parching : Legumes such as Bengal gram and peas are parched to
give highly acceptable products .The traditional Indian household practice for
roasting or parching pulses involves sprinkling the grains with a little water.
Then the pulse is mixed with the pre heated sand in a frying pan kept on an
open fire and maintained at a temperature ranging from 200 to250 o depending
on the pulse species for 2 to3 minutes. Parched Bengal gram has been used
successfully in the treatment of protein calorie malnutrition in children.
Advantages
 Improves digestibility
 Reduces antinutrients
  Improves appearance
 More palatable

4. Germination : Whole grams are soaked overnight and water should be

drained away and the seeds should be tied in a loosely woven cotton cloth and
hung. Water should be sprinkled twice or thrice day. In a day or two
germination takes place .Moistures and warmth are essential for germination
.Green gram can be germinated in a shorter time .In summer; germination
process is faster than in winter. Bengal gram, dry beans and dry peas can also
be germinated.
Advantages
 Nutrient content is increased. Enzymes get activated and digestibility and
availability of nutrients is improved. Minerals like calcium, zinc and iron are
released from bound form. Riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, choline and biotin
contents are increased. Vitamin C is synthesized during germination.
 Sprouting decreases cooking time.
 Dehusking is easier when the grains are sprouted and dried.
 Germination decreases the mucus inducing property of legumes.
 Thickening power of starch is reduced due to conversion of starch to sugars.
 Germination metabolizes oligosaccharides and hence do not produce gas or
flatulence.
 Germination improves taste and texture and without much cooking also
sprouts like green gram can be consumed.

5. Extrusion : Blends of cereals and legume flours are extruded at high

temperature (140-200oC) high pressure and a moisture content 20 per cent.
The product is cooked for a short time (30-60 sec) and the product is forced
out of the extruder through a variety of dies and dried on convey or belts.
Advantages
 Improves digestibility
 Reduces antinutrients
 Improves appearance
 More palatable
 Ready to eat product can be prepared.
Toxic constituents
Some pulses used in food contain chemical constituents having toxic properties.
1. Trypsin Inhibitors: They are present in red gram, Bengal gram, cowpea,
soyabean, lathyrussativus and peas. They inhibit the activity of trypsin in gut
and interfere with digestibility of dietary proteins and reduced their utilization.
Pancreas enlargement, growth retardation occurs in animals that consume diet
containing trypsin inhibitors. Autoclaving at 1200C for 15-30 minutes inactivates
all most all trypsin inhibitors.
2. Lathyrogens: Lathyrism is a nervous disease that cripples man. This disease is
a result of excessive consumption of the pulse lathyrussativus .It affects young
man between the ages of 15-45 years. The symptoms of lathyrism are muscular
rigidity, weakness, paralysis of leg muscles.

Stages of Lathyrism-
First Stage – It is characterized by a typical manner of walking with short steps
and jerky movements and a kind of scissor or crossed gait. This is non- stick stage.
The patient may remain in this condition for the rest of his life, or he may pass on
the next stage.
Second Stage-The muscular stiffness is increased and this makes it necessary to
perform all walking by tilting the pelvis to such a degree that a stick is necessary to
maintain balances. This is called one-stick stage.
Third Stage – The muscular rigidity is so great that the patient needs two sticks
for support and there is marked tilting of the pelvis sideways to maintain balance.
This is called two-stick stage.
Final Stage-By this time ,the patient is unable to walk upright on account of
considerable bending of the knees and extreme stiffness of the lower limbs.The
patient is then reduced to crawling by taking his weight on his hands.
The neurotoxin responsible for lathyrism is β-N-Oxalyl –L-α,βdiamino propionic
acid.Toxin can be removed by steeping or parboiling.
Steeping Process
 Four times the quantity of seeds is first brought to a boil.
 Seeds are soaked in hot water for two hours.
 Water is drained off.
 The seeds are washed with cold fresh water and sun dried.
 Eighty to ninety per cent of the toxin is removed by this method.
Parboiling Process
 The seeds are soaked in cold water for 12 hours.
 Then the seeds are steamed for 20 to 30 minutes.
 Again seeds are soaked for one hour and dried.
 Eighty to ninety per cent of toxin leaches out by this process.
3. Favism: Favism is a disease characterized by haemolyticanaemia that occurs
when individual who are deficient in glucose -6- phosphate dehydrogenase
consume fababeans.Three different compounds present in faba beans
vicinecovicineandthe third is an amino acid derivative known as dihydroxy phenyl
alanine,DOPA.These are present only inthe cotyledons of the beans.Germinating
and boiling reduce these toxic substances.
4. Haemagglutinins: They occur in leguminous seed. Haemagglutinin reduces the
food intake, resulting in poor health.These are proteins in nature and sometimes
referred to as phyto agglutinins or lectins.They occur widely in leguminous seeds.
Haemagglutinins reduce the food intake resulting in poor growth .The lectins
interact with dipeptidases, and other enzymes involved in nutrient digestion and
uptake. Haemagglutinins are isolated from soya bean, field bean, white bean,
double bean and horse gram. Haemagglutinins are heat labile .Haemagglutinins
combine with the cells lining the intestinal wall, inalmost the same way as it
combines with red blood cells thus causing an impairment with the absorption of
amino acids the lectins protect the plants from fungal attack and insect infestation.
5. Cyanogenic glycoside: Cyanogenic glycoside yields hydro –cyanic acid upon
hydrolysis. This causes cyanide poisoning by interfering with tissue respiration.
Cyanide content in the range of 10to20mg/ 100gm of pulse is considered safe.
6. Saponins: Saponins produce lather or foam when shaken with water. They are
present in soyabean. Saponins cause nausea and vomiting. Soaking prior to
cooking can eliminate these toxins.
7. Goiterogens: These substances interfere with iodine uptake by thyroid glands.
8 Tannins: Tannins are condensed polyphenolic compounds. They are present
high amount in seed coat of legumes. Tannins bind with iron and interfere with
iron absorption Tannins also binds proteins and reduced their availability. They
also affect B vitamin absorption.
Effect of cooking
Anti-nutritional factors- Uncooked legume seeds contain anti-nutritional factors
that can be toxic if large amounts are consumed. Cooking reduces these
antinutritional factors.
Protein quality-Heating increases protein quality by destroying anti nutritional
factors, increasing digestibility and availability of amino acids.
Minerals-cooking has little effect on calcium ,magnisum and total iron content of
pulses
Vitamins –loss of thiamine may occur due to the heat applied.
Chapter No 6
Vegetables
Vegetables are plants or parts of plants that are served raw or cooked as a
part of the main course of a meal .Vegetables supply many nutrients besides
providing variety to the diet. They make the food attractive by their color, texture
and flavor. The intake of green leafy vegetables should be 50 gram,other
vegetables 150 gram and roots and tuber 100 gram. That means 250-300 gram of
vegetable should be eaten by an adult in a day. Seasonal fruits should be taken 100
gram per day.
Though Indian population is mostly vegetarian, the intake of vegetables has
been too low in daily diet. People do not eat vegetables or eat less in quantity
because they are expensive, need more preparation time, or due to ignorance of the
importance of vegetables. Sometimes, unavailability in a particular place or season
results in less consumption of vegetables. As they are perishable, the consumption
would be limited if storage facilities are not available.
Classification and Nutritive value
They are called protective foods as they are rich in minerals and vitamins.
Nutritionally they are classified into three groups
 Green leafy vegetables
Generally green leafy vegetables are good sources of vitamins and
minerals. They are excellent in carotenes which are converted to vitamin
A.β carotenes are also good antioxidants. Greens are good sources of B-
vitamins particularly riboflavin and folic acid. Green –leafy vegetables also
contain vitamin C. Agathi, drumstick leaves and coriander leaves contribute
to vitamin C. The practice of using coriander as garnishing agent is good as
heating results in some loss of vitamin C. Green leafy vegetables are also
rich in iron. Mint is good source of iron.Agathi,colocasia leaves,drumstick
leaves and fenugreek leaves contribute calcium in our diet.Greens are not
good sources of protein,fat and carbohydrate and hence they do not
 contribute to the energy value of food. Greens are good sources of fibre
which help in preventing degenerative diseases.
 Roots and tubers
Roots and tubers give more calories compared to green leafy
vegetables because they contain more starches. Carrots contain high amount
of carotene. Roots and tubers are fairly good source of vitamin C. They are
poor source of calcium, iron and B-vitamins. They are poor source of
protein.
 Other vegetables
They contain high amount of moisture and hence they are highly
perishable. They are generally poor in all nutrients. They are fairly good
source of vitamin C. They contribute to the fibre content of the diet. Plantain
green contains high amount of iron. Capsicum contain vitamin C. Small
bitter gourd is more nutritious than the ordinary one.
Pigments in vegetables and fruits
The bright colours of many vegetables contribute much to their appeal .The
colors result from the various pigments contained in their tissue. Most of the
pigments occur in plastids-specialized bodies.
 Water insoluble pigments
1. Chloropyll : The green pigments of leaves and stem are usually held close to
the cell wall in small bodies called chloroplasts along with some carotene and
xanthophylls. Two chlorophylls have been isolated. Chlorophyll-a is intense
blue green in colour and chlorophyll-b is dull yellow green in colour. They
occur in plants in the ratio if 3a:1b.Chlorophyll-a is present in the florets of
blue-green broccoli and chlorophyll-b is present in stalks. Chlorophylls are
mostly insoluble in water and dominant in unripe fruits. This pigment is
present in green leafy vegetables, capsicum, beans, peas and chillies.
2. Carotenoids : These are groups of yellow, orange, red and fat-soluble
pigments widely distributed in nature. In green leaves they occur in
 chloroplasts.In greens though carotenoids are present the colour is masked by
the chlorophyll.
3. Water soluble pigments : Flavonoids are classified into anthocyanins and
anthoxanthins.Anthocyaninsare highly water-soluble pigments that range in
colour from red to purple. The anthoxanthins are colourless or white.
1. Anthocyanins : Cherries, red apples, various berries, blue and red grapes,
pomegranate and currants are examples of anthocyanins.
Betalains
Anthocyanin pigments are absent in some families and replaced by different
compounds,betacyaninsand betaxanthins. These pigments together are
known asbetalains.
2. Anthoxanthins : These are colourless orwhite to pale yellow pigments they
are water soluble.e.gcauliflower,onion.In green leafy vegetables the colour
is masked by cholophyll.
Enzymes
Enzymes are found in plant cells.They function as catalysts in chemical
reactions.They are composed of proteins and destroyed by heat and by chemicals
that coagulate them.There are two types,hydrolytic enzymes and oxidoreductases.
Enzymes bring ripening of tomatoes and bananas.If this enzymatic reaction
continues the fruit get spoilt.They also bring browning in potato;brinjal .Raw
papaya contains an enzyme called papain.Mild heat treatment is sufficient to
inactivate these enzymes.
Enzymatic browning. The rapid darkening of the cut surface of apple , banana
,potato and brinjal are examples of enzymatic browning. The enzymatic
compounds are present in intact tissues and do not come into contact with the
phenol oxidases present some tissues. But when the tissues are cut, injured and cut
surface is exposed to air, phenol oxidase enzyme released at the surface , act on
poly phenols, oxidizing them to form orthoquinones and that is the browning
which is called as enzymatic browning.
Prevention of enzymatic browning- Enzymatic browning can be prevented either
by inactivating the enzyme or cutting off the oxygen.
1. Temperature-The most commonly used method is blanching. The optimum
temperature for browning is 43oc-50oc. If food is kept at higher temperature or
lower temperature browning is reduced .Coagulation of protein occurs during
blanching, there by inactivating the enzymes.
2. Change in pH-The optimum pH for polyphenolase activity is
between6.0and7.0, lowering the pHto 4.0 by the addition of citric acid inhibits the
phenolase activity.
3. Use of antioxidants-Chemical additiveslike sulphur dioxideand vitamin C serve
to inhibit enzymes,alter enzymes sustratesor limit entrance of oxygen.Sulphur
dioxide ,sulphites and bisulphites inhibit browning.
4. Prevention of contact with oxygen–Contact with oxygen can be reduced by
immersing the fruits or vegetables in water, or liquids like milk curd, fruit juice or
honey or by covering with a wet cloth after cutting. Addition of sodium chloride or
sugar to the cut fruit prevents browning.
Ways to minimize quantitative and qualitative losses during cooking of
vegetables.
Ans.: 1.Wash the vegetables thoroughly before peeling and cutting.
2. Peel the vegetables as thinly as possible to preserve the nutrients.
3. Do not finely chop the vegetable.
4. Use raw vegetables to prevent loss of nutrient during cooking.
5. Salads should be prepared before serving.
6. Acid foods can be used salads dressings to prevent browning and loss of vitamin
C.
7. Vegetables should be cooked in just enough liquid.
8. Cut vegetables should be added to boiling water to reduce the cooking time.
9. All vegetables should be cooked in as closed container to minimize the nutrient.
The three Rs of cooking to conserve nutrients are reduce the amount of water
used; reduce the amount of surface area exposed, reduce the length of cooking
period.

Chapter No 7

Egg

Structure of egg: Egg contain shell, shell membrane egg white and egg yolk
Shell: It forms the protective covering of the inner contents of the egg along with
the two membranes shell is made up of protein polysaccharides complex and
calcium carbonate. An egg shell is brittle and easily breaks. It is porous and
contains thousands of small holes which allow gases to pass it and out of the egg
for the developing embryo. It restricts the entry of microorganisms in to egg and
thus protects the inner contents from various enzymes.
Shell membranes: Within the shell are inner and outer membranes that also
protect the quality of the egg. Both the membranes are porous and composed of
fibers. The outer membrane has six layers of fibers whereas; the inner one has
three layers. The membranes are composed of protein and polysaccharides. Egg
contains little or no air cells when they are laid.
Egg white: The white of egg consists of three layers. Storage conditions also
affect the thickness of the albumin and the ration of thick to the egg white.
Egg yolk The yolk of the egg is enclosed in sac called the vitalline membrane. The
membrane that surrounds the egg yolk is chalaziferous or inner layer of firm
white. The chalaziferous layer gives strength to the vitalline membrane an extends
into chalazae. The Chalazae appear as two small twisted ropes of thickened white,
one on each end of the yolk and anchor the yolks in the center of the egg.
The yolk carries the indistinct germinal disc or germ spot, which under suitable
conditions develops into a chick.
Composition and Nutritive Value of egg
Egg White Egg white is composed of thin and thick portions.twenty to twenty –
five per cent of the total white of fresh eggs(1-5 days old) is thin white.Egg whites
consists of water largely with no fat or carbohydrate but contains 8-12 per cent
protein.Different types of proteins are present in egg white.
Ovalbumin- This constitutes 55 per cent of the proteins of egg white.
Conalbumin- This constitutes 13 per cent protein of the egg albumin.
Ovamucoid- It is a glycoprotein.This constitutes about 10 per cent of the egg
white proteins.
Ovomucin- This protein is responsible for the jelly-like character of egg white and
the thickness of the albumin. It contains 2 per cent of the egg white.
Lysozyme- 3.5 per cent of the egg white protein is lysozyme.
Avidin- This protein is 0.05 per cent of the egg white protein. It is composed of 3
components A,B and C.It binds biotin and makes the vitamin unavailable. Avidin
is denatured by heat and cooked eggs do not affect the availability of biotin.
Ovoglobulin- It is a protein consisting of two components G1 and G2 and both are
excellent foaming agents.
Ovoinhibitor- 0.1 per cent of egg protein is made up of ovoinhibitor. It is another
protein capable of inhibiting trypsin and chymotrypsin.
Egg yolk - Egg yolk comprises mostly 25-33 per cent of fat and 15-17 per cent
protein and the remaining water Solid content of yolk is about 50 per cent.The
major proteins in egg yolk are lipoproteins which include lipovitellins and
lipovitellinin.
Lipovitelins- These are high-density lipoproteins comprising 16 to 18 per cent of
egg yolk solids .
Phosvitin- This comprises 5-6 per cent of yolk solids. This is rich in phosphorus
and accounts for 80 per cent of the protein phosphorus of yolk.
Livetin- This comprises 4-10 per cent of yolk solids. This is a water-soluble
protein and is rich in sulphur.
Low-density lipoprotein Low-density lipoprotein of egg yolk has a density of
0.98 .It consists of 74 per cent neutral lipids and 26 per cent phospholipids.
Fat in the egg yolk - It contains triglycerides, phospholipids and lipoproteins.
Lipoproteins are complexed with phospholipids and cholesterol. The main
phospholipids is lecithin. The main fatty acid in the triglycerides of the egg yolk
are oleic, palmitic and linoleic and stearic in order.
Mineral and vitamins - There is a strong relationship between the mineral content
of the hen’s diet and the concentration of minerals in the egg. Calcium is the most
abundant mineral in the whole egg but it is concentrated in the shell. Important
minerals such as phosphorus, iron, zinc and other trace elements are present in the
egg. Egg is a rich source of biologically available zinc. Egg iron is bound to
conalbumin and poorly absorbed in man. Except for vitamin C which is totally
absent in the egg. Other water-soluble as well as fat-soluble vitamins are present in
the egg in appreciable amounts. Egg is particularly rich in vitamin A, riboflavin,
folic acid and B12.The amount of these vitamins in the egg depends upon these
nutrients present in the feed of the bird.
Coagulation in egg –When the egg is heated, heat breaks the intermolecular
forces andthetertiary structure gets broken The proteins unfold from their nature
of Upon heating the egg proteins are denatured and then gradually aggregate to
form a three dimensional network. The network is established by cross bonds that
include disulphide linkage and hydrogen bonding. Egg white coagulates at 60 oC
o
or 140 C and yolk coagulate at 65 oC. Heating of egg much beyond this
temperature shrinks and toughens the coagulum of the white.
Factors affecting coagulation of egg protein:
1. Concentration-The temperature at which egg proteins coagulate and the time
required for coagulation depends in part on the proportion of egg in any mixture.
Dilution of egg increases the temperature at which coagulation occurs.
2. Part of egg used-Egg yolk proteins require a slightly higher temperature for
coagulation than egg white.
3. Intact or stirred-The texture of cogulated egg yolk , when it is cooked intact,is
crumbly and mealy but solid.When the yolk membrane is ruptured and the stirred
yolk is heated ,the texture of resulting gel is firm and rubbery.
4. Time and temperature-The rate of coagulation and the amount of coagulum
formed in a definite time increase with increasing temperature.
5. Effect of other ingredients
a)Sugar-Addition of sugar to an egg mixture elevates the temperature at which
coagulation takes place.
b)Salt-The addition of salt to an egg mixture lowers the temperature at which
coagulation takes place.
c)Acids-Any acid material added to an egg mixture coagulate more rapidly and
produces a firmer gel and lower the coagulation temperature of mixture.

d) Starch –It is better to bring the starch mixture to its maximum thickness before
adding the uncooked egg, because coagulation and gelatinization temperatures of
egg and starch differ.
Uses of egg
 Eggs are used as boiled, scrambled or poached for table use.
 Used as thickening agent eg. Soups ,puddings.
 Used as emulsifying agent eg. Ice-cream
 Leavening agent in cakes
 Binding and coating agent in cutlet , French toast or Bombay toast.
 Interfering substances-ice-cream
 Clarifying agent in hot coffee
 Garnishing agent
 Flavouringagent
 10. Enriching agent
 Glazing agent
 Improve color
Quality of egg
Egg is an excellent food and hence its quality is of very great importance. Fresh
egg have best quality. Quality of egg cab be determined by many factors.
Size: By weight we can find out the quality. The normal weight of an egg is 40-
70g. the weight depend on the inheritance, stage of laying, season of laying, age,
diet and health of the bird.
Shell: The factors to be considered are its strength, porosity and cleanliness. The
strength of the shell depends upon its thickness which in turn depends on the
nutrition of the bird. The texture of the shell does not affect the quality of inner
content. Weak shells, rough handling results in damage to the shell. Good egg
should be unbroken.
Air cell: As the quality of the egg deteriorates the size of the air cell increases
duce to loss of moisture through the cell in warm dry atmosphere.
Egg white: A fresh egg when broken on to a plate stands up in rounded form due
to the viscosity of the thick portion of the egg white that surrounds the yolk. As
egg deteriorates the percentage of the thin white increases.
Egg yolk: In deteriorated egg, the yolk also takes up water the white and the yolk
membrane i.e., vitelline membrane stretches and when broken on to a plate the
deteriorated egg flattens and tends to spread over the plate.
Candling – The quality of egg in the shell is evaluated by candling. The egg is
held against a source of strong light .Candling will reveal
1. A crack in shell
2. The size of air cell
3. The firmness of albumin
4. The position and mobility of albumin
5. The presence of foreign substances like blood spots, moulds and
developing embryo.
Floating in water-If the sinks it is considered as good. Poor quality eggs float due
to increase in size of the air cell and due to loss of moisture.
Chapter No 8
Beverages and Appetisers

A beverage is composed chiefly of water used as drink for the purpose of relieving
thirst and introducing fluid to the body, nourishing the body, and stimulating or
soothing the individual. Appetiser is a small portion of food or drink served
ahead of the meal to stimulate the appetite. Appetisers create a desire for more
food. Appetisers can be beverages or snacks.
Beverages can be classified according to their function in the body. A particular
beverage may have more than one function.
1.Refreshing: Plain water, carbonated beverages, fruits juices and butter milk.
2. Nourishing: Milk, milk shakes, eggnogs, fruits juices
3. Stimulating: Coffee, tea, chocolate beverage.
4. Soothing: Warm milk and hot tea.
5. Appetising: Soups and fruit juices
1. Convenience food, or processed food, is commercially prepared food created as
an easy way to get and consume. Most convenience foods provide little to no
nutritional value and have excessive amounts of sodium, sugar, and saturated fats.
While everyone should avoid these types of foods, it is highly recommended for
individuals with health conditions like heart disease, hypertension, or diabetes to
avoid these foods altogether.
2. Processed foodsare also loaded with preservatives (MSG for example),
unnatural coloring, added flavoring, and other unappetizing substances. If
consumed regularly over time, such foods can quickly begin to harm a person’s
health, which can contribute to serious health issues, for example – obesity,
diabetes, heart disease, cancers, and strokes.
The craving for processed food is more contributed to its added flavours and
textures than the food itself. Convenience foods are developed with excessive
amounts of salt and fats to give you a sensory overload to get you hooked, thus
addicted to the need for its satisfying taste. The body’s ability to digest these foods
can be difficult, as convenience food become modified when processed. Processed
foods typically lack micronutrients which are required in trace amounts for the
normal growth and development of living organisms. Micronutrients, more
commonly known as vitamins and minerals, play an important role in your health
by keeping your internal systems functioning properly. They include such vitamins
and minerals as vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, and B-
vitamins, and minerals including magnesium, iodine, sodium, zinc, and copper.
Below is a list of popular convenience/processed foods:
 Packaged chips
 Canned vegetables
 Bread
 Commercialized fruit juices
 Salt, sugar, flour
 Frozen meals/pre-packaged foods
 Items from fast-food menus
Now, here is a list of healthy whole foods to replace some of these popular
convenience food:
 Instead of packaged chips like potato chips, make your own chips or fries from
whole organic russet potatoes or sweet potatoes at home. Simply thinly slice or
wedge cut potatoes, add a little bit of olive oil, toss, and bake. awesome recipe
for homemade potato fries? Buy fresh, seasonal produce instead of canned.
Use a juicer or squeeze your own fruit or vegetable juices! Doing this will not
only provide your body with rich nutrients, but it will also give you a healthy
boost of energy to go about your day. When juicing fresh fruits and vegetables,
it is advised that you use organic whenever. Opening a pre-packaged frozen
meal at home still makes it a processed meal. Many households these days are
crunched for time and it seems as though cooking at home has been shoved to
the sidelines. Instead of buying frozen meals, set aside some time on your
 weekends or available time to make healthy homemade meals to portion out
into freezer containers for the entire week.

3. Frozen foods preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten.
Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved their grains and
produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down
decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most
bacterial species. Preserving food in domestic kitchens during the 20th and 21st
centuries is achieved using household freezers. Accepted advice to householders
was to freeze food on the day of purchase. Frozen products do not require any
added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of
the food is below −9.5 °C (15 °F), which is sufficient on its own in preventing
food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even
lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless
stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the
quality of the product.
4. Dried and dehydrated foods are more concentrated than any other form of food
stuff which minimises the post harvest losses, stability of prices and availability round
the year.
5. Ready to eat food are a boon to this busy society. They are tasty and delicious
foods that are half way processed and you need to just heat it or do nominal things
and your food will be ready in minute. Soups, Frozen Veg Food, Fryums
&Papad, Cooking Pastes & Powders

Ready-to-eat foods are foods you don't need to cook food that has already been
cooked. You store these on your pantry shelf, or in the refrigerator or freezer, until
you are ready to use them. Although ready-to-eat food is convenient, some require
special handling to ensure food safety. These are particularly convenient when you
need a quick snack and you don't want to spend time in the kitchen.
Chapter No 9
MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

All mammals produce milk after the birth of the young ones and man uses
milk of many animals as his food, cow, buffalo and goat milk is usually used. Milk
is a complex mixture of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins and many other organic
compounds and inorganic salts dissolved or dispersed in water. The composition of
milk varies with the species breed, diet, lactation period and interval between
milking.
Milk Fat –Buffalo’s milk contain 6.5 per cent fat .Cow´s milk contain 4.1 percent
fat. The flavour of milk is due to milk fat .Milk is a true emulsion of oil in water.
Carotenes are responsible for the yellow colour of milk.

MILK PROTEINS
Casein –Casein constitutes 80 percent of the total nitrogen in milk. It is
precipitated on the acidification of milk to Ph 4.6 at 20° c. The remaining whey
protein constitutes Lacto globulin and lactalbumin. Milk protein contains.
Milk sugar: Milk contains 4-5 per cent carbohydrates. The chief carbohydrate of
milk is lactose. When milk is heated, lactose reacts with protein and develops a
brown colour. The development of brown colour is due to non enzymatic
browning. It is called mailed reaction.
Salts: Chlorides, phosphates, citrates, sulphates and bicarbonates of sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium are present. Milk contains trace elements like
zinc, aluminium, molybdenum and iodine.
Colour: White colour of milk is caused by the reflection of light by the colloidal
dispersed casein, calcium and phosphorus. Yellowish colour of milk is due to the
presence of carotene and riboflavin is water soluble which can be visible. Clearly
is whey water.
Flavour and Aroma: Milk is slightly sweet because of its lactose content. Flavour
sensation in month is due to fat protein and some of the salts such as calcium
phosphate.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK

Physically, milk is a dilute emulsion, colloidal dispersion and true solution.
Acidity: Fresh milk has a pH of about 6.5-6.7 at 25°c. As milk stands exposed to
air, its acidity decreases slightly because of the loss of carbon dioxide. Raw milk,
which normally contains some lactic acid producing bacteria gradually increase in
acidity on storage. Pasteurisation destroys lactic acid bacteria.
Viscosity: Viscosity depends on the amount of fat, size of fat globules and the
extent of clustering of the globules. Homogenisation is ageing increase the
viscosity.
Freezing point: The freezing point of milk is -0.55°c.
Boiling point: Milk boils at 100.2°c at which temperature all organisms are
destroyed. Milk has good quality protein and biological value is over 90. Milk is
poor source of iron. But whatever little iron is present, it is utilized in the body
milk is not a good source of niacin but is an excellent source of tryptophan milk is
a very poor source of vitamin C.
Processing of Milk
It helps to produce milk that has initial low bacterial count, good flavour and
satisfactory
Keeping qualities. There are three operations of milk processing and they are
clarification, pasteurization and homogenization.
Clarification-Milk is passed through a centrifugal clarifier. The speed is adjusted
in such a way that cream is not separated but girt, filth and cells from the udder
and bacteria are removed.
Pasteurization –Pasteurization derives its name from the French scientist Louis
Pasteur, who found that heating of milk to a temperature which destroys organisms
responsible for tuberculosis and fever and nearly all the other microorganisms
present in that product without seriously affecting the composition or properties of
the product. Pasteurization is a process which consists of heating milk to certain
temperature for a definite time to ensure destruction of pathogenic bacteria. At
present Pasteurization is considered as an essential feature in the manufacture of
butter, ice-cream and cheese. Pasteurization of milk destroys about 99 percent of
the bacteria. It also inactivates some of the natural enzymes like lipase and
improves the keeping quality of milk. There are three methods used to pasteurize
milk.
1. Holding Method-Milk is heated to 62.7°c and held at that temperature for 30
minutes.
2. Higher temperature Short time method (HTST)-Milk is heated to 72° c for
15 seconds. This method does not impart cooked flavour.
3. Ultra High Temperature process (UHT)- Milk is heated to 149.5°c or more
for one second. This helps in storing milk for long period retaining its palatability
and protecting it forgetting spoil.
Homogenization –The process of making a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk
serum by mechanical treatment and rendering the mixture homogeneous is
homogenization. This is achieved by passing warm milk or cream through a small
aperture under high pressure and velocity.
Sterilization-Milk is heated to a high temperature of 148.8°c and held for 2 to 3
seconds at that temperature. The milk is then aseptically packaged, usually in tin
cans or tetra packs. Sterile milk is very useful when refrigeration is not available.
Milk products
1Curd- It is the major product obtained from milk in India. In the preparation of
curd, milk is boiled and cooled to the 35 to 40°c temperature and curd is added as
starter from an earlier batch. Various species of lactobacillus and streptococcus
micro- organisms present in the starter curd multiply and convert lactose of milk to
lactic acid which gives sour taste to curd.
Increased acidity results in casein coagulation. After 6 to 12 hours, depending on
the climatic conditions, a smooth homogeneous curd is formed. The quantity of
starter depends upon the season of the year and severity of the climate. Curd is
used in preparation of lassi, buttermilk and salad dressing, etc.
2 chakka- Curd is tied up in a muslin cloth. All the water is allowed to drain out
by ranging it for about 4 to 6 hours. The solid mass that remains in the muslin
cloth is known as chakka. It is used for making shrikhand.
3 Cheese- Cheese is made by coagulating milk with acid or rennin or both,
drawing off the whey and processing of curd. Cheese is used in preparation of
sandwich, pizza and pastas.
4 Paneer- This is obtained by acid coagulation of milk. Milk is coagulated by
adding 1 percent citric acid, lemon juice or vinegar to hot milk. Solid coagulum
containing casein is formed and the liquid which separates is called as whey.
Paneer is obtained by pressing the coagulum and removing the whey. It is used in
preparation such as paneer paratha, paneer pulao, palak paneer and sweets like
rasgulla and rasmalai.
5 Buttermilk- It is obtained by adding water to curd and churning it or as a by
product in the process of preparation butter. Buttermilk is used for the preparation
of kadhi and lassi.
6 Khoa- Milk is boiled in a small shallow, round bottomed iron pan stirring
continuously is a circular motion with a scraper. During this process, whey
proteins coagulate due to heat. On cooling, it solidifies. The yield is about 20 per
cent of the weight of the milk used. It is slightly brown in colour, has a sweet taste
and a pleasant odour. Khoa is used in preparation of various sweets like pedha,
sandesh, gulabjamun, carrot halwa and others.
7 Cream- Milk fat is separated from milk by centrifugation is called cream. Cream
is used for making butter. It contains 25 to 40 percent fat.
Fats and oils
Fat is present naturally in many foods. This fat is referred to as invisible fat.
Examples of foods containing appreciable quantities of invisible fat include meat,
poultry, fish, dairy products, eggs, nuts and seeds. Visible fats are made from these
products. They are lard, cooking oils, salad oils, margarine and butter. Fat play a
variety of roles in both food preparation and nutrition. Fats that have relatively
high melting point and are solid at room temperature are called fats, where as those
that have lower melting points are liquid at room temperature are called oils. Fats
contain fatty acids, palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acid.
Nutritive value
1 They are concentrated source of energy. All fats give 900 kilocalories per 100
gm of fat
2 They reduce bulk in diet.
3 They are excellent source of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. Vegetable oils
are good source of vitamin E.
4 They provide essential fatty acids which are components of members of living
cells.
5 Fats are slow in leaving the stomach and hence retard digestion. They delay the
pangs of hunger.
Rancidity
Rancidity implies development of undesirable odour and flavour in fats and oils.
Fats and oils get rancid in two ways.
1 Hydrolysis- is brought about by enzymes that decompose fats into free fatty
acids and glycerol. Butyric and caproic acids which are the volatile fatty acids
predominating in butter are largely responsible for the odour and flavor of rancid
butter. These acids may render butter inedible even when they are present in low
concentration. Long chain fatty acids such as stearic and palmatic, oleic do not
usually produce a disagreeable flavor unless other changes such as oxidation also
occur. Heating thoroughly to destroy the lipase enzyme that catalyses the
hydrolytic rancidity. Contaminating micro organisms may also produce lipase and
there can similarly be destroyed with sufficient heating.
2 Oxidation- Only unsaturated fat and foods which have lipoxyenase are
susceptible to oxidative changes. Highly hydrogenated and saturated fatty acids are
relatively resistant to oxidation. Hydro peroxides that are formed, break readily
producing smaller volatile substances that give the characteristics odours of rancid
fat.

Prevention of rancidity
1) Storage at refrigerator and freezing temperature
2) Rays of light catalyse the oxidation of fats. By use of coloured glass containers
that absorb the active rays, fats can be protected against spoilage. Certain shades of
green bottles and wrappers are effective in preventing rancidity.
3) Vacuum packaging also helps to retard the development of rancidity by
exchanging oxygen
4) Antioxidants naturally present in the food such as vitamin C, beta carotene and
vitamin E protect against rancidity.
5) Antioxidants can also be added like butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), butylated
hydroxy toluene (BHI), tertiary butyr hydroquinone (TBHQ) and propyl gallate.
6) Substances like citric acid may be used along with antioxidants in foods.

Factors affecting absorption of fat during cooking

A number of factors affect the amount of fat absorbed during frying.
1. Fat absorption is proportional to the surface area of the product ,when all other
factors are kept constant.
2. The time of cooking affects the fat absorption. Absorption increases with longer
cooking period.
3. Foods which harden at frying temperature may not absorb more fat with longer
cooking period
4. Temperature of cooking affects fat absorption indirectly .If a food is added to
frying medium, before it reaches the desired temperature, it needs to be fried for
longer time to reach the stage of doneness and hence may absorb more fat.
5. The composition and nature of food affects the amount of fat absorbed. Hard
wheat flour show less fat absorption as compared to soft wheat flour.
6. When sugar or water is added to the recipe more fat is absorbed.

Meat
The term meat refers to muscle of warm blooded four legged animals. The
chief ones being cattle, sheep and pigs. Meat also include the glands and organs of
the these animals.
Structure of meat
An individual muscle is made up of muscle up of muscle fibres. The muscle
is surrounded by a connective tissue sheet, the epimysium. The connective tissue
surrounding the bundles, the perimysium, varies in thickness between and within
the muscles.
The individual muscle fibre within the bundles are also enclosed in a connective
tissue framework the endomysium. Muscle fibres do not increase in number after
the animal in born but the individual fibres grow larger by increase in number of
myofibrils. Within and between the muscles fatty deposit occurs. The sheaths
which enclose the fibre are sarcolemma and the spaces between the fibrils are
filled with sarcoplasm.
Animals mainly utilise for food include cattle (bovine), sheep (ovine) and
swine (porcine).
Classes of meat and related products
Veal- It is meat from cattle slaughter 3 to 4 weeks after birth.
Beef- Meat of cattle over one year old.
Mutton- Flesh of young ovine animals of both sexes whose age is 12 months or
under.
Yearling mutton- Carcasses of young sheep usually from 12 to about 20 months
old are termed yearling mutton.
Mature mutton- Flesh of both the male and female of ovine species that are 20
months in age at the same time of slaughter.
Pork- It is the meat of swine.
Organ meats- liver, kidney, heart, thymus, pancreas, and brain
Sausages- Made of ground or minced meat and are enclosed in casings.

Composition and nutritive value

Proteins of muscles
Intracellular protoplasmic proteins (83-90%). These are involved in contraction of
muscles.
Myosin- 60 per cent protein of thick filaments.
Actin- This is a major protein of thin filaments and constitutes 15-30 per cent of
myofibrils.
Tropomyosine- This is found in thin filaments.
Troponin- A component of contractile system.

Structural proteins (10- 17 %)

Collagen- It is abundant in tendons (a strong band of tissue) attaching a muscle to
a bone.
Elastin- This is tougher than collagen and is a constituent of ligament.
Carbohydrates- These are found only in very small quantities in meat. The
carbohydrates found in meat are glycogen and glucose.
Protein- Meat contains 15 to 20 per cent protein of outstanding nutritive value.
The lean meat contains 20 to 22 per cent protein.
Water- Quantity of water present in meat influences the tenderness, texture and
juiciness of meat.
Fat- The fat content of meat varies from 5 to 40 per cent. Meat fats are rich in
saturated fatty acids. The cholesterol content of meat is about 75 mg per 100 gm.
Minerals- Calcium and magnesium are essential component of contraction-
relaxation cycle. Iron is a part of red pigment and so influences colour. Zinc is also
present in meat. Meat is a good source of iron and phosphorus. Meat also contains
sodium and potassium. Liver is an excellent source of iron.
Vitamins- Meat is an excellent source of some of the vitamins of the B complex.
Liver is rich in vitamin B12 and vitamin A and iron. Meat contains protein-
hydrolyzing enzymes cathepsins and these are responsible for the increase in
tenderness of meat during aging. The colour of meat is due to myoglobin and
haemoglobin. Meat with very little fat tastes insipid (lacking flavour).

Post mortem changes

Just before an animal is slaughtered, the muscles are soft and pliable, but
immediately upon death as metabolism in the cells is interrupted, processes begin
that lead to stiffening of the carcass (dead body of animal) known as rigor mortis.
Aging: If meat held cold for sometime for 1 to 2 days after it has completed after it
has completed rigor mortis, the muscles again becomes soft and pliable with
improved flavour and juiciness which is called resolution of rigor. Some changes
that takes place during the period are known as ageing or ripening. During ageing
there is progressive tenderisation of meat due to denaturation of the muscle
proteins by the interacellular proteolytic enzymes, the cathepsins.
Aging or ripening is done by holding meat at temperature at 0.5 ° to -20° C
in a cold room. Aging may take 1-4 weeks. The best flavour and the greatest
tenderness develop in meat aged from 2 to 4 weeks.
Tenderising : Tenderness is the most desired characteristic in meat. The amount
and distribution of connective tissues and the size of the both muscle fibres and
bundles of fibre determine the tenderness of meat.
There are different methods of tenderising meat. Exercise increases tenderness of
meat.
1. Cold room storage results in the ripening of meat with tendering from the
natural enzymes of meat
2. The mechanical methods of tenderising meat include pounding, cutting,
grinding, needling or pinning and the use of ultrasonic vibrations. Mechanical
methods cut or break the muscle fibres and connective tissues.
3. The art of using enzymes for tendering meat is an old one. Wrapping of meat in
papaya leaves before cooking results in tenderisation. This is the result of the
action of the enzyme papain on meat proteins. Other enzymes used for meat
tenderisation are bromelain from pineapple, ficin from figs, trypsin from pancreas
and fungal enzymes. To achieve uniform tenderness, papain is injected into the
veins of animals some 10 minutes before their slaughter. Tenderising enzymes
remain active until the meat is heated. Papain is inactive at 55° C.
4. Meat may be tenderized by the use of low levels of salts. Salt increases the
water holding capacity of muscle fibres resulting in tenderness and juiciness. Salts
used for tenderising are sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate and sodium and
potassium phosphate.
5. Another method of increasing tenderness in meat is by change in pH Decreasing
or increasing the pH of meat increases hydration and to its tenderness. Soaking
beef for 48 hrs in concentrated vinegar increases its tenderness and juiciness.
6. Exercised animals give tender meat.
Marbling refers to the amount and distribution of fat within the lean is an
important index of quality.
Poultry - The term poultry is applied to all domesticated birds as food and
includes chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys and pigeons. Of these, chicken and turkey
are most commonly used for their meat.
Classification : Poultry is classified on the bases of age. Age influences
tenderness and fat content and this determines the cooking method. The
classification according to Indian standards are as follows.
Broiler of Fryer : Chicken of 8 to 10 weeks of age either sex, having tender meat
with soft, pliable smooth textured skin and breastbone cartilage.
Rooster : A young chicken, usually 3 to 5 month of age, of either sex, having
tender meat with soft, pliable smooth textured skin and breastbone cartilage.
Stewing chicken or fowl : A mature chicken, usually more than 10 months of age,
with meat less tender than that of a roaster and inflexible breastbone tip.
Cock : A mature male chicken, usually over 10 months of age, with coarse skin,
toughened and darkened meat and hardened breastbone tip.
Composition and nutritive value : Poultry meat has high protein content about
25 percent and is comparable in quality and nutritive value to other meats. It
contains all the essential amino acids required for building body tissues. There is
little fat on the meat of young birds, but the fat content is influenced by age and
species of poultry. Chicken fat is more unsaturated than the fat red meat and this
has nutritional advantage. Like other animal tissues, poultry flesh is a good source
of B Vitamins and mineral. The dark meat is lower in fat and calories. Dark meat
supplies more iron than white meat. Skin colour of chicken does not affect
nutritional value, flavour, tenderness or fat content. Because of its high protein to
fat ratio, poultry meat is advantageous to persons who must restrict the intake of
fats.

Fish
Composition and nutritive value : The composition of fish varies. Fish are not
good source of energy because they are not good source of carbohydrate and fat.
Carbohydrate : The shell fish has less fat and more carbohydrate than fin fish
Like meat, fish contain some glycogen in muscle tissues. In the live fish, glycogen
is the source of stored energy. Oysters are notable for their content of glycogen, on
an average of 2-3 per cent.
Protein – Fish is an excellent source of protein due to its quality and quantity they
contain around 20 per cent protein. The biological value of fish protein is 80. Fish
is rich in lysine and methionine hence it has supplementary value with cereals and
pulses.
Fat: Fish contains less amount of fat compared to meat and poultry. Fat percent is
1-2.8 per cent. Fish contains saturated fatty acids (40 per cent) monounsaturated
fatty acids (25 per cent) polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3-25 percent, n-6-10 per
cent) n.3 fatty acids product against cardiovascular disease and essential for the
development and function of brain and prevents inflammation and pain of arthritis.

Ans.: Steaming: This method requires the food to be cooked in steam. This is
generated from vigorously boiling water or liquid is a pan so that the food is
completely surrounded by steam and not in contact with the water or liquid here
the food gets cooked at 100 OC.
Merits: 1. Nutritive value is maintained, 2. Easily digestible, 3. There is less
chance of burning and scorching, 4. It has good flavour and texture, 5. Many foods
can be prepared by this method.
Pressure cooker: The steam is produced within the pan creating pressure this raises
the temperature to above the normal point and shortens the cooking time.
Pressure cooker pans are made up of aluminum or stainless. They vary in size.
Merits: This saves times and energy and nutrition contents of food are preserved
Ans.: A. Moist heat methods: 1.Direct methods:
i. Boiling: The water is heated to a temperature of 100 ᵒC and food is placed in
boiling water.
ii. Simmering: The food is completely immersed in hot water. The temperature
of water is 80ᵒC to 90 ᵒC.
iii. Stewing: This is similar to simmering but less quantity of water is used.
2. Indirect Method:
i. Steaming: Steam is generated by boiling water, so food is exposed to steam at
100ᵒC temperature.
ii. Cooking under pressure: When steam is retained inside the cooking vessel and
is not allowed to escape during cooling, pressure increases. Eg. Pressure cooker.
B. Dry heat method: 1.Rosating 2. Baking 3. Grilling
C. Use of fat: 1. Sauteing 2. Shallow frying 3. Deep frying
D. Microwave cooking
E. Solar cooking
F. Combination method (Braising)

Q.1 What is cooking? Write the advantages of cooking.

Ans.: The processing of subjecting foods to the action of heat is termed as
cooking.
Objectives of cooking: 1. Improves the taste and food quality
2. Destruction of micro-organisms
3. Improves digestibility
4. Increases variety
5. Increases consumption of food
6. Increases availability of nutrients
7. Increases antioxidant value
8. Concentrates nutrients

Food and food Groups

Food is any nourishing substance which is taken into the body, provides energy,
promotes growth and sustains life.
Food Groups
Foods have been classified into different groups depending upon the
nutritive value ,for the convenience of planning diets.
General classification
1. Cereals,Millets,Cereal products- Jowar, wheat, ragi, rice, bajra, maize and
flour made out of these cereals ,puffed rice, rice flakes, semolina, refined
wheat flour ,vermicelli etc.
2. Pulses and Legumes- Bengal gram whole ,black gram whole , green gram
whole , horse gram , lentil whole ,red gram whole, moth beans ,peas, rajmah,
soybean and dals made out of these legumes.
3. Vegetables-
a.Green leafy vegetables-Ambut chukka ,colocasia leaves, curry leaves,
fenugreek leaves, spinach, coriander leaves, shepu, tamarind leaves, mint , drum
stick leaves, Bengal gram leaves , safflower leaves, cabbage ,onion stalks etc.
b.Other vegetables-Ash gourd, bitter gourd , bottle gourd, brinjal ,beans,
cauliflower,cluster beans, cucumber, drumstick, ladies finger, tomato,pumpkin,
ridge gourd, tinda.etc.
c.Roots and Tubers- Carrots, colocasia , onion , potato, sweet potato,
radish , turnip , beet root etc.
4. Fruits- Amla ,apple , banana, grapes , guavas, jack fruit. Lime sweet lime ,
musk melon , watermelon, orange, papaya, pine apple ,
pomegranate,sapota,mango, custard apple, wood apple, ber etc.
5. Milk and milk products-Milk , butter milk , cheese, paneer, khoa, milk
powder.
6. Meat, fish, poultry, Egg
7. Fats and Oil Seeds- Hydrogenated oil (Dalda), cooking oil, ghee butter
8. Nuts and Oil seeds- Almond, areca nut, cashew nut, colconut dry and fresh,
groundnut, linseed, mustard seed, gingelly seed, niger seed.
9. Sugar and jiggery- Sugar, jiggery, honey.
 10. Spices and Condiments- Cardamom, asafoetida , chillies red and green,
coriander seed, cumin seed, ginger, garlic, fenugreek seed, Coves,
omum,nutmeg, poppy seeds, pepper, tamarind pulp, turmeric etc.
Basic Four Classifications
1. Cereals, millets and pulses- jawar, wheat, ragi, rice, bajra, maize and flour
made out of these cereals puffed rice, rice flakes, semolina, refined wheat flour,
vermicelli etc. Bengal gram whole, black gram whole , green fram whole, horse
gram, lentil whole, red gram whole, moth bean, peas, rajmah, soybean and dhal,
made out of these legumes.
Vegetables and Fruits- Ambut chukka ,colocasia leaves, curry leaves, fenugreek
leaves, spinach, coriander leaves, shepu, tamarind leaves, mint , drum stick
leaves, Bengal gram leaves , safflower leaves, cabbage ,onion stalks etc. Ash
gourd, bitter gourd , bottle gourd, brinjal ,beans, cauliflower,cluster beans,
cucumber, drumstick, ladies finger, tomato,pumpkin, ridge gourd, tinda.etc.
Carrots, colocasia , onion , potato, sweet potato, radish , turnip , beet root etc.
2. Fruits Amla ,apple , banana, grapes , guavas, jack fruit. Lime sweet lime , musk
melon , watermelon, orange, papaya, pine apple , pomegranate, sapota, mango,
custard apple, wood apple, ber etc.
3. Milk, milk products and animal foods -Milk , butter milk , cheese, paneer,
khoa, milk powder. Meat, fish, poultry, Egg
4. Oil, Fats and Oil Seeds- Hydrogenated oil (Dalda), cooking oil, ghee butter
Almond, areca nut, cashew nut, colconut dry and fresh, groundnut, linseed,
mustard seed, gingelly seed, niger seed.
Groups Nutrients
Cereals,Millets and pulses Energy, Protein, B-vitamins
Vegetables and Fruits Vitamins, Minerals and fibre
Milk, milk products and animal foods Protein, calcium, Bvitamins
Oil, Fats and Oil Seeds Energy, Protein (Nuts and Oilseeds)
Basic Five Classifications / ICMR Classification.
1. Cereals, grains and products- Jowar, wheat, ragi, rice, bajra, maize and flour
made out of these cereals ,puffed rice, rice flakes, semolina, refined wheat flour
,vermicelli etc.
2. Pulses and Legumes- Bengal gram whole ,black gram whole , green gram
whole , horse gram , lentil whole ,red gram whole, moth beans ,peas, rajmah,
soybean and dals made out of these legumes.
3. Milk and meat products -Milk , butter milk , cheese, paneer, khoa, milk
powder. Meat, fish, poultry, Egg
4. Fruits and Vegetables- Amla ,apple , banana, grapes , guavas, jack fruit. Lime
sweet lime , musk melon , watermelon, orange, papaya, pine apple ,
pomegranate, sapota, mango, custard apple, wood apple, ber etc.
a.Green leafy vegetables-Ambut chukka ,colocasia leaves, curry leaves,
fenugreek leaves, spinach, coriander leaves, shepu, tamarind leaves, mint ,
drum stick leaves, Bengal gram leaves , safflower leaves, cabbage ,onion
stalks etc.
b.Other vegetables-Ash gourd, bitter gourd , bottle gourd, brinjal ,beans,
cauliflower,cluster beans, cucumber, drumstick, ladies finger,
tomato,pumpkin, ridge gourd, tinda.etc.
c.Roots and Tubers- Carrots, colocasia , onion , potato, sweet potato, radish ,
turnip , beet root etc.
5. Fats and Sugars : Hydrogenated oil (Dalda), cooking oil, ghee butter, - Sugar,
jaggery, honey.
 Groups
1.Cereals, grains and products
2.Pulses and Legumes-
3.Milk and meat products
4.Fruits and Vegetables-
Green leafy vegetables.
Other vegetables
5.Fats and Sugars
Nutrients
Energy ,protein, invisible fat, thiamin,
folic acid, riboflavin, iron,fibre.
Energy, protein, invisible fat ,thiamin,
folic acid, riboflavin, iron,fibre
Protein, fat, Calcium, riboflavin
Carotenoids, VitaminC, riboflavin
Folic acids,iron, fibre. Calcium.
Energy,essential fatty acids ,fat soluble
vitamins,jaggery has iron.

Classification of food depending on Functions of Food

1. Energy yielding- This group includes foods rich in carbohydrates and also
pure fats. Cereals, roots and tubers, dry fruits ,sugar and fats are the
important energy yielding foods. Cereals provide in addition to energy the
greater part of the protein, certain minerals and vitamins in the diets.One
gram of carbohydrate gives 4 K calories, protein 4 K calories and fat 9 K
calories.
2. Body building : Foods rich in protein are called body building foods. It
includes milk , egg , meat , fish pulses, oil seeds and nuts.
3. Protection and regulation : It includes foods rich in vitamins, minerals
and protein. These foods are called as protective foods.
COOKING AND COOKING METHODS
The process of subjecting foods to the action of heat is termed as cooking.
The objectives of cooking are
1. Improves the taste and food quality : Cooking improves natural flavour and
texture of food. For example roasting of groundnuts, frying onions and papad
,improves flavour. Cooking meat with spices , rice with spices in making
pulav, addition of turmeric, curry leaves, pepper, blend flavour with one
another during cooking. Too much of cooking lowers the flavour as flavouring
compounds are volatile. Over-cooked pulav does not taste as good as well
cooked pulav.
2. Destruction of micro-organisms : Micro –organisms are present everywhere
and some are useful in making curds, cheese and bread. Some are harmful and
cause infections or produce toxin e .g .afla toxin in groundnuts .Cooking food
to the required temperature for a required length of time can destroy all
harmful micro-organisms in food e.g., pasteurized milk. By cooking food is
made safe for consumption .
3. Improves digestibility : Cooking softens the connective tissues of meat and
the coarse fibers of cereals, pulses and vegetables , so the digestive period is
shortened and gastrointestinal tract is less subjected to irritation. Cooking
improves texture ,hence it becomes more chewable and improves digestibility.
4. Increases variety : By cooking same food can made into different dishes. For
example, rise can be made into plain, pulav, lemon rice, briyani, with pulses
and idli. Whenat can be made into chapattis, puri, paratha etc.
5. Increases consumption of food : Cooking improves the texture and makes the
food chewable. Improvement in texture and flavor by cooking increases the
consumption of food to meet our nutritional requirement.’
6. Increases availability of nutrients : Raw egg contains avidin which binds
biotin making biotin unavailable to the body. By cooking, avidin gets
 denatured and biotin is available to the body. Trypsin inhibitors present in
soybean is destroyed by application of heat and quality of protein is improved.
Fruits
Fruits are produced from flowers and they are the ripened ovary or ovaries of a
plant together with adjacent tissues. Fruits are fleshy or pulpy in character often
juicy and usually sweet in taste.
Classification
Fruits are divided into groups depending upon the shape, cell structure, type of
seed or natural habitat
1. Berries- strawberries, gooseberries, blackberries, rasberries, blueberries,
cranberries.
2. Citrus fruits – sweet limes, oranges, sour oranges, lime, lemon , grape fruit.
3. Drupes – Apricot, sweet cherry, peach, plums.
4. Grapes – Green grapes, black grapes, seedless grapes.
5. Melon – Musk melon, water melon.
6. Pomes – Apple, Pears.
7. Tropical and Subtropical Fruits – Amla, avocado, banana, dates, guava,
jack fruit, mango, jambu fruit, papaya, passion fruit, pineapple,
pomegranate, sapota, seetaphal.

Composition and nutritive value

1. Fruits are very poor source & protein and fat. Avocado is the exception
containing 28 per cent fat.
2. Fruits contain high amount of moisture hence they are highly perishable.
They are also good source of fibre .
3. Fruits are not very good sourced of calories. Fruits like bananas give good
amount of calories. Ripe fruits contains a higher percentage of sugar that
uripe does and the sugar is chiefly in the form of sucrose, fructose and
glucose.
 4. Generally fruits are poor source of iron. Seethaphal is also a good source of
iron.
5. Mangoes are the excellent source of carotenes. Papaya, oranges are good
source of B. Carotenes.
6. Guavas are the best source of Vitamin C. Amla is the richest source of
Vitamin C.
7. Apples, Pears, Cherries, Grapes and Citrus fruits contain flavonoids which
acts as antioxidants.

Pigments in Fruits
Like vegetables fruits also contain different pigments.
1. Chlorophyll – Guava, Gooseberry, Country apple.
2. Carotenoids - Mango, Papaya, Orange, Watermelon.
3. Anthocyanins – Grapes, blue berries, plums, cherries.
4. Anthoxanthins – Guava, apple, pears, custard apple, banana..
Rancidity
Rancidity implies development of undesirable odour and flavour in fats and oils.
Fats and oil get rancid in two ways
1. Hydrolysis : Hydrolysis is brought about by enzymes that docompose fats
into free fatty acids and glycerol. Butyric and caproic acids which are the
volatile fatty acids qredominating in butter are largely responsible for the
odour and flavor of rancid butter. These acids may render butter inedible
even when they are present in low concentration long chain fatty acids such
as stearic and palmatic, oleicadids do not usually produce a disagreeable
flavor uneless other changes such as oxidation also occur. Heating
thoroughly to deotroy the lipase enzyme that catalyses the hydrolyses of
triglycerides should prevent hydrolytic rancidity. Contaminating micro-
orgamises may also produce lipase and there can similarly be destroyed with
sufficient heating.
 2. Oxidation - Only unsaturated fat and foods which have Lipoxygenase are
susceptible to oxidative changes. Highly hydrogenated and saturated
fattyacids are relatively resistant to oxidation. Hydro peroxides that are
formed break. Readily producingsmaller volatile substances that give the
characteristies odours of rancid fat
Prevention of rancidity

1. Storage at refrigerator and freezing temperature.

2. Rays of light catalyse the oxidation of fats by use of colored

Leavening Agents
Leavening:
Raising or lightening by air, steam or gas (carbon dioxide). The food
material become porous texture and light in weight. The agent for generative gas in
dough or batter in usually yeast or baking powder flour mixtures are leavened to
make product that in light and porous. This is done in flour mixtures by the
incorporation or formation is the product of a gas that expands during preparation
and subsequent heating.
There are three major leaving gases. Air, Water, Vapour or steam and
carbon dioxide. The leavening action in cakes is achieved by three means.
1. Mechanical aeration : When fat is whipped with sugar or flour the mixture
is filled with minute air cells, which expand under the action of heat giving
volume to the product.
2. Chemical aeration : Baking powders of various types, when moistened with
water and heated evolve carbon dioxide gas, which expands during baking
and imparts volume to cakes.
3. Vapour pressure: Water which is evenly distributed in the batter, forms
vapour under the action of heat. The water vapour exerts pressure as a result
of which cakes are leavened.