SRI SAKTHIKAILASH WOMENS COLLEGE,SALEM

NUTRITION AND DIETETICS

SEMESTER II

SUBJECT - FOOD SCIENCE

PAPER CODE:19UNDO2
 CORE II - FOOD SCIENCE

UNIT-I

Food: Definition, functional classification, groups (4,5,7 and 11), food pyramid.

Cooking: Definition and objectives; Methods- Moist heat methods, dry heat methods,
combination of both and micro wave cooking; Effect of cooking on nutrients.

Beverages: Classification; Coffee beverage- Constituents and method of preparation;

Tea-Types, preparation; Cocoa- Composition, nutritive value and preparation of cocoa
beverage; Fruit beveragesTypes; Introduction to vegetable juices, milk based beverages,
malted beverages, carbonated non alcoholic beverages and alcoholic beverages.

UNIT-II

Cereals and millets: Structure, composition and nutritive value of rice, wheat and oats;
Nutritive value of maize, jowar, ragi and bajra.

Cereal cookery: Effect of moist heat- Hydrolysis, Gelatinisation and factors affecting
gelatinization, gel formation, retrogradation and syneresis; Effect of dry heat; Role of
cereals in cookery.

Pulses: Composition, nutritive value, toxic constituents; Pulse cookery- Effect of

cooking, factors affecting cooking quality, role of pulses in cookery, germination and its
advantages.

UNIT-III

Milk and milk products: Composition and nutritive value of milk; Milk cookery- Effect
of heat, effect of acid and effect of enzymes;

Milk products- Non fermented and fermented products (does not include preparation);
Role of milk in cookery.

Egg: Structure, composition, nutritive value; Egg cookery- Effect of heat, factors
affecting coagulation of egg proteins and effect of other ingredients on egg protein; Role
of egg in cookery; Home scale method for detecting egg quality.

Meat: Classification, composition, nutritive value, rigor mortis, ageing and tenderizing;
Meat cookeryChanges during cooking.

Poultry: Classification, composition and nutritive value.

Fish: Classification, composition, nutritive value, selection and principles of fish cookery.
UNIT-IV

Vegetables: Classification (nutritional), composition, nutritive value; Pigments in

vegetables- Water soluble and water insoluble; Enzymes, flavor compounds and bitter
compounds;

Vegetable cookery: Preliminary preparation, changes during cooking, loss of nutrients

during cooking, effect of cooking on pigments, role of vegetables in cookery.

Fruits: Classification, composition, nutritive value, ripening of fruits; Browning- Types

and preventive measures.

Spices: General functions, role in cookery; Medicinal value of commonly used spices.

UNIT-V

Fats and oils: Composition and nutritive value, basic knowledge about commonly used
fats and oils (lard, butter, margarine, cotton seed oil, ground nut oil, coconut oil, soya
bean oil, olive oil, rice bran oil, sesame oil, rape seed oil, mustard oil and palm oil);

Spoilage of fat- Types and prevention; Effect of heating, role of fats and oils in cookery.

Sugar and related products: Nutritive value, characteristics and uses of various types of
sugars; Sugar cookery- Crystallization and factors affecting crystallization; Stages of
sugar cookery; Role of sugar in cookery.

UNIT I

DEFINITIONS

1. Food is defined as anything solid or liquid which when swallowed, digested and
assimilated, nourishes the body.
2. Food science: Food is a mixture of many different chemical components. The
study of food science involves an understanding of the changes that occur in these
components during food preparation whether natural or included by handling
procedures. Many physical and chemical reactions occur during food preparation. These
reactions may be result of the interaction between components, with the medium of
cooking, study of food science also includes understanding the nutritive value of
different foods and methods of preserving them during cooking. This information
provides a foundation of theory and method on which to build the study of food
preparation.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION:

Foods are classified according to their functions in the body.

Energy yield:
This group includes foods rich in carbohydrate, fat and protein. One gram of carbohydrate give
4 calories. One gram of protein give 4 calories. One gram of fat give 4 calories.

This group may be broadly divided into two groups.

1. Cereals, pulses, nuts and oilseeds, roots and tubers: Cereals provide in addition to energy
large amounts of proteins, minerals and vitamins in the diet. Pulses also give protein and B
vitamins besides giving energy to the body.Nuts and oil seeds rich in energy, fats and
proteins.Roots and tubers mainly provide energy and they also contribute some vitamin and
minerals.
2. Fats, Oils and pure carbohydrates like sugars: Sugars provide only energy. Fats provide
concentrated source of energy and fat soluble vitamins.

Body Building Foods: 

Foods rich in protein are called body building foods. They are classified into two groups.

1.Milk, egg, meat & fish:They are rich in proteins of high biological value. These proteins
have all the essential amino acids in correct proportion for the synthesis of body tissues.

2.Pulses, nuts and oilseeds: They are rich in protein but may not contain all the essential amino
acids required by the human body.

Protective Foods: 

1. Foods rich in protein, vitamins and minerals have regulatory functions in the body like
maintaining the heartbeat, water balance, temperature, etc.
2. Protective foods are broadly classified into two groups. 
3. Foods rich in vitamins and minerals and proteins of high biological value (eg) milk, egg, and
fish. 
4. Foods rich in certain vitamins and minerals only (eg) green leafy vegetables and fruits.

Health maintaining foods:

1. Foods contains certain photochemical and antioxidants which help to preventing

degenerative diseases.
2. Foods play an important role in the prevention of cancers, heart disease and controlling
diabetes mellitus.
3. Some example of functional foods are whole grains, soya bean, green leafy vegetables,
colored fruits and spices.

FOOD GROUPS

 Foods have been classified into different groups depending upon the nutritive value for the
convenience of planning diet.
 Food groups are basic four, five, seven and eleven.
Basic Four Food Groups and their major nutrients:

Food Group Main Nutrients

I.    Cereal, millet and Pulses:
      i) Cereal, millet:  Rice, wheat, Ragi, bajra,
maize, jowar, barley, rice flakes, puffed rice.
  ii) Pulses and legumes: Bengal gram ,
black gram cow pea, peas , rajma, soyabean.
II Milk and animal products: 
i)Milk, curd, skimmed milk, cheese
ii)chicken, egg, meat, liver, fish.
III   Fruits and vegetables:
i)Fruits: Mango, guava,  tomato, papaya,
orange, sweet, lime, watermelon etc.
ii)Vegetables:
a)Green leafy vegetables: Amaranth,
spinach, coreander, leanco, and fenugreek
leaves etc.
b) Other vegetables: Carrots, brinjal, lady
finger,   capsicum, beans, onions drumstick
etc.
 Energy, protein, invisible fat, thiamine,
riboflavin, folic acid, iron, fibre.
Energy, protein, invisible fats, thiamine,
riboflavin folic acid, calcium, iron, fibre
 
Protein, fat, riboflavin, calcium.
Protein, fat,iron
 
Carotenoids, Vitamin C, riboflavin, Iron,
fibre.
Riboflavin, folic acid, calcium, fibre iron,
carotenoids.
 
Carotenoids folic acid, calcium, fibre.

IV.     Oils, Fats, Nuts And Sugar:  

  i) Fats and oils : Butter, ghee, hydrogenated Energy, fat, essential fatty acids
fat Cooking oil etc.
ii) Sugar: Honey and jaggery and sugar. Energy. jaggery has iron.
  iii) Nuts Protein and ω-fatty acids.

FIVE THEIR MAJOR NUTRIENTS. FOOD GROUPS AND NUTRIENTS:

 Food Group Main Nutrients
I.    Cereal grains and products:        
Rice, wheat, Ragi, bajra, maize, jowar, barley, Energy, protein, invisible fat, thiamine,
rice flakes, wheat flour. riboflavin, folic acid, iron, fibre.

II.  Pulses and legumes:

Bengal gram, black gram green gram, red Energy, protein, invisible fats, thiamine,
gram, lentil, peas, rajmah, soyabeans, and riboflavin folic acid, calcium, iron, fibre.
beans.  
III  Milk and meat products:
Milk, curd, cheese, chicken, egg, meat, liver, Protein, fat, Vitamin B2,calcium.
fish.
IV  Fruits and vegetables:
Fruits: Mango, guava,  tomato, papaya, Carotenoids, Vitamin C, Vitamin B2
orange, sweet, lime, watermelon etc. Iron, fibre.
Vegetables: (green leafy):  
Amaranth, spinach, coreander, leanco, and Vitamin B2, folic acid, calcium, fibre iron,
fenugreek leaves etc. carotenoids.
Other vegetables:Carrots, brinjal, lady  
finger,   capsicum, beans, onions etc. Carotenoids folic acid, calcium, fibre.
V.      Fats and Sugar:  
Fats: Butter, ghee, Cooking oil etc. Energy, fat, essential fatty acids Energy.
Sugar:  Honey and jaggery and sugar. Energy and jiggery has got iron
 

BASIC 7 FOOD GROUPS

The USDA introduced during World War II, a nutrition guide promoting the "Basic 7"
food groups in 1943. The USDA's "Basic 7" food groups existed from 1943 to 1956. It helped
to maintain nutritional standards under wartime food rationing.

The Basic 7 food groups included the following:

1. Green and yellow vegetables

2. Oranges, tomatoes, grapefruit
3. Potatoes and other vegetables and fruits
4. Milk and milk products
5. Meat, poultry, fish, or eggs
6. Bread, flour, and cereals
7. Butter and fortified margarine with added Vitamin A

BASIC ELEVEN FOOD GROUPS:

The Basic 11 food group was also recommended by the USDA . The food groups included the
following

1. Pulses
2. Nuts and Oilseeds
3. Cereals and Millets
4. Vegetables
5. Fruits
6. Milk and Milk products
7. Eggs
8. Meat, Fish and Other animal foods
9. Fats and Oils
10. Sugar and Other Carbohydrate Foods
11. Spices and Condiments.

FOOD PYRAMID

Definition A food pyramid is defined as “A food pyramid is a pyramid-shaped diagram

representing the optimal number of servings to be eaten each day from each of the basic food
groups”

Food Pyramid is a visual tool that is used as a guide in designing a healthy diet. It is
developed as a guide to provide a framework for the types and amounts of food that can be
eaten in combination to provide a healthy diet.
 The Indian adaptation of the Food Pyramid is divided into four levels of foods according
to recommended consumption37:

 Cereals ,legumes/beans, dairy products at the base should be eaten in sufficient quantity;
 Vegetables and fruits on the second level should be eaten liberally;
 Animal source foods and oils on the third level are to be eaten moderately; and
 At the apex, highly processed foods that are high in sugar and fat are to be eaten
sparingly.
 One peculiarity of the Indian adaptation of the Food Pyramid is the recommendation to
do regular physical activity.
 The Pyramid provides information on the food types and amounts necessary to meet
daily dietary requirements. Each food group is represented by a band or level. Narrow
bands at the apex indicate lower quantities, while wider bands at the base mean that more
from that food group need to be consumed.
 Most importantly, include plenty of water each day as it’s the most important nutrient of
all, accounting for 70% of our body weight and also helping in the upkeep of our health.
 It is very important that an individual ensures getting appropriate foods and incorporates
the principle of good nutrition such as variety, a balanced intake of nutrients and
moderation. The best way to meet the daily requirements is to eat a varied diet that
combines cereals, fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, poultry, legumes and dairy products.
 Eating a variety of foods daily as guided by the Food Pyramid should provide all the
nutrients needed by the body.
COOKING
  Food preparation helps in combining food ingredients in various ways with delicate
flavours, textures and colour which appeal to the senses.
 Food has to be pleasing in appearance and taste so that it is consumed.
Understanding food behaviour in scientific terms helps in choosing best method of
cooking.
 Food preparation is an important step in meeting the nutritional needs of the family.
 Foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts are eaten raw but most of the foods are cooked
to bring about desirable changes.
 The process of subjecting foods to the action of heat is termed as cooking.

OBJECTIVES :
1. Improves taste and food quality
 Cooking improves natural flavour and texture of food.

2. Improves flavour
 Roasting groundnuts
 Cooking rice and roasting coffee seeds
 Frying onions and papads

3. Improves digestibility

 Cooking softens the connective tissues of meat and coarse fibres of cereals, pulses and
vegetables so that the digestive period is shortened and gastrointestinal tract is less subjected to irritation.
 Cooking improves the texture hence it becomes more chewable.
 Cooking also bursts the starch granules of pulses and cereals so that the starch digestion is
easier, rapid and complete.
 When dry heat is applied to starches they are converted to easily digestible dextrins.
 Cooking increases the access to enzymes and improves digestibility.

4. Adds variety in the diet

 By cooking, some food can be made into different dishes.
 For example rice can be made into plain pulav, lemon rice, biryani, or combination
with pulses and idli.
 Wheat can be made into chapattis, puri, paratha or halwa.
5. Destruction of microoeganism

6. Increases consumption of food

 Cooking improves the texture and makes the food chewable.
Improvement in texture and flavour by cooking increases the consumption of food
to meet our nutritional requirement.
7. Increases availability of nutrients
 Raw egg contains avidin which binds making biotin unavailable to the
body. By cooking avidin gets denatured and biotin is available to the body.
 Trypsin inhibitors present in soyabean and duck egg get denatured on
cooking and availability of protein is improved.
 Toxic substances from kesari dhal can also be removed by boiling it and
throwing away the water.
 Cooking increases the quality of protein by making some aminoacids
available to the body.

8. Increases antioxidant value

Cooked tomatoes are associated with greater health benefits, compared to uncooked,
because the heating process makes lycopene more easily absorbed by the body.
Lycopene – the pigment present in tomatoes – reduces the risk of some cancers.

9. Cooking concentrates nutrients

Cooking concentrates nutrients by removing moisture or by using combination of
foods or due to cooking procedures. Ex. Sweets.
COOKING METHOD
Heat may be transferred to the food during cooking by conduction, convection,
radiation or by the energy of microwaves (electronic heat transfer).
Classification of cooking methods is given in table.
Table Classification of cooking methods
 Moist heat Dry heat Combination

methods

Boiling  Roasting  Braising

Simmering
Poaching Grilling/broiling
Stewing Toasting
Blanching Baking
Steaming Sautéing
Pressure cooking Frying
 Poaching: This involves cooking in minimum amount of liquid at a temperature of 80-
850C that is below the boiling point. Foods generally poached are eggs, fish and
fruits. For poaching eggs, the addition of little salt or vinegar to the cooking liquid
lowers the temperature of coagulation. Eggs get cooked quickly by poaching.

Advantages
 Very quick method of cooking.
 Easily digestible since no fat is used.
Disadvantages

 ItBEVERAGE
is bland in taste.
 MOIST HEAT METHOD:
Water-soluble nutrients may be leached into water.

Boiling
 Many liquids or liquorous foods, such as coffee,tea, cocoa, soft drinks and
Stewing: This is a gentle method of alcohol cooking
containing in adrinks
pan with areaconsidered
tight-fittingaslid, using small
beverages. Soft drinks are non-
quantities of Boiling
liquid toiscover
cookingonlyfoods
alcoholichalf beverages
the food.immersing
by just The food them
containing above inthe
syrup, liquid
water is cooked
at 100°C
essences andby
or fruit the
maintaining
concentrate the
thatwater
are at
steam generated within the pan.
that temperature till The
the liquid
food is is brought
tender. Waterto a boiling point
is said to be and
boiling then
mixed with water or carbonated water. The basis of all alcoholic drinks is whenthe heat
large bubbles are seen
applied is reduced to maintain
rising constantly onthe
ethyl the cooking
surface
alcohol orat
of simmering
the liquid
simple temperature
and
alcohols. then breaking i.e., 98°C. Stewing
rapidly.. Boilingis points of water is
also method of100°Ccooking taking
and alter at from
high 2 to 4
altitudes hours
and depending
in the presence upon of
 A beverage is composed chiefly of water used as a drink for thethe nature and
electrolytes. volume of thepurpose of
foods being stewed.The larger cooking time and lower temperature enable tougher meat fibres
to become soft. WhenThefoods
cookingarerelieving
cooked
of meat by
thirst and introducing
andboiling,
vegetables the food
together
fluidbetobrought
should the body, to anourishing
make the dish attractive vigorous the body, and
andboil first and the
heat no
nutritious since is then
liquid is stimulating
turned down, asor
discarded. smoothing
violent boilingthethroughout
individual.tends to break the food. The temperature of
the water cannot be increased any further after it begins to boil. Continued vigorous boiling results
in excessive evaporation of water and waste of fuel and foods are likely to get burnt at the bottom
Classification
Steaming:This method requires
and form a dry crust atthe thefood to be cooked When
top.Simmering: in steam. foods This
areiscooked
generated
in afrom
pan with a well-fitting lid
vigorously boiling water
at temperature or liquid
just below in a pan so that the food is completed surrounded by the
Beverages maythe boiling point
be classified according 82-99°Ctoof the function
their liquid in inwhich they
the body. are
A immersed the
steam andprocess
not in contact
is known with
as the water orItliquid.
simmering. is a The water should be
useful method when boiled
foods before
have to bethe food for a long
cooked
particular beverage may have more than one function.
is placed time
in thetosteamer.
make it Here
tenderthe as food
in thegetscasecooked at 100°C.
of cheaper cuts of Steaming is generally
meat, fish, done in kheer,
cooking custards,
special equipment
vegetablesdesignated
and carrotfor
Refreshing the purpose
halwa. e.g., Idlialso
This method is cooker and Rukmani
employed in makingcooker.
soupsThere are
and stocks.
three types of steaming.
Advantages  Plain water
1. Wet steaming 
 Carbonated beverages not containing fruit juices
Here the steam  is in direct contact
Foods with
get the food
cooked e.g., idli.
thoroughly.
Dry steaming  Fruit juices
2.  Scorching or burning is prevented.
Here double boiler is used for Iced tea
cooking
Losses due totheleaching
food. Double boiling is
arelime
minimum. cooking in a container

over hot or boiling water. Butter
This milk
process with
is used salt and
for such juice
preparations as sauces
Disadvantages
Nourishing
and custards where temperature below boiling point are desirable. The food is placed in an
utensil which is kept in another There utensil
is losscontaining water. nutrients,
of heat sensitive When thedue water
to is heated
long or of cooking.
period
boiled the food 
getsmore Milk
cooked. and more fuel are required.
Takes
3.  time
Waterless steaming: Photographs
In steaming, food is cooked by steam from added water while

in waterless cooking the steam originates Pasteurised,
from the skimmed, evaporated,
food itself. Cookingdried,
food malted
wrapped in an
aluminium foil is another Butter milk
form of waterless cooking. In this case there is an advantage of

preventing the transmission Chocolate
of the flavour from andorcoco
to the sealed food.
Recipes made by steaming  are idli,Milkdhokla, shakes
rice or ragi puttu, idiappam. Appam, kolukattai,
undralu and custards.  Puttu Eggsmade from fish or prawn is also made by steaming.
Advantages  Egg nogs made with whisky, rum, brandy etc.
 Fruit juices
 It does not require
 constant
Coffeeattention.
 or chocolate
 Nutritive value is maintained
Glucosebecause there is no leaching and cooking time is less.
 Easily digestible  sinceLemonade
not much fat is added. It is good for children and patients.
 There is less chance for burning and scorching or overcooking.
 In double boilers sudden increase in temperature in making custards and overflow of
milk can be avoided.
 Texture of food is better and become light and fluffy.
 Steamed foods have good flavour.
Disadvantages

 Special equipment is required.

 Many foods cannot be prepared by this method, e.g., cooking whole grains.
Stimulating

 Egg nogs made with whisky, brandy

 Coffee or tea
 Cocoa or chocolate beverage.
Soothing

 Warm milk
 Hot tea
Appetising

 Soups
 Fruit juices and
 Alcoholic drinks in limited quantity.
Coffee

Coffee is an important beverage used all over the world. The ripe berries
are used for coffee beverage. Fruit resembles a small cherry with dark red
purple cover. The fleshy mucilaginous pulp of fruit encloses two oval
greenish grey seeds or beans. Each covered by a thin membrane, the silver
skin. Both seeds are enclosed in a common husk like membrane or
parchment.

The important varieties of coffee grown in different countries are

 Coffee Arabica
 Coffee Robusta and
 Coffee Liberica
Of these, Arabica and Rubusta varieties are cultivated in India.

Processing

Coffee processing consists of removing the skin, pulp, parchment and

silver screen. The quality of the final product depends upon
 themethod of processing.

Two methods are employed for processing

1. Dry method
In the dry method, the beans are sun dried.

2. Wet method
In the wet method, known as the washed coffee process,
pectin enzymes are used on selectively picked cherries to replace
spontaneous fermentation.

The manufacture of coffee powder involves roasting, grinding,

blending and packing.

1. Roasting:The degree of roasting is one of the important

factors influencing the quality of coffee. The typical coffee aroma
is developed during roasting.

The flavour and aroma of coffee are best when it is freshly roasted

and deteriorate on standing. The flavour is largely due to 2-
thiofuran and its methyl and ethyl esters, together with some other
sulphur compounds. The aroma of coffee is partly attributable to
mercaptans present in the roasted beans.

2. Grinding: The bulk of roasted beans is ground to powder

and sold as ground coffee. Roasted beans are ground to three sizes,
namely, fine, medium and coarse. Coarse ground powder retains
aroma and flavour better and longer than fine ground powder.
3. Blending: Blending of Arabica and robusta in the ratio of
2:1 and addition of roasted chicory root powder at 10 % level to
the blend gives a strong decoction with good aroma.

Strength, flavour, aroma and acidity are the chief criteria in judging
the quality of coffee and judicious blending of different grades
brings out these qualities to the best advantage.

4. Packaging: For larger packs of roasted and ground coffee,

gas packing under carbon dioxide or vacuum is effective. For unit
packs, various flexible films like polyethylene, cellulose films,
high density polyethylene and for short duration storage, the high
density polyethylene is effective.
5. Instant coffee: Instant coffee is made by
dehydrating coffee brew. The steps involved in the manufacture
are
 Extraction of coffee powder
  Dehydration of extract and
 Recovery of volatile flavouring compounds and
their addition to instant coffee.

6. Chicory: Chicory root is chopped, roasted and ground and is

used as a substitute for coffee often blended at 50 percent level. It
gives bitterness and body to the beverage which some people find
refreshing. It is not harmful to the body. It produces a dark
infusion with laxative properties and does not have caffeine.
7. Adulterants of coffee:
 If chicory is added and not mentioned on the label,
it is considered as adulterant.
 Cherry husk is sometimes used as an adulterant.
 Burnt sugar, tamarind seed, used coffee powder
and saw dust are also used as adulterants.

8. Coffee beverage: Coffee is used mainly as a beverage in the

form of aqueous extract prepared from roasted and powdered
beans. Coffee has no food value. The constituents that are of chief
significance in the making of the beverage are caffeine, flavour
substances and bitter substances.
 Caffeine : It is an alkaloid substance producing the
stimulating property. Caffeine stimulates the central nervous
system. It is also a cardiac stimulant. It is a diuretic. It increases
gastric and pepsin secretion. Excessive intake can cause
insomnia.
 Flavour substances: It is the sulphur compounds
that are the main contributors to the flavour. Too long heating
and too high a temperature may destroy all characteristic flavour
and aroma.
 Bitter substances: Polyphenol substances or
tannins are hot water soluble. Hence longer the coffee is
brewed, the greater will be the tannin content and the bitterness
becomes pronounced.
Table: Summary of different methods of making coffee.

Flavour Tannins

Retains well Extracts less

Retains well Extraction is more due to the contact

 with the grounds at a high temperature
for few minutes.

Loss of flavour due to constant aeration of Extraction is more due to recirculation of

the brew as the liquid is forced up and hot water through thecoffee grounds.
sprayed the grounds.

Retains best Extracts less

Tea

Tea (Camellia Sinensis) is an evergreen shrub or tree, which grows wild from India
to China. There are about 45 species of Camellia of which sinensis considered
native to India and is the important one from which tea of commerce is made. Tea
is a beverage prepared by pouring boiling water over dry processed leaves. It is the
most popular refreshing drink in many countries.

Fresh tea leaves contain carotenes, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and ascorbic
acid. But during manufacture of black tea they are lost. No change takes place in
green tea as its manufacturing does not involve fermentation.

Tea as a beverage is consumed for its stimulating effect. The important constituents
of tea contributing to the flavour are caffeine, polyphenols and essential oils.

Antioxidant activity

Polyphenols present in tea have antioxidant activity. Antioxidant activity of tea is

much higher than spinach and other vegetables. A cup of tea supplies around
200mg of flavonoids. The antioxidant potency in a tea is 400 per cent greater than a
cup of orange juice.

Studies have shown that higher the flavonoid intake lower the risk of death from
coronary heart disease.

Types of tea

There are three types of tea depending on the processing of tea leaves. They are
1. Black produced by a fermentation process
2. Green or unfermented tea and
3. Oolong or semi-fermented teas.
Black tea is the most popular among the three.

Black tea

Various processing steps involved in the manufacture of black tea are withering,

rolling, fermentation, drying, grading and packing.

1. Withering
It is carried out by spreading tea leaves thinly on racks or shelves. Air is blown to
make them soft and flexible. They are dried till the moisture content is lowered
to 40 %.

2. Rolling
The withered leaves are then rolled to break open the cells and release the juices
and the enzymes. The flavour characteristic inherent in various teas partially
depends on the technique used.

3. Fermentation
After rolling the leaves are spread out thinly on suitable platforms and allowed to
ferment for 2-6 hours at temperature between 21 and 270 C. Two of the
important polyphenols that undergo oxidative changes are catechin and
gallocatechin. The colour of the leaves changes to black. When the fermentation
has proceeded to the desired degree further change is arrested by drying and
firing.

4. Drying or firing
The fermented leaf is passed through the drier. The leaf is dried at 87.7-93.30 C
for 30-40 min.

5. Sorting and grading
Grading of tea is done according to its size.

6. Blending
Different teas are blended to produce a product with uniform character. Blending
is an art and demands skill and experience.

7. Packing
In India, the blended tea is packed in plywood boxes lined with aluminium foil
and parchment paper.

Green tea

Green tea is produced in Japan. Here withering and fermentation are completely
omitted. It is made by first steaming the leaves to prevent the leaves from changing
colour and to inactivate the enzymes. Steaming is then followed by rolling and
drying. The leaves retain much of its original green colour especially the finer
 leaves. The older leaves often have a blackish gray colour. The beverage made
from green tea has a greenish yellow colour and is distinctly bitter and astringent.

Oolong tea

This has special market in America and almost exclusively produced in Borneo.
Oolong tea is partially fermented. The fermentation period is too short to change
the colour of the leaf completely.

1. Colour of tea
The bright orange colour in black tea beverage is due to theoflavin. The high
phenolic content gives a tea with a high colour.

2. Factors affecting the quality of tea

 The polyphenol and the enzyme content of leaves used
in processing affects the quality of tea. The polyphenol and the enzyme
content is maximum in buds and the first and second leaf and the tea obtained
from these is most desirable.
 The finest tea comes from higher elevations of 900-2100 meters.
 Mechanical pluckers are common in countries with flat land but
tea of high quality are generally produced from leaves that have been hand
plucked.
 Soil in which the plant is grown.
 Best tea comes from plants grown at low temperature where the
air is warm.
 Processing techniques used.
 Orange pekoe has the largest leaves and is the best quality.
Tea is a stimulating and refreshing drink. The principal flavour components of tea
are caffeine, tannin yielding compounds and small amounts of essential oils.
Caffeine provides the stimulating effect, tannin the colour, body and taste to the
extract and the essential oils the aroma.

3. Instant tea
The process consists of the following steps.

 Extraction and concentration of the extract

 Recovery of the volatile flavour components
 Drying of the extract and
 Addition of flavour concentrates to the final product.

4. Adulteration
The commonest adulterants are spent leaves, grit and sand. Leaves of other plants
like agathi, avaral and husk of black gram are used as adulterants.
Green Tea Processing

It is manufactured from fresh leaf which has not been fermented. It depends on arresting
the enzyme activity in green leaf.

Chinese process of green tea manufacture

Fig. 29.1 Green tea processing by Chinese process

  Japanese process of Green tea manufacture

 

Fig. 29.2 Green tea processing by Japanese process 

29.7  Processing for Partially Fermented Tea

The typical processing method adopted for preparing partially fermented tea is shown in
Figure 29.3.
Tea processing for partially fermented tea. 

Cocoa and Chocolate

Cocoa and chocolate are made by grinding the seeds of the pods of the cacao tree
(theobroma cacao).

Processing

Different steps are involved in the processing of cocoa beans.

Composition of cocoa and chocolate

Cocoa is used as a beverage. Chocolate is used mainly as confectionery and small

extent as beverage.
Chocolate contains not less than 50 % and not more than 58 % weight of cocoa fat.
Cocoa may vary in fat content from 10-22 % . The fat of chocolate contributes to
its eating quality because it has a sharp melting point that is close to the body
temperature. This results in rapid melting of chocolate in mouth and release of
flavour substance

Composition

Protein – 11.5 %
Cocoa butter – 54 %
Starch – 9.0 %
Water – 5.0 %

Carbonated Non- Alcoholic Beverages

These beverages are generally sweetened, flavoured, acidified, coloured, carbonated

and sometimes chemically preserved.

Ingredients

Sugar: This is mostly sucrose, which is made into syrup. The finished beverage will
contain about 8 to 14 % sugar. The sugar gives sweetness and calories and body to
the drink.

Flavourings: These come in the forms of synthetic flavour compounds, natural

flavour extracts and fruit juice concentrates. The flavours must be stable under the
acid

ic conditions of the beverage and on exposure to light for a year or more.

Colours: Natural fruit extracts, synthetic colours, particularly the certified coal tar
colours are used. Caramel from burned sugar, a non-synthetic colour is also
commonly used.

Acid: Carbon dioxide in solution contributes to acidity but this is supplemented with

additional acid in most carbonated drinks. The main reason for acidification is to
enhance the beverage flavours. The principal acids used are phosphoric, citric,
fumaric, tartaric and malic acids.

Water: This may be present to the extent of 92%.

Carbon dioxide: The carbon dioxide enhances flavour, contributes acidic

preservative action, produces the tingling effect on the tongue and gives the
sparkling effervescent appearance to the beverage.
 Fruit Beverages

In India, a little over 60 % of fruit produced is used in fruit based beverages. There
are different types of fruit beverages:

Fruit juice: This is a natural juice pressed out of a fresh fruit. This is unaltered in
its composition during preparation andpreservation. Ex. fresh juice and canned
natural fruit juice.

Fruit drink: This is made by liquefying the whole fruit. At least 10 % of the volume
of undiluted drink must be whole fruit. Ex. grape juice, apple juice and mango
juice.

Fruit squash: This is made from strained fruit juice, sugar and preservative. This
contains 25 % fruit juice and 45 % sugar. Ex. mango squash.

Fruit cordial: This is a fruit squash from which all suspended matter is completely
eliminated by filtration or clarification. Clarification is done by the use of
pectic enzymes or finning agents. The finning agents produce a flocculent which
gradually settles carrying down with it colloidal suspension. Clarified juice can be
preserved by using freezing technique, pasteurization or the addition of chemical
preservatives such as sodium benzoate or potassium meta bisulphite. Ex. lime
cordial. Clear juices can be prepared from banana and apple also.

Fruit punch: Fruit punches are made by mixing the desired fruit juices. This
contains 25 % of total fruit juice and 65 % of sugar.

Fruit syrups: In fruit syrup only one type of fruit is used. These are concentrates of
fruit juices preserved with sugar. The fruit is crushed to a coarse puree and left
overnight for fermentation. This concentrates the flavour and causes the juice to
separate from the solids. It is filtered. When this juice is heated with sugar it
transforms into syrup. Proportions of 500 g sugar to ½ pint of juice will make the
syrup of medium strength. It is thinned with water or soda water and served with
ice. Fruit syrups can also be served with milk. To prevent the milk from curdling
milk is poured into the syrup very gradually and the mixture is stirred briskly.

Fruit juice concentrates: This is the fruit juice which has been concentrated by the
removal of water either by heat or freezing or by reverse osmosis.

UNIT II

Grain structure, composition

The rice grain (rough rice or paddy) consists of an outer protective covering, the hull, and the
rice caryopsis or fruit . Brown rice consists of the outer layers of pericarp, seed-coat and
nucellus; the germ or embryo; and the endosperm. The endosperm consists of the aleurone layer
and the endosperm proper, consisting of the subaleurone layer and the starchy or inner
endosperm. The aleurone layer encloses the embryo. Pigment is confined to the pericarp and

The hull (husk) constitutes about 20 percent of the rough rice weight, but values range from 16
to 28 percent. The distribution of brown rice weight is pericarp 1 to 2 percent, aleurone plus
nucellus and seed-coat 4 to 6 percent, germ 1 percent, scutellum 2 percent and endosperm 90 to
91 percent.

The aleurone layer varies from one to five cell layers; it is thicker at the dorsal than at the ventral
side and thicker in short-grain than in long-grain rices . The aleurone and embryo cells are rich
in protein bodies, containing globoids or phytate bodies, and in lipid bodies .

The endosperm cells are thin-walled and packed with amyloplasts containing compound starch
granules. The two outermost cell layers (the subaleurone layer) are rich in protein and lipid and
have smaller amyloplasts and compound starch granules than the inner endosperm. The starch
granules are polyhedral and mainly 3 to 9 ,µm in size, with unimodal distribution. Protein occurs
mainly in the form of spherical protein bodies 0.5 to 4 µm in size throughout the endosperm ),
but crystalline protein bodies and small spherical protein bodies are localized in the subaleurone
layer. The large spherical protein body corresponds to PB -I of Tanaka et al. and the crystalline
protein body is identical to PB-II. Both PB-I and PB-II are distributed throughout the rice
endosperm.

NUTRITIVE VALUE

The nutrient composition of rice bran is given in Table 1. Rice bran is a rich source of proteins,
fats, minerals and micronutrients, such as Bvitamins and trace elements.

Proteins: The protein of rice bran has a higher lysine content and a lower glutamic acid content
than rice and wheat and it has a better balance of essential amino acids with an amino acid score
of 80 per cent with respect to lysine, and 90 per cent with respect to threonine. It is reported to
have a Protein Energy Ratio (PER) value of nearly 2.0.

Carbohydrates and energy: The carbohydrate of bran is a mixture of complex carbohydrates and
starch. Although starch is absent in true bran commercial bran obtained on rice milling contains
starch derived from the rice kernel, the content of which may range from 10 to 25 per cent
depending on the extent of polishing. Rice bran with low levels of available carbohydrate (25 per
cent) and high level of fat (20 per cent) can be considered as a good source of energy when used
as a supplementary food for diabetics. Rice bran with 15 to 20 per cent oil can serve as a good
source of energy and Essential Fatty Acids (EFA). It IS also a commercial source of edible oil.
Minerals: Rice bran is a good source of minerals and trace minerals and is much superior to 5
The native silica derived from rice grain present in edible grade rice bran may presumably help
in bone formation in children and women when rice bran is used as a dietary supplement.

Although the significance of silica in bone metabolism and bone formation has been established
in animals and in vitro studies4.5, its importance for man has yet to be established. Part of the
silica content of edible grade rice bran derived from husk as a contaminant is, however, poorly
absorbed and, hence, may not pose any health risk.

Another interesting feature of mineral content of rice bran is its low sodium and high potassium
content, the potassium/sodium ratio being nearly 100. With this kind of low sodium and high
potassium content, rice bran can perhaps be a useful supplement in diets for hypertensives

. Vitamins: Rice bran is also a rich source of B-complex vitamins particularly thiamine and
nicotinic acid and some other minor B-vitamins. Riboflavin and vitamin Bs content however
appear to be on a lower side. In Table 2, the nutrient content of rice bran is compared with RDA
for a sedentary man (consumption unit)S and also with rice and wheat. A 100 g of edible grade
rice bran can meet 20 to 27 per cent of the daily needs of nutrients of a sedentary man.

Phytochemicals: Full fat rice bran is a rich source of a number of bioactive phytochemicals .
They include dietary fibre, phytosterols, gamma oryzanol, tocopherol and tocotrienols, ferulic
acid and other phenolic compounds. The other bioactive compounds present as minor
constituents are lipoic acid, coenzyme Q, etc. Except for dietary fibre, most of the other
phytochemicals are present in the nonglyceride (unsaponifiable fraction) of the oil present in rice
bran.

Dietary fibre: Rice bran contains 25.3 g of dietary fibre per 100 g which can meet the
recommended dietary fibre intake of an adult which is about 27 g a day? Dietary fibre in rice
bran includes cellulose, hemicellulose (13 per cent) and pentosans (6.5 per cent) which are all
insoluble fibres.

It also contains in addition about 2 per cent soluble dietary fibre. The role of dietary fibre in
offering protection against diabetes and heart disease is well established8. There are only limited
studies to demonstrate the antidiabetic and hypocholesterolemic effects of dietary fibre of rice
bran in man, although this aspect has been studied in rats and hamsters9. In a study in human
subjects10, it was shown that 100 g of rice bran a day can lower plasma cholesterol levels and in
this respect it is as good as oat bran.

An intake of 30 g of rice bran however did not have any effect. Both full fat rice bran and
defatted rice bran are good sources of dietary fibre, the latter having a higher content (30 per
cent). The reported hypocholesterolemic effect of full fat rice bran may be partly due to its
oryzanol and phytosterols content.
STRUCTURE OF THE WHEAT GRAIN

Germ: Contains:

• All rudimentary tissues for growth (germination)

• High in protein (25% enzymes)

• High in sugar (18% sucrose + raffinose)

• High in lipids (removed during flour milling to avoid rancidity during storage)

• No starch

• Vitamin B and E

Bran: protects the grain against pest, illnesses, etc. Contains:

Vitamin B and minerals

Insoluble fibres

Removed during milling

1.3 Starchy endosperm: used to make white flour Contains mostly starch

1.3.1 Aleurone layer: surrounds the starchy endosperm Synthesizes most enzymes to digest and
mobilise nutrients (eg: hydrolytic activity for melting barleys to reduce starch to fermentable
sugars). This is indesirable in wheat for flour making

1.3.2 Starch Energy store for grains (60 to 75% of the grain weight) Insoluble and high
molecular weight Influences degree of gelatinisation of foods (setting of cakes, gravy thickening,
etc)
STRUCTURE OF OATS

Cereal grains are distinguished from other grasses by having simple, dry and indehiscent fruits.
The pericarp , or fruit coat , is attached to the remainder of the fruit around the entire periphery.

The gross physical structure of the oat groat is similar to that of the kernels of wheat and barley.
It is however , covered with numerous trichomes or hair like protuberance.The three major
divisions in to which the groats can be divided are the bran , endosperm and germ. Starting from
the outside of the groat , the bran layer consist of the epidermis , seed coat , hyaline layer , and
aleuron cells , in that order. The germ is made up of embryonic cells and cell wall tissues , while
the endosperm is composed mainly of starch cells

The oats germ , when viewed in a longitudinal section of the kernel, extends roughly one-third of
the way up the ventral side of the groat. It is larger and narrower than the germ of wheat .
Bounding the germ is a layer of columnar cells which are strongly colored by protein strains.
Compared to other cereals , oat groats are characterized by low carbohydrate content , and
higher protein and fat content. Using selective stains followed by microscopic observation of
sections, lignin has been identified in the epidermis , aleurone cell walls , endosperm cell walls ,
and germ cell walls. Protein would be expected to be more or less ubiquitous , but positive
reactions for it were found in the aleurone cells , germ cells , and endosperm cell walls. Starch
appeared to be confined to the endosperm , where it occurred in well-defined aggregates . The
germ and the aleurone cells were determined to be the major lipid depots . There were traces of
pectin in the horny endosperm and epidermis.

Nutritional value

Oats have a well-balanced nutritional composition, and one serving (30 grams) of oats contains
117 calories.

By weight, raw oats are 66% carbohydrates, 17% protein, 7% fat and 11% fiber.

The table below contains detailed information on the nutrients in oats (5):

Nutrition Facts: Oats, raw - 100 grams

Nutrients Amount
Calories 389
Water 8 %
Protein 16.9 g
Carbs 66.3 g
Sugar ~
Fiber 10.6 g
Fat 6.9 g
Saturated 1.22 g
Monounsaturated 2.18 g
Polyunsaturated 2.54 g
Omega-3 0.11 g
Omega-6 2.42 g
Trans fat ~
Carbohydrates

Carbs make up 66% of oats.

Oats are very low in sugar, with only 1% coming from sucrose.

About 11% of the carbs are fiber, and 85% consists of starch.

Starch

Starch is the single biggest component of oats, made up of long chains of glucose molecules.

The starch in oats is different than the starch in other grains. It has a higher fat content, and a
higher viscosity (ability to bind water)
Three types of starches are found in oats, classified with respect to digestibility .

The main starches in oats are:

Rapidly digested starch (7%), which is quickly broken down and absorbed as glucose.

Slowly digested starch (22%), that is broken down and absorbed more slowly .

Resistant starch (25%), which functions like a type of fiber. It escapes digestion and

improves gut health by feeding the friendly gut bacteria .

Fiber

Oats contain almost 11% fiber, and porridge contains 1.7% fiber.

The majority of the fiber in oats is soluble, mostly a fiber called beta-glucan.

Oats also contain insoluble fibers, including lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose .

Oats contain more soluble fiber than other grains, leading to slower digestion, increased satiety
and suppression of appetite.

Beta-glucans are unique among fibers, as they can form a viscous (gel-like) solution at a
relatively low concentration.

In raw, whole oats, the amount of beta-glucan ranges from 2.3-8.5%, mostly concentrated in the
oat bran .

Beta-glucans are known to lower cholesterol levels and increase excretion of bile acids. They are
also believed to cause a reduction in blood sugar and insulin levels after a carbohydrate-rich
meal .

Daily consumption of beta-glucans has been shown to lower cholesterol, especially LDL (the
"bad") cholesterol, and may therefore decrease the risk of heart disease.

Protein

Oats are a good source of quality protein, ranging from 11-17% by dry weight, which is higher
than most other grains .

The major protein in oats is called avenalin (80%), which is not found in any other grain, but is
similar to legume proteins.

A minor protein is a prolamin called avenin, which is related to gluten in wheat.

However, pure oats are considered safe for most people with gluten intolerance.

Fat

Whole oats contain more fat than most other grains, ranging from 5-9%. It consists mostly of
unsaturated fatty acids .
Vitamins and Minerals

Oats are high in many vitamins and minerals. The main ones are listed below.

Manganese: Typically found in high amounts in whole grains, this trace mineral is important for
development, growth and metabolism.

Phosphorus: An important mineral for bone health and tissue maintenance .

Copper: An antioxidant mineral that is often lacking in the Western diet. It is considered
important for heart health .

Vitamin B1: Also known as thiamine, this vitamin is found in many foods, including grains,
beans, nuts and meat.

Iron: As a component of hemoglobin, a protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood,
iron is absolutely essential in the human diet.

Selenium: An antioxidant, important for various processes in the body. Low selenium status has
been associated with increased risk of premature death, and impaired immune and mental
function .

Magnesium: Often lacking in the diet, this mineral is important for numerous processes in the
body .

Zinc: A mineral that participates in many chemical reactions in the body and is important for
overall health.

Nutritive value :

Maize : In india , maize is consumed in the form of boiled or roasted as popcorn.

Maize contain around 11% of protein.it is good source of carotene. It also contains thiamineand
folic acid in adequate amount.it is rich in calories and is used in supplementary programme.

Jower : Sorghum has 11.9 per cent of moisture and about 10.4 per cent of protein and a lower fat
content of 1.9 per cent. The fibre and mineral content of grain sorghum is essentially similar, and
is 1.6 per cent. It is a good source of energy and provides about 349 K cal and gives 72.6 per
cent of carbohydrates . Starch is the major carbohydrate of the grain. The other carbohydrates
present are simple sugars, cellulose and hemicellulose. The amylose content of starch varies
from 21.28 per cent. Sorghum is also rich in dietary fibre (14.3%). Calcium, phosphorous and
iron content of sorghum is 25 mg, 222 mg and 4.1 mg (per 100 g of edible portion), respectively.

Ragi Nutritional Value

In this below section depicts the in a typical content in 100 grams of Ragi Flour (edible portion,
12% moisture). Major portion of Ragi Flour is carbohydrate, followed by protein and fiber. It
has the least amount of fat in them.
Ragi Flour Nutritional Value (Chart)

Amount Amount
Content
(Typical) (Range)

Carbohydrate 72.6 71.3 – 89.5

Protein 7.7 5.8 – 12.8

Fibre 3.6 3.5 – 3.9

Fat 1.3 1.3 – 2.7

Major portion of Ragi Flour is carbohydrate, around 80%. The Fat percentage is quite less which
is good. Protein and fiber contents vary but range from less to moderate. 100 grams of Ragi has
roughly on an average of 336 kcal of energy in them.

Bajra

One of the reasons why bajra or millet is so popular in developing nations is because it is filled
with nutrients. This is a huge advantage for people who cannot afford enough amounts or types
of food to create a healthy and balanced diet for themselves.

In a 100 grams of bajra, you will find 378 calories. It has a total fat content of 4.2 grams
including 0.7 grams of saturated fat, 2.1 grams of polyunsaturated fat, and 0.8 grams of
monounsaturated fat. It does not contain any cholesterol, and has 5 mg of sodium along with
195 mg of potassium in it.

It has 73 grams of carbohydrates including 9 grams of dietary fiber. It also has 11 grams of
proteins and offers large amounts of essential minerals as well. Of the daily recommended
dosage for each of the following. 100 grams of bajra has 16% of iron, 20% of vitamin B-6, and
28% of magnesium. It does not contain any vitamin A, C, D, or B-12 in it.

Effects of Heat on Starches and Sugars

Carbohydrates come in various forms, and each form reacts differently when exposed to heat.
The two forms of carbohydrates that are of interest from a basic food science perspective are
sugar and starch.

When exposed to heat, sugar will at first melt into a thick syrup. As the temperature continues to
rise, the sugar syrup changes color, from clear to light yellow to a progressively deepening
brown. This browning process is called caramelization. It is a complicated chemical reaction,
and in addition to color change, it also causes the flavor of the sugar to evolve and take on the
rich complexity that we know to be characteristic of caramel. Different types of sugar caramelize
at different temperatures. Granulated white sugar melts at 320°F/160°C and begins to caramelize
at 338°F/170°C.

In foods that are not primarily sugar or starch, a different reaction, known as the Maillard
reaction, is responsible for browning. This reaction involves sugars and amino acids (the
building blocks of protein). When heated, these components react and produce numerous
chemical by-products, resulting in a brown color and intense flavor and aroma. It is this reaction
that gives coffee, chocolate, baked goods, dark beer, and roasted meats and nuts much of their
rich flavor and color.

Though the Maillard reaction can happen at room temperature, both caramelization and the
Maillard reaction typically require relatively high heat (above 300°F/149°C) to occur rapidly
enough to make an appreciable difference in foods. Because water cannot be heated above
212°F/100°C unless it is under pressure, foods cooked with moist heat (boiling, steaming,
poaching, stewing) will not brown. Foods cooked using dry-heat methods (sautéing, grilling, or
roasting) will brown. It is for this reason that many stewed and braised dishes begin with an
initial browning of ingredients before liquid is added.

Starch, a complex carbohydrate, has powerful thickening properties. When starch is combined
with water or another liquid and heated, individual starch granules absorb the liquid and swell.
This process, known as gelatinization, is what causes the liquid to thicken. Gelatinization occurs
at different temperatures for different types of starch. As a general rule of thumb, root-based
starches (potato and arrowroot, for instance) thicken at lower temperatures but break down more
quickly, whereas cereal-based starches (corn and wheat, for example) thicken at higher
temperatures but break down more slowly. High levels of sugar or acid can inhibit gelatinization,
while the presence of salt can promote it.

Factors affecting gelatinization

Temperature, time of heating proportion of starch, types of starches, agitation or stirring,
addition of adding sugar, acid, fat and proteins are also affect the gelatinization.

Effect of dry heat:

Dry heat also brings changes to starch granules through a process known as dextrinisation. The
dry heat carbohydrate compounds called dextrins are formed.

Role of cereals in cookery:

Cereals are used in thickening agent eg corn flour in custards.

It contribute satiety to prepare main dish. It used as coating agent eg.maida paste in cutlet.

Its used as beverages eg. Malted beverages.

It used as desserts , making easy to cook products , covering for stuffing samosa.
Fermented foods are used for break fast eg idli.

Pulses :

Pulses are edible fruits are seeds of pod – bearing plants belonging to the family of the
leguminous family. The major pulses are red gram dhal, black gram dhal ,Bengal gram dhal,
green gram dhal.some are used as whole grams. Cow pea, rajmah, dry peas, peanut and soybean
also leguminous family.

Legumes not only have dietary values but also play an important role maintaining or even
improving soil fertility through their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Composition and nutritive value:

Energy : pulse give 340 kcal per 100g.

Carbohydrate: pulses contain 55 to 60 percent starch. Soluble sugars, fibre and uunavilable
carbohydrates are present.

Protein : pulses are important source of protein. They give about 20- 25 % protein. The proteins
of pulses are not of good quality as they are deficient in methionine and red gram is deficient in
tryptophan also.

Fats : pulses contain 1.5 % fats on moisture free basis. They contain high amounts of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Minerals:

They contain calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, potassium and phosphorus. 80 % of phosphorus is
present as phytate phosphorus.
 UNIT III

Milk and milk products:

Composition and nutritive value of milk:

 Milk is nature's ideal food for infants and growing children. It has high nutritive
value.
 It supplies body-building proteins, bone-forming minerals and health-giving vitamins
and furnishes energy-giving lactose and milk fat.
 Besides supplying certain essential fatty acids, it contains the above nutrients in an
easily digestible and assimilable form.
 All these properties make milk an important food for pregnant mothers, growing
children, adolescents, adults, invalids, convalescents and patients a like.

Carbohydrate:

 Milk is approximately 4.9% carbohydrate in the form of lactose. Lactose is a

disaccharide made up of glucose and galactose bonded together.
 There is approximately 9.7g of lactose in 1 glass/200ml of semi skimmed milk.

Fat :

 Buffalo’s milk contains 6.5% fat. Cow’s milk contains 4.1% fat
 The flavor of milk is due to milk fat.
 The fat globules are stabilized by a surrounding membrane composed of proteins,
phospholipids and cholesterol.
 The fatty acids in milk fat are approximately 62% saturated, 37% unsaturated.
 Other lipid materials present in milk are phospholipids, sterols free fatty acids,
carotenoids and fat soluble vitamins.
 Carotenes are responsible for the yellow colour of milk fat.

Protein:

 Protein milk is a source of “high biological value” protein - which means that it
provides us with all the essential amino acids that the body cannot make itself.
 Milk contains approximately 3.5% protein by weight which can be divided into two
main groups: caseins and whey proteins.
 Approximately 80% of the protein in milk is casein based and 20% is whey based.
 Casein is the predominant protein in milk and can be divided into four major types:
alpha, beta, gamma and kappa caseins.
 Whey protein comprises the rest of the milk protein and is composed predominantly
of beta -lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin.
 But other whey proteins include serum albumin, immunoglobulins (iga, igg, igm),
protease peptones, lactoferrin and transferrin.
  Whey proteins have been proposed to have some benefits to athletes for muscle
recovery and for preventing mental fatigue.

Minerals:

 Chlorides , phosphate, citrate, sulphates and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium,

calcium and magnesium are present.
 These salts influence the condition and stability of the proteins, especially the casein
fraction.
 Copper and iron are important in the development of off flavours in milk and milk
products.
 In addition to this , milk contains trace elements like zinc, aluminium, molybdenium
and iodine.

Enzymes:

 The enzymes found in milk can originate from the mammary glands.
 Lipases, a group of enzymes that break down fats, are present in milk but are
inactivated by pasteurization, which increases the shelf life of milk. A popular belief
among raw milk consumers is that the native lipase in milk plays an important role in
the digestion of fat.
 Alkaline phosphatase exist as lipoprotein. This enzymes is inactivated by normal
pasteurization and its activity is tested to determine the effectiveness of
pasteurization.
 Xanthin oxidase occurs in the fat globule membrane.

Colour:

 White colour of milk is caused by the reflection of light by the colloidally dispersed
casein,calcium and phosphorus.
 Yellowish colour of milk is due to the presence of carotene and riboflavin.

Flavor and aroma:

 Milk is slightly sweet because of its lactose content.

 Flavour sensation in mouth is due to fat, protein and some of the salts such as
calcium phosphate.
 The slight aroma of fresh milk is produced by a number of low molecular weight
compounds such as acetone, acetaldehyde, dimethyl sulphide and short chain fatty
acids.boiling changes the flavour of fresh milk more than pasteurization.
 Off flavor in milk is due to health othe cow or the feed that are consumed by the cow.

Nutritive value of milk:

  Milk is a good source of high quality protein. The biological value is over 90.lysine is
the essential amino acids .it is abundant in milk protein.
 Milk is only substances that contains lactose. It contains galactose . The galactose is
essential for the synthesis of myelin sheath.
 Lactose is not only favour the growth of lactic acid bacilli in the intestine , it also
decrease the ph. It also helpful calcium for absorption.
 Milk sugar due to its controlled glycaemic effects, is preferred as a source of
carbohydrate.

Nutrnunutition facts: milk, whole, 3.25% fat - 100 grams

Nutrients Amount

Calories 61
Water 88 %

Protein 3.2 g

Carbs 4.8 g

Sugar 5.1 g

Fiber 0 g
Fat 3.3 g

Saturated 1.87 g

Monounsaturated 0.81 g

Polyunsaturated 0.2 g
Omega-3 0.08 g
Omega-6 0.12 g
Trans fat ~

Milk cookery:

Effect of heat:

Protein:

 On heating, lactoalbumin and lactoglobulin become insoluble or precipitated.

Lactoalbumin beings to coagulate at a temperature 66°c .
 For whey proteins, heat denaturation is an irreversible reaction.
 Casein does not coagulate at the usual temperatures. It coagulated at 100°c heated at
12 hours or 135°c at 1 hours or 155°c at 3 minutes.the resistance of casein to heat is
due to combination with a definite amount of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and
citrate in milk.
  The coagulation of milk protein is accelerated by an increase in acidity.

Fat:

 The layer of fat is form on milk that has been result from the breaking of the film of
proteins that surround the fat globules in the unheated milk during boiling.

Sugar and protein mixture:

 Non enzymatic browning of maillard type occurs in evaporated milk.

 Mailard is the development of brown colour in mixtures containing aminoacids and
reducing sugars.
 The rate of browning increase rapidly with a rise in temperature.
 The colour development increase with increases with increasing ph above 6.8 for
glucose –α-amino acids solution and above ph 6.0 with glucose- ω amino acids.
 The reaction rate being decreased at low or very high water level although the dry
materials will react.

Acid :

 Acidity is decreased during heating at first to release of dissolved carbon dioxide and
then increase because hydrogen ions are liberated when calcium and phosphate forms
insoluble compounds.

Minerals:

The dispersion of calcium phosphate in milk is decreased by heating and part of it is

precipitated.iodine is a volatile substance and when heated tends to be lost from milk.

Vitamins :

 The fat soluble vitamins like a and d are thermostable.

 The loss of vitamin c is minor importance as milk is not an important source of this
vitamin.

Colour, flavor and digestibility:

 The flavor and the general appearance of milk is changed by heating.

 Cooked flavor of boiled milk is due to loss of dissolved like carbon dioxide and
oxygen and the changes that occur in protein.

Micro organism:

Destruction of micro organism takes place at higher temperature.

Scum formation :

 Scum is formed when milk is heated an uncovered pan on the surface due to drying
out.
  The scum gets toughened as the temperature is increased.
 The insoluble scum can be removed from the surface but another one forms.
 It contains a small amount of coagulated proteins, minerals and fat globules.
 It can be prevented by covering the pan or by diluting the milk.

Effect of acid:

 At ph 6.6 casein is present largely as calcium caseinate.

 The acidity of milk is increased by the addition of acid , the acid removes calcium
and phosphate from calcium caseinate changing it into casein.
 Casein coagulates the ph has been reduced to about 5.2.

Effect of enzymes:

Rennin : rennin an enzyme secreted by the young calves, bring about the coagulation of
milk. The rennin act as a proteolytic enzyme on all protein components. It’s brings about the
coagulation of milk. Hence an insoluble casein gel is formed.

Fruit enzymes :

 Bromelin, a proteolytic enzyme, from pineapple digests protein hence changes the
gelation to compounds that do not form gel. It clots the milk and digests the clot.
 All fruits contain some organic acids, it cause the curdling of milk.
 Prevent this action to destroying the enzymes before combining the fruits with milk
by blanching or canned fruits.

Milk products:

 Milk is not ony used as such but many –products, non- fermented and fermented
products used as cookery.
 About 30-50% of the total production of milk is conveyed to milk products.

Non fermented products:

Whey protein concentrate

The milk is first coagulated by application of either rennet or acid. Whey is passed through the
membranes called ultrafiltration technology to concentrate protein to various levels between 20
and 80 per cent. Bioactive components found in whey are retained and concentrated, e.g.,
cysteine stimulates glutathione system which is a powerful antioxidant. The biological value and
protein efficiency ratio is high.

Whey protein concentrate can be used in cookery and the role in food' preparations is given
in Table.

Table: The role of whey protein concentrate in food preparations

 Skim Milk
Fat content is reduced to 0.5-2 per cent by centrifugation. By removing fat from the milk not
only taste or flavour is reduced but fat-soluble-vitamins like vitamin A and D are reduced.
Usually this milk is fortified with vitamins A and D. Condensed skim milk finds extensive use in
the baking industry and manufacture of confectionery. Skim milk is used for low calorie diets
and for children who need high protein.

Evaporated milk
This is the milk from which about 50-60 per cent of the water has been evaporated. Raw milk is
clarified and concentrated in a vacuum pan at a temperature of 74-77°C. It is fortified with
vitamin D, homogenised, sterilised in cans at a temperature of 118°C for 15 minutes and cooled.
This heat treatment gives evaporated milk a light brown colour owing to sugar protein
interaction and its characterstic flavour. As per PFA rules, the condensed milk should contain 26
per cent milk solids of which 8 per cent is fat.

Sweetened condensed milk

Sweetened condensed milk unlike evaporated milk is not sterile. Multiplication of micro-
organisms in the product is prevented by thepreservation action of sugar. The product is made
from pasteurised milk that is concentrated and sweetened with sucrose. Sugar concentration is 65
per cent. This milk cannot be substituted for the ordinary fresh milk for children. As per PFA
rules, the milk solids should be about 31 per cent of which 9 per cent is fat.

Table gives PFA Standards for milk and milk products.

Class Minimum Per cent

Milk Fat Milk solids not fat

Cow’s Milk 3.5 8.5

Buffalo’s Milk 5.0 9.0

Mixed Milk 4.5 8.5

Standardised Milk 4.5 8.5

Toned Milk 3.0 8.5

Double-toned Milk 1.5 9.0

 Full-cream Milk 6.0 9.0

Skimmed Milk 0.5 8.7

Butter – not less than 76.0 per cent milk fat

Milk powder
Two methods are commonly used for the preparation of milk powder

Drum or roller drying

The steps involved in roller drying are (1) Filtration and pasteurization, (2) Homogenisation (3)
Drying and (4) Powdering and packaging.

Filtration, pasteurization and homogenization: Milk on receipt in the factory is filtered to

remove foreign matter and is pasteurized at 185oF. The pasteurized milk is homogenized at 1000
lbs per square inch.

Roller drying, powdering and packing: The homogenized milk is pre-heated to 80oC and
fed to roller driers (5 ft length and 2 ft diameter). The rollers are internally heated with steam at a
pressure of 50 lbs per square inch. The dried milk is scraped off by the knife and is obtained as
thin sheets. It is powdered in a disintegrator and packed in tins (half to one kg capacity) fitted
with tagger tops and lever lids.

Spray drying

The spray drying process consists of the following steps: (1) Filtration and pasteurization,
(2) Concentration and homogenization and (3) Spray drying and packing.

Filtration and pasteurization: The milk on receipt in the factory is filtered to eliminate

suspended foreign matter and pasteurized at 185oF.

Concentration and homogenization: The pasteurized milk is concentrated in a vacuum

evaporator to about 45 % solids and homogenized under a pressure of 1000 lbs per square inch.

Spray drying and packing: The homogenized milk is pre-heated to 150oF and fed into a
spray drier. The temperature of inlet air in the spray drier is about 350oF and that of and that of
the outlet air is 215oF. The powder obtained is packed in tins of 1 kg capacity fitted with tagger
tops and lever lids under nitrogen.

Figure : Manufacture of milk powder

The milk powder obtained by atmospheric drum drying has a solubility of about 90-91 %.
The lactalbumin is coagulated in this process and remains as a suspension. The milk powder
obtained by the spray process has a high solubility of about 99.0%. The keeping quality of roller
dried milk powder packed in tins is better than that of spray dried milk powder and hence spray
dried milk has to be packed in nitrogen gas.

Khoa
Khoa is semi-solid obtained from milk by evaporating it in open pans. Milk is cautiously
stirred in a circular motion to prevent scorching. When milk becomes viscous the rate of stirring
is increased to maintain a uniform consistency. After cooling it becomes solid. The yield is about
20 per cent of the weight of the milk used with cottage cheese.

During the preparation of khoa, all the milk proteins are coagulated. Because of
appreciable homogenisation that occurs during vigorous boiling, when coagulation of proteins
sets in, all the fat globules are entrenched in the coagulant. Lactose is present as an anhydrous
sugar in khoa. There is a decrease in vitamin A and some water-soluble vitamins of milk in khoa
formation. Buffalo's milk khoa contains 46% fat and cow’s milk contains 35% fat.It is used in
the preparation of gulab Jamun, Carrot halwa and coconut burfi. 

It is a prepared, concentrated and sweetened product comprising several layers of clotted

cream.The layer of cream formed as a skin is continuously removed.

When the milk is reduced to 1/3 of the original volume, sugar is added.

Chhaina:
It is major heat and acid coagulated product. Chhaina-based sweets are rasogolla, sandesh and
rasmalai. Cow’s milk chhaina is preferred for rasogolla making.

Ice-cream
It is frozen dairy product consisting of whole milk, skim milk, cream, butter,condensed milk
products or dried milk products. Milk fat and milk solids non-fat constitute about 60 per cent of
the total solids of the ice-cream. These components give ice-cream a rich flavour, improved
body and texture. In addition to dairy products, ice-cream contains sugar, stabiliser, emulsifier,
flavouring material, water and air, Sugar, in addition to sweetening affects the smoothness of the
resulting ice-cream. It also lowers the freezing point of the ice-cream mix, so that it does not
freeze in the freezer.

Stabilisers are used to prevent the formation of ice crystals during freezing. They form gels
with the water in the formula and thereby improve the body and texture of the ice-cream.
Compounds generally used as stabilisers are gelatin, sea weed or china grass and cellulose
derivatives such as carboxymethyl cellulose.

Emulsifiers help disperse the fat globules throughout the mix and prevent them from
clumping together during the freezing mixing operation. They further help make the ice-cream
dry and stiff. Egg yolk is a natural good emulsifier. Mono and diglycerides are the commercial
preparations used. The common flavouring material used in ice-cream is vanilla followed by
strawberry, chocolate andcoffee. A large number of fruits and nuts are added to improve the
taste.

Cream
Milk fat separated from milk by centrifugation is called cream. Creams containing various
amounts of fat are made to meet different requirements. A mixture of milk and milk fat of 10-12
per cent is called half-and-half. The high percentage of fat helps to give a more stable foam.
Cream used for butter making usually contains from 25-40 per cent. Cream is also used in baked
products and as well as salad dressings. Cream (18 per cent fat) is pasteurised at 70-75°C for 30
minutes to kill the bacteria. The cream is then inoculated with the controlled culture of lactic
acid bacteria to develop the desired acid taste in the finished product.

Colostrum
The milk from newly calved animals has high acidity and rich in protein and carotenoids. It
gets coagulated at very low temperatures and the milk is diluted with ordinary milk and steam
cooked with jaggery and cardamom. It can be cut into pieces

Fermented milk products
Role of milk and milk products in cookery
 It contributes to the nutritive value of the diet, e.g., milk shakes, plain milk,
flavoured milk, cheese toast.
 Milk adds taste and flavour to the product, e.g., payasam, tea, coffee.
 It acts as a thickening agent along with starch, e.g., white sauce or cream soups.
 Milk is also used in desserts, e.g., ice-cream, puddings.
 Curd or buttermilk is used as a leavening agent and to improve the texture, e.g.,
dhokla, bhatura.
 Curd is used as a marinating agent, e.g., marinating chicken and meat.
 Curd is used as a souring agent, e.g., rava dosa, dry curd chillies.
 Khoa is used as a binding agent, e.g., carrot halwa.
 Milk and curd increase shelf-life poories preserve better when the dough is mixed
with milk/curd.
 To prevent browning in vegetables, e.g., butter milk is used for preventing
browning when plantain stem is cut.
 Variety to the diet, e.g., butter milk sambhar, avial and mutter paneer.
 Cheese is used as garnishing agent.
 Milk is used as clarifying agent in sugar syrup.
 Salted butter milk is used for quenching thirst.

Some pulses used in food contain chemical constituents having toxic properties.

Trypsin inhibitors: Trypsin inhibators are proteins that inhibit the activity of trypsin in the
gut and interfere with digestability of dietary proteins and reduce their utilisation. Pancreas
enlargement and growth retardation occur in animals that consume diet containing trypsin
inhibators. They are generally heat labile and moist heat treatment like pressure
cooking destroys them. Autoclaving at 120o C for 15-30 minutes inactivates almost all
trypsin inhibators. These inhibitors prevent degradation of storage proteins during seed
maturation.

Lathyrogens: Lathryism is a nervous disease that cripples man. The disease now known to
result from an excessive consumption of the pulse Lathyrus sativus. It affects young men
between the age of 15 to 45 yrs. Lathryus is known by the common name “Khesari Dal”.
The dehusked seeds resemble Bengal gram dal or red gram dal. Hence, sometimes kesari
dhal is used as an adulterant in other dals. The symptoms of lathyrism are muscular rigidity,
weakness, paralysis of the leg muscle.

Stages of Lathyrism
First stage: It is characterised by a practical manner of walking with short steps and jerky
movements and a kind of scissors or crossed gait. This is non0stick stage. The patient may
remain in this condition for the rest of his life, or he may pass on to the next stage.
Second stage: The muscular stiffness is increased and this makes it necessary to perform all
walking by titling the pelvis to such a degree that a stick is necessary to maintain balance.
This is called one-stick stage.
Third stage: The muscular rigidity is so great that the patient needs two sticks for support
and there is marked titling of the pelvis sideways to maintain balance. This is called two-
stick stage.

Figure: One-stick stage of lathyrism

Final Stage: By this time, the patient is unable to walk upright on account of considerable
bending of the knees and extreme stiffness of the lower limbs. The patient is then reduced to
crawling by taking his weight on his hands.
The neurotoxin responsible for lathyrism is β-N-Oxalyl-L-α,β diamino propionic acid.
Toxin can be removed by steeping or parboiling.

Steeping Process
Four times the quantity of seeds is first brought to a boil.
Seeds are soaked in hot water for two hours.
Water is drained off.
The seeds are washed with cold fresh water and sun dried.
Eighty to ninety percent of the toxin is removed by this method.

Parboiling  process
 The seeds are soaked in cold water for 12 hours.
 Then the seeds are steamed for 20 to 30 minutes.
 Again seeds are soaked for one hour and dried.
 Eighty to ninety percent of toxin leach out by this process.

To prevent lathyrism, the following aspects are to be educated in endemic areas:
 The cause of the disease.
 The fact that lathyrus pulse can safely form not more than a quarter of the total
amount of cereals and pulses eaten per day.
 Inherent danger of paying wages in terms of lathyrus sativus.
 Recognition of early symptoms like muscle spasm and immediate withdrawl of the
pulse from the diet.
  The need for growing alternative crops in place of lathyrus sativus.

Favism: Favism is a disease characterised by haemolytic anaemia that occurs when

individuals who are deficient in glucose – 6 - phosphate dehydrogenase consume faba beans
or broad beans. Three different compounds present in faba beans have been implicated as
playing a causative role in the disease. Two of these are glycosides known as vicine and
covicine and the third is an amino acid derivative known as dihydroxy phenyl
alanine, DOPA.
Germinating and boiling reduce these toxic substances.

Haemagglutinins: These are proteins in nature and sometimes referred to as phyto

agglutinins or lectins. Haemagglutinins reduce the food intake resulting in poor growth.
Haemagglutinins are isolated from soya bean, field bean, white bean, double bean and horse
gram. Haemagglutinins are heat labile.

Goitrogens: These substances interfere with iodine uptake by thyroid gland. Thiocyanate,

isothicyanates and their derivatives are present in soyabean groundnuts and lentils.
Excessive intake of these foods in the face of marginal intake of iodine from foods and
water may lead to precipitation of goitre.

Tannins: Tannins are condensed polyphenolic compounds. They are present in high
amounts in seed coat of most legumes. Tannins bind with iron irreversibly and interface
with iron absorption. Tannins also bind proteins are reduced their availability. Removal of
seed coat of legumes reduces the tannin content. Removal of husk lowers tannin content and
thus improve the appearance, texture, cooking quality, palatability, digestability of the grain
and bioavailability of nutrients.

Pulse cookery: The cooking quality of pulses is a function of the cooking time, that is, the
time of boiling during which they attain desirable softness. In addition the cooking quality is
also a function of an increases in volume after cooking, higher dispersibility of solids into
cooking media and improved texture. Pulse foods which are too hard, sticky or slimy in
texture are unattractive. Cooking time influences the nutritive value and overall utilisation
of pulse.

Role of pulses in cook

 Pulses are rich in protein and B vitamins and improve the quality of cereal
protein.
 Pulses give due to high protein and fibre.
 Pulses improve flavour and consistency of dal, sambhar and rasam.
 They contribute to fermentation in preparation of idli and dosa.
 They are used in snacks like sundal, bajji, panipuri and bhelpuri.
 They are used in salads, e.g., sprouted gram.
 They are used in desserts like paruppu, payasam and sweets like pulses mysore
pak and laddu.
 They are used as thickening agent and prevent curdling, e.g., Bengal gram flour
in kadhi.
 They are used as stuffing agent in poorna burelu.
 Parched pulses are used in making chutneys and chutney powders.
 They are used as part of seasoning in curries.
 Germination Definition
 Germination refers to the process by which an organism grows from a seed or a
spore. The most common forms of germination include a seed sprouting to form a
seedling and the formation of a sporeling from a spore. Thus, germination occurs
primarily in plant and fungal species.
Germination Process
The process of germination is as follows:
 Environmental conditions are favorable: For germination to occur, the
environmental conditions must be favorable in order to support the growing plant. The
soil depth, amount of water, and temperature are all critical conditions that must be met
in order for the process of germination to be initiated. Typically, the soil conditions
must be moist and warm.
 Water imbibition: When environmental conditions are optimal, germination is
initiated by a process termed water imbibition. The seed absorbs water through a
structure called a micropyle, which induces swelling of the seed until it splits open.
 Root and Shoot formation: Once the seed has ruptured, the radicle (primary
root) and plumule (shoot) can emerge from the seed. This process is initiated by
specific enzymes that become activated when the seed is exposed to water. The roots
grow downwards, and the shoot grows upwards towards the soil surface.
 A seedling is formed: Once the shoot emerges from the soil surface, the
cotyledons become fully unfolded and expand, eventually forming the first leaves.
Once this occurs, the plant is ready to initiate photosynthesis and is considered a
seedling (shown below).

Germination Temperature
 Among other conditions, the temperature is critical for germination to occur.
Although the temperature will affect the plant’s growth rate and metabolism, most
plants will germinate over a wide temperature range (e.g., 16 to 24 degrees Celsius).
 Depending on the specific climate, some plants will only germinate when
conditions are cool, while others require warm temperatures. Moreover, there are
several plant species that require temperatures to fluctuate between cold and warm in
order to break dormancy and facilitate germination. For example, some seeds require
exposure to cold winter temperatures (e.g., 4 to -5 degrees Celsius) prior to
germination, while other require extreme heat (e.g., forest fires) to crack the seed in
order to initiate germination.
 It is thought that it is a mechanism by which optimal growth conditions can be
anticipated. For example, some seeds absorb water during the fall, which causes the
seed to erupt during the cold winter temperatures. Once the soil warms again, the sprout
and roots will emerge, forming a seedling just as the amount of water and sunlight
increase during the spring and summer months.
 Advantages of germination:
 Nutritive value is improved. 
 Sprouting decreases cooking time. The thick outer coat bursts open the grain
and the grain
 becomes soft making it easier for the cooking water to penetrate the grain.

 Dehusking is easier when the grains are sprouted and dried.

 Germination metabolisms and hence do not produce gas or flatulence.

 Germinated pulse add variety to diet.

UNIT III
Milk and milk products:
Composition and nutritive value of milk:
 Milk is nature's ideal food for infants and growing children. It has
high nutritive value.
 It supplies body-building proteins, bone-forming minerals and
health-giving vitamins and furnishes energy-giving lactose and
milk fat.
 Besides supplying certain essential fatty acids, it contains the above
nutrients in an easily digestible and assimilable form.
 All these properties make milk an important food for pregnant
mothers, growing children, adolescents, adults, invalids,
convalescents and patients a like.
Carbohydrate:
 Milk is approximately 4.9% carbohydrate in the form of lactose.
Lactose is a disaccharide made up of glucose and galactose bonded
together.
 There is approximately 9.7g of lactose in 1 glass/200ml of semi
skimmed milk.
Fat :
 Buffalo’s milk contains 6.5% fat. Cow’s milk contains 4.1% fat
 The flavor of milk is due to milk fat.
 The fat globules are stabilized by a surrounding membrane
composed of proteins, phospholipids and cholesterol.
 The fatty acids in milk fat are approximately 62% saturated, 37%
unsaturated.
 Other lipid materials present in milk are phospholipids, sterols free
fatty acids, carotenoids and fat soluble vitamins.
 Carotenes are responsible for the yellow colour of milk fat.
Protein:
  Protein milk is a source of “high biological value” protein - which
means that it provides us with all the essential amino acids that the
body cannot make itself.
 Milk contains approximately 3.5% protein by weight which can be
divided into two main groups: caseins and whey proteins.
 Approximately 80% of the protein in milk is casein based and 20%
is whey based.
 Casein is the predominant protein in milk and can be divided into
four major types: alpha, beta, gamma and kappa caseins.
 Whey protein comprises the rest of the milk protein and is
composed predominantly of beta -lactoglobulin and alpha-
lactalbumin.
 But other whey proteins include serum albumin, immunoglobulins
(iga, igg, igm), protease peptones, lactoferrin and transferrin.
 Whey proteins have been proposed to have some benefits to
athletes for muscle recovery and for preventing mental fatigue.
Minerals:
 Chlorides , phosphate, citrate, sulphates and bicarbonates of
sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium are present.
 These salts influence the condition and stability of the proteins,
especially the casein fraction.
 Copper and iron are important in the development of off flavours
in milk and milk products.
 In addition to this , milk contains trace elements like zinc,
aluminium, molybdenium and iodine.
Enzymes:
 The enzymes found in milk can originate from the mammary
glands.
 Lipases, a group of enzymes that break down fats, are present in
milk but are inactivated by pasteurization, which increases the shelf
life of milk. A popular belief among raw milk consumers is that the
native lipase in milk plays an important role in the digestion of fat.
 Alkaline phosphatase exist as lipoprotein. This enzymes is
inactivated by normal pasteurization and its activity is tested to
determine the effectiveness of pasteurization.
 Xanthin oxidase occurs in the fat globule membrane.
Colour:
 White colour of milk is caused by the reflection of light by the
colloidally dispersed casein,calcium and phosphorus.
 Yellowish colour of milk is due to the presence of carotene and
riboflavin.
Flavor and aroma:
 Milk is slightly sweet because of its lactose content.
 Flavour sensation in mouth is due to fat, protein and some of the
salts such as calcium phosphate.
 The slight aroma of fresh milk is produced by a number of low
molecular weight compounds such as acetone, acetaldehyde,
dimethyl sulphide and short chain fatty acids.boiling changes the
 flavour of fresh milk more than pasteurization.
 Off flavor in milk is due to health othe cow or the feed that are
consumed by the cow.

Nutritive value of milk:

 Milk is a good source of high quality protein. The biological value
is over 90.lysine is the essential amino acids .it is abundant in milk
protein.
 Milk is only substances that contains lactose. It contains galactose .
The galactose is essential for the synthesis of myelin sheath.
 Lactose is not only favour the growth of lactic acid bacilli in the
intestine , it also decrease the ph. It also helpful calcium for
absorption.
 Milk sugar due to its controlled glycaemic effects, is preferred as a
source of carbohydrate.
Nutrnunutition facts: milk, whole, 3.25% fat - 100 grams
Nutrients Amount

Calories 61
Water 88 %

Protein 3.2 g

Carbs 4.8 g

Sugar 5.1 g

Fiber 0 g
Fat 3.3 g

Saturated 1.87 g

Monounsaturated 0.81 g

Polyunsaturated 0.2 g
Omega-3 0.08 g
Omega-6 0.12 g
Trans fat ~

Milk cookery:
Effect of heat:
Protein:
 On heating, lactoalbumin and lactoglobulin become insoluble or
precipitated. Lactoalbumin beings to coagulate at a temperature
66°c .
 For whey proteins, heat denaturation is an irreversible reaction.
 Casein does not coagulate at the usual temperatures. It coagulated
at 100°c heated at 12 hours or 135°c at 1 hours or 155°c at 3
 minutes.the resistance of casein to heat is due to combination with a
definite amount of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and citrate in
milk.
 The coagulation of milk protein is accelerated by an increase in
acidity.
Fat:
 The layer of fat is form on milk that has been result from the
breaking of the film of proteins that surround the fat globules in the
unheated milk during boiling.
Sugar and protein mixture:
 Non enzymatic browning of maillard type occurs in evaporated
milk.
 Mailard is the development of brown colour in mixtures containing
aminoacids and reducing sugars.
 The rate of browning increase rapidly with a rise in temperature.
 The colour development increase with increases with increasing ph
above 6.8 for glucose –α-amino acids solution and above ph 6.0
with glucose- ω amino acids.
 The reaction rate being decreased at low or very high water level
although the dry materials will react.

Acid :
 Acidity is decreased during heating at first to release of dissolved
carbon dioxide and then increase because hydrogen ions are
liberated when calcium and phosphate forms insoluble compounds.
Minerals:
The dispersion of calcium phosphate in milk is decreased by heating and
part of it is precipitated.iodine is a volatile substance and when heated tends to
be lost from milk.
Vitamins :
 The fat soluble vitamins like a and d are thermostable.
 The loss of vitamin c is minor importance as milk is not an
important source of this vitamin.
Colour, flavor and digestibility:
 The flavor and the general appearance of milk is changed by
heating.
 Cooked flavor of boiled milk is due to loss of dissolved like carbon
dioxide and oxygen and the changes that occur in protein.
Micro organism:
Destruction of micro organism takes place at higher temperature.
Scum formation :
 Scum is formed when milk is heated an uncovered pan on the
surface due to drying out.
 The scum gets toughened as the temperature is increased.
 The insoluble scum can be removed from the surface but another
one forms.
 It contains a small amount of coagulated proteins, minerals and fat
globules.
  It can be prevented by covering the pan or by diluting the milk.
Effect of acid:
 At ph 6.6 casein is present largely as calcium caseinate.
 The acidity of milk is increased by the addition of acid , the acid
removes calcium and phosphate from calcium caseinate changing it
into casein.
 Casein coagulates the ph has been reduced to about 5.2.
Effect of enzymes:
Rennin : rennin an enzyme secreted by the young calves, bring about the
coagulation of milk. The rennin act as a proteolytic enzyme on all protein
components. It’s brings about the coagulation of milk. Hence an insoluble
casein gel is formed.
Fruit enzymes :
 Bromelin, a proteolytic enzyme, from pineapple digests protein
hence changes the gelation to compounds that do not form gel. It
clots the milk and digests the clot.
 All fruits contain some organic acids, it cause the curdling of milk.
 Prevent this action to destroying the enzymes before combining the
fruits with milk by blanching or canned fruits.
Milk products:
 Milk is not ony used as such but many –products, non- fermented
and fermented products used as cookery.
 About 30-50% of the total production of milk is conveyed to milk
products.
Non fermented products:
Whey protein concentrate
The milk is first coagulated by application of either rennet or acid. Whey is
passed through the membranes called ultrafiltration technology to concentrate
protein to various levels between 20 and 80 per cent. Bioactive components
found in whey are retained and concentrated, e.g., cysteine stimulates
glutathione system which is a powerful antioxidant. The biological value and
protein efficiency ratio is high.
Whey protein concentrate can be used in cookery and the role in food'
preparations is given in Table.
Table: The role of whey protein concentrate in food preparations

Skim Milk
Fat content is reduced to 0.5-2 per cent by centrifugation. By removing fat
from the milk not only taste or flavour is reduced but fat-soluble-vitamins like
vitamin A and D are reduced. Usually this milk is fortified with vitamins A
and D. Condensed skim milk finds extensive use in the baking industry and
manufacture of confectionery. Skim milk is used for low calorie diets and for
children who need high protein.

Evaporated milk
This is the milk from which about 50-60 per cent of the water has been
evaporated. Raw milk is clarified and concentrated in a vacuum pan at a
temperature of 74-77°C. It is fortified with vitamin D, homogenised, sterilised
in cans at a temperature of 118°C for 15 minutes and cooled. This heat
 treatment gives evaporated milk a light brown colour owing to sugar protein
interaction and its characterstic flavour. As per PFA rules, the condensed milk
should contain 26 per cent milk solids of which 8 per cent is fat.

Sweetened condensed milk

Sweetened condensed milk unlike evaporated milk is not sterile. Multiplication
of micro-organisms in the product is prevented by thepreservation action of
sugar. The product is made from pasteurised milk that is concentrated and
sweetened with sucrose. Sugar concentration is 65 per cent. This milk cannot
be substituted for the ordinary fresh milk for children. As per PFA rules, the
milk solids should be about 31 per cent of which 9 per cent is fat.
Table gives PFA Standards for milk and milk products.
Class Minimum Per cent

Milk Fat Milk solids not fat

Cow’s Milk 3.5 8.5

Buffalo’s Milk 5.0 9.0

Mixed Milk 4.5 8.5

Standardised Milk 4.5 8.5

Toned Milk 3.0 8.5

Double-toned Milk 1.5 9.0

Full-cream Milk 6.0 9.0

Skimmed Milk 0.5 8.7

Butter – not less than 76.0 per cent milk fat

Milk powder
Two methods are commonly used for the preparation of milk powder

Drum or roller drying

The steps involved in roller drying are (1) Filtration and pasteurization,
(2) Homogenisation, (3) Drying and (4) Powdering and packaging.
Filtration, pasteurization and homogenization: Milk on receipt in the
factory is filtered to remove foreign matter and is pasteurized at 185oF. The
pasteurized milk is homogenized at 1000 lbs per square inch.
Roller drying, powdering and packing: The homogenized milk is pre-
heated to 80oC and fed to roller driers (5 ft length and 2 ft diameter). The
rollers are internally heated with steam at a pressure of 50 lbs per square inch.
The dried milk is scraped off by the knife and is obtained as thin sheets. It is
powdered in a disintegrator and packed in tins (half to one kg capacity) fitted
with tagger tops and lever lids.
Spray drying
The spray drying process consists of the following steps: (1) Filtration
and pasteurization, (2) Concentration and homogenization and (3) Spray drying
and packing.
Filtration and pasteurization: The milk on receipt in the factory is
filtered to eliminate suspended foreign matter and pasteurized at 185oF.
Concentration and homogenization: The pasteurized milk is
concentrated in a vacuum evaporator to about 45 % solids and homogenized
under a pressure of 1000 lbs per square inch.
Spray drying and packing: The homogenized milk is pre-heated to
150oF and fed into a spray drier. The temperature of inlet air in the spray drier
is about 350oF and that of the outlet air is 215oF. The powder obtained is
packed in tins of 1 kg capacity fitted with tagger tops and lever lids under
nitrogen.

Figure : Manufacture of milk powder

The milk powder obtained by atmospheric drum drying has a solubility of
about 90-91 %. The lactalbumin is coagulated in this process and remains as a
suspension. The milk powder obtained by the spray process has a high
solubility of about 99.0%. The keeping quality of roller dried milk powder
packed in tins is better than that of spray dried milk powder and hence spray
dried milk has to be packed in nitrogen gas.
Khoa
Khoa is semi-solid obtained from milk by evaporating it in open pans.
Milk is cautiously stirred in a circular motion to prevent scorching. When milk
becomes viscous the rate of stirring is increased to maintain a uniform
consistency. After cooling it becomes solid. The yield is about 20 per cent of
the weight of the milk used with cottage cheese.

During the preparation of khoa, all the milk proteins are coagulated.
Because of appreciable homogenisation that occurs during vigorous boiling,
when coagulation of proteins sets in, all the fat globules are entrenched in the
coagulant. Lactose is present as an anhydrous sugar in khoa. There is a
decrease in vitamin A and some water-soluble vitamins of milk in khoa
formation. Buffalo's milk khoa contains 46% fat and cow’s milk contains 35%
fat.It is used in the preparation of gulab Jamun, Carrot halwa and coconut
burfi. 

It is a prepared, concentrated and sweetened product comprising several layers

of clotted cream.The layer of cream formed as a skin is continuously removed.

When the milk is reduced to 1/3 of the original volume, sugar is added.
Chhaina:
It is major heat and acid coagulated product. Chhaina-based sweets are
rasogolla, sandesh and rasmalai. Cow’s milk chhaina is preferred for rasogolla
making.
Ice-cream
It is frozen dairy product consisting of whole milk, skim milk, cream,
butter,condensed milk products or dried milk products. Milk fat and milk
solids non-fat constitute about 60 per cent of the total solids of the ice-cream.
These components give ice-cream a rich flavour, improved body and texture.
In addition to dairy products, ice-cream contains sugar, stabiliser, emulsifier,
flavouring material, water and air, Sugar, in addition to sweetening affects the
smoothness of the resulting ice-cream. It also lowers the freezing point of the
ice-cream mix, so that it does not freeze in the freezer.
Stabilisers are used to prevent the formation of ice crystals during freezing.
They form gels with the water in the formula and thereby improve the body
and texture of the ice-cream. Compounds generally used as stabilisers are
gelatin, sea weed or china grass and cellulose derivatives such as
carboxymethyl cellulose.
Emulsifiers help disperse the fat globules throughout the mix and prevent
them from clumping together during the freezing mixing operation. They
further help make the ice-cream dry and stiff. Egg yolk is a natural good
emulsifier. Mono and diglycerides are the commercial preparations used. The
common flavouring material used in ice-cream is vanilla followed by
strawberry, chocolate andcoffee. A large number of fruits and nuts are added
to improve the taste.
Cream
Milk fat separated from milk by centrifugation is called cream. Creams
containing various amounts of fat are made to meet different requirements. A
mixture of milk and milk fat of 10-12 per cent is called half-and-half. The high
percentage of fat helps to give a more stable foam. Cream used for butter
making usually contains from 25-40 per cent. Cream is also used in baked
products and as well as salad dressings. Cream (18 per cent fat) is pasteurised
at 70-75°C for 30 minutes to kill the bacteria. The cream is then inoculated
with the controlled culture of lactic acid bacteria to develop the desired acid
taste in the finished product.
Colostrum
The milk from newly calved animals has high acidity and rich in protein
and carotenoids. It gets coagulated at very low temperatures and the milk is
diluted with ordinary milk and steam cooked with jaggery and cardamom. It
can be cut into pieces
Fermented milk products
Role of milk and milk products in cookery
 It contributes to the nutritive value of the diet, e.g., milk shakes,
plain milk, flavoured milk, cheese toast.
 Milk adds taste and flavour to the product, e.g.,
payasam, tea, coffee.
 It acts as a thickening agent along with starch, e.g., white sauce
or cream soups.
 Milk is also used in desserts, e.g., ice-cream, puddings.
 Curd or buttermilk is used as a leavening agent and to improve
the texture, e.g., dhokla, bhatura.
 Curd is used as a marinating agent, e.g., marinating chicken and
meat.
 Curd is used as a souring agent, e.g., rava dosa, dry curd chillies.
  Khoa is used as a binding agent, e.g., carrot halwa.
 Milk and curd increase shelf-life poories preserve better when the
dough is mixed with milk/curd.
 To prevent browning in vegetables, e.g., butter milk is used for
preventing browning when plantain stem is cut.
 Variety to the diet, e.g., butter milk sambhar, avial and mutter
paneer.
 Cheese is used as garnishing agent.
 Milk is used as clarifying agent in sugar syrup.
 Salted butter milk is used for quenching thirst.

EGGS

INTRODUCTION
India is the fifth largest egg producer in the world. The annual egg production
is 44 billion tones (2003-2004).
Although eggs of all birds may be eaten, the egg of chicken is used more often
than any other. The natural function of an egg is to provide for the development of
the thick. Its whole structure and composition are designed to fulfill this natural
purpose.
STRUCTURE

Nutritive value
Eggs are rich source of all nutrients except ascorbic acid. Nutritive value of
egg is given in table

table: Nutritive value of egg/100 g

Nutrient Amount Nutrient Amount

Energy(kcal) 173.0 Retinol(µg) 420

Protein (g) 13.3 Thiamin(mg) 0.1

Fat(g) 13.3 Riboflavin(mg) 0.4

Calcium(mg) 60.0 Niacin(mg) 0.1

Phosphorus(mg) 220.0 Folic acid(µg) 78.3

Iron(mg) 2.1 Vitamin B12 (µg) 0.2

1. Proteins: Egg contains 12-14 % proteins which are well balanced

with respect to all the essential amino acids. Hence, it is used as
standard against which the chemical score of other proteins is
compared.

The contents of two eggs provide nearly 25 % of daily protein

requirements of an adult man. Besides egg proteins have an excellent
supplementary value to all other plant protein foods. For example,
cereal proteins are poor in amino acid, lysine. Pulses and oilseed
proteins are poor in sulphur containing amino acid, cysteine. Hence, a
combination of egg with any of the cereal or cereal pulse mixture will
enhance the protein quality of food. 

Table : Nutritive value of proteins from different foods

Foodstuff Biological value

Egg 96

Milk 90
 Fish 80

Rice 80

Meat 74

Bengal gram 74

Red gram 72

Wheat 66

Gingelly seeds 62

Ground nut 55

Maize 50

2.
Source: Gopalan C ,1999

The biological value of egg protein is the highest among the proteins
from various foods.

3. Fat: Fat in the egg is confined to the yolk portion. Egg is one of the
richest sources of lecithin-phospholipids which forms a part of
the structure of every cell wall in the body. Besides contributing to
energy it is the source of essential fatty acids, linoleic acid and
arachidonic fatty acids. Vitamins A, D, and E are present in the yolk
and egg fat also acts as the vehicle for these fat-soluble vitamins. Egg
fat is in highly esmulsified form hence it is readily digested and
absorbed.

On an average each egg contains 250mg of cholesterol and the

permitted intake is 300mg of cholesterol per day. Three to four eggs
per week can be consumed by normal persons without any adverse
effect.

4. Minerals and vitamins: There is a strong relationship between the

mineral content of the hen’s diet and the concentration of minerals in
the egg. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the whole egg but it
 is concentrated in the shell. Important minerals such as phosphorus,
iron, zinc and other trace elements are present in the egg. Egg is a rich
source of biological available zinc. Egg iron is bound to conalbumin
and poorly absorbed in man.

Except for vitamin C which is totally absent in the egg, other water-
soluble as well as fat-soluble vitamins are present in the egg in
appreciable amounts. Egg is particularly rich in vitamin A, riboflavin,
folic acid and B12. The amount of these vitamins in the egg depends
upon these nutrients present in the feed of the bird.

5. Modifying nutrient composition: The nutritive value of the egg

can be changed by manipulating the diet of the hen. Protein content
cannot be changed much but addition of liquid oils to the hens diet;
can increase the fat content of the egg. Exposure of the birds to
sunshine or addition of vitamin D to the feed improves the vitamin D
content of the egg. Vitamin D deficiency in the hen reduces egg
output. Studies conducted at NIN (2001-2002) has shown, inclusion of
C. diurnum leaf powder, a rich source of vitamin D, in the poultry feed
improve the egg production increases shell life. It reduces the loss of
eggs during transportation due to breakage, increases in specific
gravity of egg, increases egg shell thickness and increases calcium
content of egg shell. Even cholesterol content of egg yolk can be
reduced by feeding fish oil to the hen’s diet.
Egg cookery

Application of Heat
Factors affecting coagulation of egg proteins
Effect of other ingredients on egg protein
Effect of Heat

The terms denaturation, coagulation and gelation are used in egg cookery. Denaturation refers to
loss of certain properties of the raw egg proteins. Gelatin is used to denote the formation of gel.
Coagulation refers to the separation of the protein as an insoluble mass.

Coagulation temperature of egg white: As a result of coagulation by heat, the egg

white changes from a clear transparent mass to a white opaque one. The undiluted egg
white coagulates at about 60oC. The coagulation process is endothermic near the
coagulation point, the temperature may remain stationary for a minute.

Coagulation temperature of egg yolk: The egg yolk requires a higher temperature for

coagulation than egg white. It begins to thicken at 65oC and the coagulation is complete
at about 70oC.
 Temperature coefficient of coagulation: The time taken for coagulation increases
with temperature and at higher temperature near the coagulation point, the coagulation is
almost instantaneous.

Factors affecting coagulation of egg proteins

Concentration: The temperature at which egg proteins coagulate and the time required for
coagulation depends in part on the proportion of egg in any mixture. Dilution of egg increases
the temperature at which coagulation occurs.

Part of egg used: Egg yolk proteins require a slightly higher temperature for coagulation
than egg white.

Intact or stirred: The texture of coagulated egg yolk, when it is cooked intact, is crumbly
and mealy but solid. When the yolk membrane is ruptured and the stirred yolk is heated,
however, the texture of the resulting gel is firm and rubbery. The difference in texture of intact
and stirred egg yolk may result from changes that occur in the intricate microstructure of
yolk with stirring. The tiny discrete granules of the intact yolk may form a highly cross-linked
protein network when it is disrupted.

Time and temperature: The rate of coagulation and the amount of coagulum formed in a
definite time increase with increasing temperature. The character of the coagulum formed
when egg white is heated at high temperature is firm, as compared with the soft, tender, more
evenly coagulated product obtained when coagulation takes place at lower temperature.

The toughness and greater shrinkage of the protein coagulated at a high temperature are the
basis for the recommended use of low or moderate temperatures for egg cookery. If eggs are
cooked in water, temperature should be 85oC that will produce a texture that is tender yet
firm.

Oven temperatures from 148.8 to 176oC have been found to be satisfactory for cooking eggs
and egg dishes. Plain egg dishes in a pan of water when baking them in the oven helps to
protect the egg product from becoming over-cooked.

Micro organisms: Salmonella enteritidis may infect the reproductive system of some

laying hens, which may lay eggs contaminated with the organism. A possible danger may
arise, therefore, from eating raw or lightly cooked eggs. Hence such egg preparation should
not be served for infants and pregnant mother. At warm temperatures, micro-organisms can
increase rapidly which is why eggs should always be properly refrigerated.
Effect of other ingredients on egg protein

Sugar: Addition of sugar to an egg mixture elevates the temperature at which coagulation
takes place, the more sugar the greater the heat required to bring about the coagulation. The
addition of sugar also increases the heat stability of the proteins.
Salt: The addition of salt to an egg mixture lowers the temperature at which the coagulation
takes place. Certain salts such as chlorides, phosphates, sulphate and lactates aid in gel
formation in cooked egg mixtures. They may be added before or after heating. If they are
added after heating, curdling may occur during the addition.
Acids: Any acid material added to an egg mixture coagulates more rapidly and produces a
firmer gel and lower the coagulation temperature of the mixture. Prolonged heating of an acid
egg mixture, however, will bring about peptidisation -breaking up of large aggregate of
molecules into smaller ones resulting in thinning out of the mass and curdling. The hardness
and cohesiveness of egg white gels have been reported to a minimum at pH 6 and increases as
the pH is either decreased to 5 or increased to 9.
Starch: It is better to bring the starch mixture to its maximum thickness before adding the
uncooked egg, because coagulation and gelatinization temperatures of egg and starch differ.

Role of egg in cookery

There are few ingredients in food preparation that are useful in so many different ways as are eggs.
Used alone or in combination with other foods, they may become the major protein dish for a meal.

Eggs are used as boiled, scrambled or poached for table use.

Used as a thickening agent-stirred custards and baked custards, soups, puddings. Help in gel
formation.
Emulsifying agent-mayonnaise, ice-cream.
Leavening agent-cakes, foamy omelette, soufflés, and meringue. Egg white foam used in
certain candies also improves the texture by controlling crystallization of sugar.
Binding and coating agent-cutlet, French toast or Bombay toast, banana fritters.
Interfering substances-ice-creams.
Beaten egg white act as interfering substance in frozen desserts. Tiny bubbles of air trapped in
egg prevent ice crystals from coming together and creating large masses of icy material.

Clarifying agent-raw eggs can be added to hot broths and coffee. When protein in egg
coagulates they trap the loose particles in liquid and clarify it.
Garnishing agent-hard boiled eggs are often diced and used to garnish dishes.
Flavoring agent- custards
Enriching agent-to enrich the nutritive value e.g., Bombay toast.
 Glazing agent-for pastries to give the surface a golden brown color when cooked.
Improve colour-custards.
Quality of egg

Egg is an excellent food and hence its quality is of very great importance. Fresh eggs have best
quality. Quality of egg can be determined by many factors.

Size: By weight we can find out the quality. The normal weight of an egg is 40-70g.
The weight depends on the inheritance, stage of laying, season of laying, age, diet and
health of the bird. Size does not reflect the quality. Usually small eggs contain higher
proportion of yolk than large eggs.

Shell: Though this part is not consumed, its condition is important because of the
protection it gives to the edible portion. The factors to be considered are its strength,
porosity and cleanliness. The strength of the shell depends upon its thickness which in
turn depends on the nutrition of the bird. A high porosity of the egg shell will hasten the
deterioration on the quality of egg contents it permits the evaporation of moisture and
allows dissolved carbon dioxide to escape from the contents during the storage of egg.
The texture of the shell does not affect the quality of inner content. Any dirt on the egg
shell means the presence of the large number of contaminating micro-organisms. Weak
shells, rough handling results in damage to the shell. Good egg should be unbroken.

Air cell: As the quality of the egg deteriorates the size of the air cell increases due to
loss of moisture through the cell especially in warm, dry atmosphere. In good quality egg,
the depth of the air cell is 1/8-3/16 inches. In poor quality, the depth of the cell would be
more than 3/8th of an inch.

Egg white: A fresh egg when broken on to a plate stands up in rounded form due to the
viscosity of the thick portion of the egg white that surrounds the yolk. As egg deteriorates
the %age of the thin white increases. Possibly due to proteolysis, reduction of S-S bonds
and interaction of mucin and lysozyme. The increase in thinning correlates with an
increase in alkalinity and alkaline hydrolysis of the disulphide bonds of ovomucin to yield
a lower molecular weight protein. As the quality deteriorates the pH of white increases
from 7.6 to 9.7. There is loss of carbon dioxide also. Increased alkalinity also decreases
the volume of cakes.

Egg yolk: In deteriorated egg, the yolk also takes up water from the white and the yolk
membrane i.e., vitelline membrane stretches and when broken on to a plate the
deteriorated egg flattens and tends to spread over the plate. If stretched excessively by
movement of water into the yolk, the yolk membrane is weakened and may break when
the egg is removed from the shell. Separation of the yolk from the white is thus difficult
or impossible. Yolks of fresh eggs are slightly acid pH, that is, 6-6.2 and as there is
increased loss of carbon dioxide, alkalinity is increased. The pH of the eggs may be kept
lowered or less alkaline during storage if the egg shells are coated with thin layer of oil.
 Chalazae: As egg deteriorates they start to disintegrate and cannot hold the yolk in the
centre of the egg.

Changes in quality over time: Eggs must be stored in the refrigerator to maintain
Grade A quality. Eggs kept at room temperature deteriorate as much in a day as they do in
a week under refrigeration. 

As an egg ages
 The AIR CELL becomes larger
 The YOLK becomes flatter, larger and breaks more easily
 The THICK WHITE becomes thin and watery
Evaluation of egg quality

Candling: The quality of the egg in the shell is evaluated by candling. The egg is
held against a source of strong light. Candling will reveal:
1. A crack in the shell.
2. The size of the air cell.
3. The firmness of albumin.
4. The position and mobility of yolk
5. The possible presence of foreign substances like blood spots, moulds
and developing embryo.

As the eggs deteriorate, the chalaza weakens and the yolk tends to settle toward the
shell rather than remain suspended in the firm white. Under such circumstances, the
yolk is more fully visible when the egg is candled. Dark yolks cast a more distinct
shadow than light-colored yolks.

Although candling is the best available method for rating unbroken eggs it may not
be totally reliable.

Floating in water: If the egg sinks it is considered as good. Poor quality eggs float
due to increase in size of the air cell and due to loss of moisture.
 Haughs Unit: Measurement of the height of the thick white in relation to the
weight of the egg gives haughs unit. Good quality egg has 72 haugh units and as the
quality deteriorates it comes down to 30-60. Micrometer is used to measure the
height of thick white.

White Index: The height of the thickest portion of the white is divided by the
diameter of the egg gives white index.

Yolk Index: Measurement of the height of the yolk in relation to the width of the
yolk gives the yolk index.

UNIT-IV
VEGETABLES

Vegetables are plants or parts of plants that are used as food. The term vegetable has
through usage come to apply in a more narrow sense to those plants or parts of plants
that are served raw or cooked as a part of the main course of a meal.
Vegetables supply many nutrients besides providing variety to the diet. They make the
food attractive by their colour, texture and flavor.
People do not eat vegetables or eat less in quantity because they are expensive, need
more preparation time, or due to ignorance of the importance of vegetables. As they are
perishable, the consumption would be limited if storage facilities are not available.
Various parts of plants are used as food the botanical classification of such parts is
important because if furnishes some clue to the structure and composition which in turn
may influence the use of vegetables in the raw state and the method or time of cooking.
Various parts of plants vary in their water, protein, vitamin, mineral and carbohydrate
contents.
Vegetables are classified according to the parts of the plant consumed or colour of
the vegetable or according to the nutritive values.
COMPOSITION:
NUTRITVE VALUE
Vegetables are called protective foods as they are rich in minerals and vitamins.
Nutritionally they are classified into 3 groups. They differ in their chemical
composition.
 Green-leafy vegetables
 Roots and tubers
 Other vegetables
Table: Botanical classification of vegetable

Group Examples

Roots Carrot, beet root, radish, turnip, colocasia

Tubers Potatoes, sweet potatoes, tapioca
Bulb Onion, garlic, leeks
Leaves Cabbage, lettuce, spinach, amaranth,
fenugreek leaves, coriander leaves, mint
leaves.
Flowers Plantain flower, cauliflower, neem flower,
broccoli
Fruits Tomatoes, brinjal, lady’s finger, pumpkin,
cucumber gourds ( ash gourd, bottle
gourd, ridge gourd), capsicum, drumstick,
plantain.
Legumes ( pods and seeds) Peas, beans, chowli, broad beans, French
beans, double beans, Bengal gram tender,
red gram tender.
Stems Plantain stem, ginger, amaranth stem,
 celery stem, lotus stem.

Seed sprouts Grean gram, Bengal gram, soyabean

sprouts
Fungi Mushrooms

Algae Spirulina

Nutritive value of green-leafy vegetables:

The crispness of greens depends on the water in the cells. Partial dehydration of cells
results in a change from crisp to a limp leaf. The leaves in consequences are low in
carbohydrates and energy but they are good sources of β- carotene, calcium, riboflavin,
folic acid, ascorbic acid, iron and vitamin K.
• Generally green leafy vegetables are good sources of vitamins and minerals.
They are excellent in carotenes which are converted to vitamin A. Among all the greens
colocasia leaves contain highest amount of carotene and cabbage has the least. The
greener the leaves the higher the carotenes. β –carotenes are also good antioxidants.
• Greens are good sources of B-vitamins particularly riboflavin and folic acid.
Drying and withering reduce B-vitamins.
• Green-leafy vegetables also contain vitamin C and can be used as substitute for
fruits if needed. Agathi, drumstick leaves and coriander leaves contribute to vitamin C.
The practice of using coriander as garnishing agent is good as heating results in some
loss of vitamin C.
• Green leafy vegetables are also rich in iron. The leaves normally discarded like
cauliflower leaves and beetroot leaves are excellent sources of iron. Mint and mayalu
(red bacchali) are good in iron content.
• Agathi, colocasia leaves, drumstick leaves and fenugreek leaves contribute
calcium in our diet. The availability of calcium and iron to the body is limited as greens
also contain oxalic acid.
• Greens generally are high in moisture and easily withered and need to preserve
properly.
• Greens are not good sources of protein, fat and carbohydrate and hence they do
not contribute to the energy value of food.
• Greens are good sources of fiber which help in preventing degenerative
diseases.
• Of all the green leafy vegetables agathi is the most nutritious one.

2.Nutritive value of roots and tubers

• Roots and tubers give more calories compared to green-leafy vegetables
because they contain more starches.
• Carrots contain high amount of carotene though this amount is lower when
compared to the content present in green leafy vegetables.
• Roots and tubers are fairly good source of vitamin C.
• They are poor source of calcium, iron and B- vitamins.
• They are poor source of protein.

3.Nutritive value of other vegetables

• They contain high amount of moisture and hence they are highly perishable.
• They are generally poor in all nutrients.
• They are fairly good source of vitamin C.
• They contribute to the fibre content of the diet.
• Plantain green contains high amount of iron.
• Capsicum contains vitamin C.
• Small bitter gourd is more nutritious than the ordinary one.

4.Other chemical compounds occurring in vegetables: Vegetables contain several

groups of chemical compounds such as
• Pigments
• Polyphenols and tannins
• Enzymes
PIGMENTS:
pigments present in vegetables include the water insoluble plastid pigments , the
chlorophyll and carotenoids and the cell-sap soluble pigments- the anthocyanins,
flavones , flavonols, and similar substances. These pigments may change in colour as a
result of a change in physical state or of chemical reaction with metals, metallic salts,
acids, alkalis, oxygen,etc.
The bright colours of many vegetables contribute much to their appeal. The colours
result from the various pigments contained in their tissues. The chief pigments of
vegetables and fruits can be classified as water insoluble and water soluble.
1.Water-Insoluble Pigments

Chlorophyl!
The green pigments of leaves and stem are usually held close to the cell wall in small
bodies called chloroplasts alongwith some carotenes and xanthophylls. Two
chlorophylls have been isolated. Chlorophyll-a is intense blue green in colour and
chlorophyll-b is dull yellow green in colour. They occur in plants in the rati0 of 3a: Ib.
Chlorophyll-a is present in the florets of blue-green broccoli and chlorophyll-b is
present in stalks.(Chlorophylls are mostly insoluble in, water and dominant in unripe
fruits. Other pigments present are masked by dominating chlorophyll This pigment is
present in green leaty vegetables, capsicum, beans, peas and chillies.
Carotenoids
These art groups ot yellow, orange, red and fat-soluble pigments widely distributed in
nature. In green leaves they occur in chloroplasts. In greens though carotenoids are
present the colour is masked oy Cnlorophyll. In plants, carotenoids are present as
-carotene, B-carotene, ¥carotene, xanthophyil and CryptOxanthin. Of all carotenoids,
B-carotene is valuable in the synthesis of vitamin A. Depth of colour does not always
indicate vitamin A value as many carotenoid pigments cannot be converted to vitamin
A.
Table : Carotenoid pigments

Food Pigments

Yellow corn Cryptoxanthin

tomatoes Lycopene, B-carotene

 Red capsicum Cryptoxanthin, capsorubin, f-carotene,
violaxanthin, capxanthin.
Green capsicum Lutein, B-carotene, violaxanthin,
neoxanthin.

Carrots
carotene, α-carotene, γ-carotene, lycopene,
Xanthophyll.

Water-Soluble pigments

These pigments are not membrane-bound molecules but are dissolved in the cell sap of
epidermal cells of these parts. Flavonoidsare classified into anthocyanins and
anthoxanthins. Anthocyanins are highly water-soluble pigments that range in colour
from red to purple. The anthoxanthins are colourless or white. Anthocyanins and
anthoxanthins are important cyaniding based compounds.
1.Anthocyanins: Anthocyanins have cyaniding with attached sugar. Cherries, red
apples, various berries blue and red grapes, pomegranates, and currants archive their
colour appeal because of predominance of anthocyanins. The red colour in the skin of
radishes and sweet potatoes and the leaves of red cabbage is due to anthocyanins too.
Anthocyanin pigment in purple brinjal is water insoluble.
2.Betalins: Anthocyanin pigments are absent in some families and are replaced by
highly different compounds, betacyanins and betaxanthins. These two pigments
together are known as betalins. High ratio of betacyanin to betaxanthin lead to violet,
medium to red and low to orange tuber colours. A some what yellow pigment is
contributed by the betaxanthins.
3.Anthoxanthins: These are colourless or pale yellow pigments closely related to
anthocyanins depending on the pH,Anthoxanthins give colour to cauliflower, onion and
spinach or other leafy vegetables.
4.Organic acids: Vegetables contain a number of organic acids, metabolic products of
the cells. Formic, succinic, citric, acetic, malic, fumaric, tartaric, and benzoic acids are
present in fruits and vegetables. The concentration of acid is lower in vegetables than in
fruits. Tomatoes and vegetables with the concentration of acid have a pH Ranging from
4 to 4.6. Foods like lemon, mango green, tamarind (tartaric acid), gooseberries, raw
citrus fruits and grapes have low PH. Most of the vegetables have pH 5.0 to 5.6.
Potatoes and peas have PH 6.1 to 6.3, more neutral in taste.
5.Polyphenols and tannins: These include anthocyanins, flavones, flavonols and
tannins. They are responsible for the astringent taste of some vegetables and for the
astringent taste of some vegetables and for the discolouration of some vegetables after
cutting, cooking or processing

Enzymes
Enzymes are found in plants cells. They function as chemical reactions. Enzymes bring
ripening of tomatoes and bananas. If this enzymatic reaction continues the fruit gets
spoilt. They also bring browning in potato, brinjal and plantain. Two of enzymes
namely ascorbic oxidase and phenoloxidase are important as the former oxidises
ascorbic acid and the latter causes oxidation of polyphenols and enzymic browning in
vegetables.
Raw papaya contains an enzyme called papain. Papain is used as a stabilizer in beer and
other beverages and as a meat tenderizer.
Enzymes also can cause detrimental changes in anthocyanin pigments. Peroxidases and
phenolases naturally present in some fruits and vegetables can catalyse oxidative
reactions that are harmful.
Flavour compounds
The flavor of fruits and vegetables are extremely important to their acceptance in the
diet.
Sweetness may result from the presence of glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose,
arabinose and xylose.
All fruits and vegetables naturally contain a small amount of salt, which is detected in
the overall taste impressions contributing to flavor.
The natural flavor of vegetables are due to mixtures of aldehydes, alcohol, ketones,
organic acids and sulphur compounds. Some fruits and vegetables have an astringent
taste attributed to phenolic compounds or tannins.
Two types of vegetable have strong flavours resulting from the presence of various
sulphur containing compounds. Allyl sulphide found in onions, garlic and leeks.
Brussle sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, turnips, cauliflower, kale and mustard are members
of the family cruciferae, which also contain prominent volatile sulphur compounds.of
cooked cabbage flavor.

VEGETABLE COOKERY
The food values that vegetables contribute to the dict should be conserved as
completely as possible during cooking. Also such factors as palatability, texture and
appearance require consideration in order that raw or cooked vegetables may have an
appetising quality. The vegetables that are gen raw are those that are high in water,
cellulose and low in starch content. Many such vegetables are tender, crisp and have
distinctive flavour.
PRELIMINARY PREPARATION
Washing
Most vegetables grow near or in the ground. They are contaminated by dirt, sprays,
sand and various kinds of micro-organisms some of which are acquired from the soil
and some from the many contacts incident to marketing. Thorough washing in water is
essential. If vegetables are consumed raw-extra care is needed in cleaning them.
Cauliflower flowerets are washed with hot salt water to remove the insects. Greens are
put in a large basin of water. The impurities like dirt and sand settle to the bottom and
leaves are lifted from the top. Vegetables can be washed under running tap water.
Peeling
Roots and tubers are peeled before cooking. It is better to remove the skin after cooking
because the nutrients present under the skin would seep inside during the process of
cooking, skin can be removed easily, loss of colour can be prevented and sweetness of
the carrots are better retained.
Blanching
This is done to destroy micro-organisms, denature enzymes, to remove the skin easily
and to improve the colour.
Apart from these preliminary preparations, cutting, grating, grinding and stringing are
also done before cooking.
Changes during cooking
Vegetables are cooked to improve the colour, flavor and texture by which overall
palatability is improved. Digestibility is also improved. The fibre becomes softened,
starch gets gelatinized and protein gets coagulated. Cooking destroys microorganisms.
Water content
1. Water may be absorbed if the vegetable is cooked submerged in water or steam.
2. Removal of water occurs during baking.
3. Excess water absorption tends to produce sogginess in the cooked vegetable.
4. The bulk of the leafy vegetables is greatly decreased as they wilt during
cooking.
Cellulose and peptic substances
1. Cellulose and hemicelluloses are softened by cooking.
2. The pectic substances undergo some chemical changes. Pectic substances make
it easier to chew and cut cooked vegetables.
3. Sodium bicarbonate added to the cooking water disintegrates the hemicelluloses
and cellulose and produces a soft texture in a short cooking period. Potatoes should be
boiled or fried before adding to tomatoes or acidic medium.
4. Calcium chloride or saturated solution of calcium hydroxide has the effect of
making the vegetable tissues more firm forming insoluble calcium salts with pectic
substances. Calcium chloride is used to prevent softening of canned tomatoes.
Other carbohydrates:
1. Gelatinisation of starch takes place during boiling e.g., potatoes get gelatinized
during boiling.
2. Dextrinisation of starch takes place when potatoes are fried.
3. Hydrolysis of starch occurs and they are converted to simple sugars.
4. Caramelisation of sugar occurs when vegetables get scorched or burnt e.g.,
onions.
Protein
Protein gets coagulated completely or partly during cooking.

LOSS OF NUTRIENTS DURING COOKING

Losses begin from pre-preparation onwards, like peeling the vitamins presents under
the skin may be lost.
• Carrots have a valuable layer of nutrients under the skin so they should be
scraped but not peeled thick.
• Throwing away outer leaves of cabbage can result in loss of carotene.
• Beet root, carrot and cauliflower leaves are very nutritious, hence discarding
these leaves results in loss of nutrients.
Solvent action of water: Water soluble nutrients may be dissolved in the cooking water
and the nutrients may be lost. Losses by solution can be reduced by the following
methods:
• Cut the vegetable into bigger pieces so that the exposure of the vitamins to
water is less. When carrots are cut in crosswise the loss of ascorbic acid is greater than
that when they are cut lengthwise.
• Soaking or washing time should be reduced. So that enough time is not given
for the water soluble nutrients to get dissolved in water.
• Wash the vegetables with the skin and later should be peeled and cut.
• Use as small quantity of water as possible so that there is no extra water at all.
• Cook for a short time. As period of cooking increases more and more of
ascorbic acid leaches into the water.
• Cook the vegetables by steaming and pressure cooking, where no additional
water is added.
• Cover the vessel with a lid to hasten the cooking process.
• Cook the vegetables with the skin so that the leaching of vitamins into the water
would be less.
• Leached water can be used in cooking.
Oxidation and chemical decomposition
• Losses of nutrients can occur by chemical decomposition which may be caused
by the reaction of the cooking water or by heat.
• Vitamin C is readily oxidisable and if this proceeds beyond the stage of
dehydro- ascorbic acid, all vitamin activity is permanently lost.
• Oxidation may be accelerated by enzymatic action, by heat, by an alkaline
medium by traces of copper and by free access to atmospheric oxygen.
• Vitamin A gets oxidized by dehydration or application of dry heat.
Prevention of losses by oxidation or chemical decomposition
• Cut the vegetables into bigger pieces so that the exposure is less.
• Cut and use it immediately. By grinding, the losses will be more due to greater
atmospheric exposure. By extraction of juice the losses are greater.
• Start cooking with boiling water. The greatest destruction of ascorbic acid
occurs during the first minute or two of the cooking period. This destruction is the
result of the presence of both oxygen and of oxidizing enzymes in the plant tissue.
Water should be boiling when the vegetable is put to cook to expel oxygen from the
tissues which catalases the oxidation of ascorbic acid.
• Cover the pan so that there is no direct contact with the atmospheric oxygen.
• Use a sharp knife. When sharp knife is used to cut cabbage bruising is avoided
and loss of ascorbic acid is reduced.
• The more alkaline the solution, the faster is the rate of destruction especially
temperature and time of heating are increased. Ascorbic acid is protected to some
extent when heated in the natural acids of certain foods such as tomatoes, vinegar,
tamarind and lime juices. The use of baking soda increases the loss of thiamine and
vitamin C.
• After cooking, the food has to be consumed immediately; even if it is kept in the
refrigerator, the losses continue to occur.
• Riboflavin and niacin are stable even at 1000C. Riboflavin is sensitive to light.
Foods which are exposed to sunlight before cooking causes riboflavin loss. Minerals
are not destroyed by cooking.
There is maximum retention in steaming and pressure cooking because there are less
losses due to leaching. The richer the vitamin C in the raw vegetable, the more is the
retention in steaming and pressure cooking.
Addition of baking soda
Sometimes, baking soda is added to vegetables to improve the colour or to hasten
cooking process. At alkaline PH, thiamine are unstable and vitamin C. Alkaline
medium increases losses due to heat. Folic acid is also lost in alkaline medium.
EFFECT OF COOKING ON PIGMENTS
CHLOROPHYLL
All green leaves and green colour vegetables like beans and peas contain chlorophyll.
•Effect of cooking in hot water: When a green vegetable is put in boiling water, the
green colour becomes brighter.
•Solubility in water: Removal of the phytate group from the molecule of chlorophyll
is catalysed by the enzyme chlorophyll found in some vegetables. Hydrolysis of the
ester linkage yields a compound chlorophyllide which is water soluble. A limited
amount of chlorophyllide produced during storage of certain green vegetables prior to
cooking possibly accounts for the light green tint of the cooking water from them.
•Effect of prolonged cooking and acid As the cooking process continues the colour
of the green vegetables varies from the bright green colour of chlorophyll to the olive
green. Magnesium present in the structure of chlorophyll is rather easily displaced by
hydrogen molecule when it is heated in the presence of organic acids. A pale greenish
grey compound known as Pheophytin-a or an olive-green Pheophytin-b results.
•Green vegetables which are lower in acid retain a higher percentage of chlorophyll
when they are cooked than do more acid vegetables ex. Pulicha keerai (Gogu) which is
very sour becomes olive green as soon as it is put in hot water.
•Cooking vegetables in an uncovered pan to eliminate volatile acids and by using
enough water to cover the vegetables to dilute those acids which are not volatile. Hence
greens should be cooked without lid for the first few minutes to allow the volatile acids
to escape.
•Destruction of chlorophyll increases with cooking time. Chlorophyll-a is more readily
converted to pheophytin than chlorophyll-b. Green vegetables should be cooked for a
very short time, less than 7 minutes to retain the colour.
•Effect of canning; Vegetables like peas, beans, greens are sometimes canned.
•During canning, chlorophyll gets converted to pheophytin due to the high temperatures
used.

•Effect of sodium bicarbonate : When sodium bicarbonate reacts with chlorophyll the
phytyl and methyl groups displaced and a bright green water-soluble chlorophyllin is
formed. The sodium salt of chlorophyllin gives the cooked green vegetables an intense
artificial greenness.
•Effect of freezing :The better retention of colour of frozen green vegetables is due to
elimination of major part of the plant acids by blanching prior to freezing.
•Effect of copper: The colour of chlorophyll is enhanced in the presence of copper and
weak acid.
•Effect of calcium salt: Addition of a small amount of calcium acetate or other
calcium salt prevents the mushiness by blocking the breakdown of the hemicelluloses.
•Chlorophyll can be retained best
•By starting with boiling water which in turn reduces the actual time required to
tenderise. Vegetables should be cooked less than 5 minutes as pheophytin forms
between 5 and 7 minutes.
•By using slight excess of water to dilute the acids.
•By initially cooking in an open pan.
Carotenoids
• Ordinary cooking conditions have little effect on the colour or the nutritive
value of carotenoid.
• The colour is little affected by acid, alkali and the volume of the water.
• The nutritive value is protected during cooking by the insolubility in water.
Effect of heat and oxidation
The high degree of unsaturation of the carotenoids makes them susceptible to oxidation
with resulting loss of colour after the food containing them has been dried.
The loss in intensity of colour is not only due to oxidation of the unsaturation of
carotene but also shift from trans to cis form.
The finer the vegetable divided or cut and higher the temperatures that are used and
longer cooking process can hasten the process of oxidation.
Blanching prior to dehydration is helpful in reducing the likelihood of oxidation.
Blanching makes lipids free from the proteins with which they are complexed as
lipoproteins.

Effect of cooking in fat

Appreciable amounts and enough to affect the colour will dissolve in ghee, when carrot
kheer or halwa is made.

FLAVONOIDS
Red cabbage exhibits unusually wild swings in colour with a change in PH because of
the presence of more than four hydroxyl groups on the anthocyanin molecule.
Red cabbage is frequently cooked with the addition of some slices of a tart apple to
ensure that the PH is sufficiently acidic to avoid the development of a blue, highly
unpalatable pigment colour.
The addition of alkali alters the structure of anthocyanin molecule and produces a salt.
Effect of metal
• Special enamel linings in the cans are used when canning anthocyanin
containing fruits and vegetables.
• The presence of ascorbic acid with copper or iron accelerates the oxidation and
undesirable colour changes of anthocyanin compounds.
• The metal iron precipitates the pigment. Iron and aluminium produce
considerable discolouration; iron reacts with anthocyanins to form intense black
discolouration.
• Red cabbage shredded with a non stainless steel blade turns blue very rapidly
from the reaction between the iron of peeler and pigment of the cabbage.
Effect of method of cooking
• Cooking in a steamer or in a pressure pan which limit the contact of the
vegetable with water are better methods than boilingin water.
• To retain the red colour in red cabbage, the cooking water should be acidified.
Otherwise, the pigment will change to a dull and unappetizing blue.

Effect of tap water

• Since tap water is slightly alkaline, the anthocyanins are changed to unattractive
blue or grey colour.

Effect of pickling
• Pickles are usually low in pH and anthocyanins change to deep crimson red in
colour.
BETALAINS
Although these pigments are held tightly within cells in the raw vegetable, they diffuse
rather rapidly into the cooking water resulting in the highly pigmented water associated
with boiling beets. This problem is aggravated by cutting beet into small pieces and
cooking leading to dull colouration in the boiled product. Since this colour is highly
soluble in water, the best method of cooking beet root is to cook alongwith the skin, so
that much of the colour does not leach out.
Effect of pH
• Betacyanins undergo colour changes parallel to anthocyanins.
• An acidic medium promotes a reddish colour, whereas a neutral or somewhat
alkaline pH brings out brownish blue of the pigment.
ANTHOXANTHINS:
Effect of pH : The colour of the vegetable will be whiter if little acid such as lime
juice or vinegar is added during cooking.
• If the water in which cauliflower is cooked is slightly alkaline, it will have a
distinctly yellow colour to it. They turn yellow or orange in the presence of alkali. This
is used as a confirmatory test.
Effect of metal
• They cause the cooking water to turn a bit yellow, when they are cooked in
aluminium pans because the flavones scavenge aluminium and form a flavones
aluminium chelate. Such reactions also take place in cast iron pans.
• Pears and white potatoes sometimes develop a pinkish colour in their cut
surfaces when they stand for a while after being peeled or sliced. Apparently this colour
change is due to conversion of the pro-anthocyanin to the pigmented and closely-
related compound cyanidin.
Effect of cooking on sulphur containing vegetables
• Cooked cauliflower yields about twice as much hydrogen sulphide as does
cooked cabbage. Broccoli also contributes more hydrogen sulphide than does the
cabbage. Dimethyl sulphide is a key volatile compound produced when cabbage is
boiled.
• Many of the sulphur compounds contributing flavours to various members of
the allium genus are quite volatile and escape during cooking unless the cooking time is
short.
Effect of cooking on phenolic content
The effect of cooking on phenolic content varies in different vegetables.
Method of processing has no effect on phenolic content in spinach and other vegetables
like onion and tomato. Boiling,pressure cooking and microwave cooking significantly
decreased phenolic content in amaranth.
• In brinjal, there is a significant increase by all the methods as compared to the
raw brinjals. In
Role of vegetables in cookery
Vegetables are used universally in all recipes.
1.They are used in curries, salads and in sambar.
2.They are used as garnishing agents e.g., shredded carrot and coriander leaves.
3.They are used as stuffing in samosa and parathas.
4.They are used as thickening agents in gravies and soups.
5. They are used in chutneys(onion) and pickles(tomato,onion).
6. They are used as part of recipes like pulao, aluvadi and in non- vegetarian dishes.

FRUITS:
1. Fruits are produced from flowers and they are the ripened ovary or ovaries of a plant
together with adjacent tissues. Fruits are fleshy or pulpy in character often juicy and
usually sweet with fragrant, aromatic flavours.
2. Fruits are very poor source of protein and fat. Avocado is the exception containing
28 per cent fat.
3.Fruits are not very good sources of calories. Fruits like bananas give fairly good
amount of calories. Ripe fruit contains a higher percentage of sugar than unripe fruit
and the sugar is chiefly in the form of sucrose, fructose and glucose.
4. Generally fruits are poor source of iron. Seethaphal is also a good source of iron.
5. Mangoes are the excellent source of carotenes. Alphonso variety was found to be the
richest source of β- carotene. Banginapally and peddarasalu are fairly good source of β-
carotene. Apart from mango, Indian dates and papaya are good sources of β- carotene.
Oranges are fairly good source of β- carotene.
6. Guavas are the best source of vitamin C. Citrus fruits are also rich in vitamin C .
Cashew fruits are inexpensive and rich in vitamin C. Although there is variation of
vitamin content from fruit to fruit most fruits in the raw state contain some ascorbic
acid. Amla is the richest source of vitamin C. If fruits are bruised, peeled, cooked or
exposed to air, alkali or copper, large amounts of the vitamin may be oxidized.

Enzymatic browning
The rapid darkening of the cut surface of apple, (brinjal and potato) and banana are
examples of enzymatic browning. Normally the natural enzymatic compounds present
in intact tissues and do not come into contact with the phenol oxidases present in some
tissues. When the tissues are cut, or injured and the cut surface is exposed to air, phenol
oxidase enzyme released at the surface, act on the polyphenols present, oxidising them
to orthoquinones. The orthoquinones rapidly polymerise to form brown pigments.
Tyrosine, chlorogenic acid, the various catechins and several mono and
dihydroxyphenols are among the many compounds that can serve as substrates for
oxidation by poly phenoloxidase to cause browning or other discolouration in these
foods. Phenolase is also known by other names as polyphenol oxidase, tyrosinase or
catecholase, each is specific for certain substrate. The optimum pH for the activity of
the enzyme polyphenolase is between 5 and 7.
prevention of Enzymatic browning
Enzymatic browning can be prevented either by inactivating the enzyme or cutting off
the oxygen.
1.Temperature: The most commonly used method is blanching. This method has
several limitations. The enzyme is fairly heat stable and requires to be heated at 100oC
for 2-10 minutes for complete inactivation. This may not be possible in practice as
cooking for long periods will affect the flavour and texture of the fruits. The optimum
temperature for browning is 43oC-50oC. If food is kept at higher or lower temperature
browning is reduced. Coagulation of protein occurs during blanching, thereby
inactivating the enzyme. When fruit is canned or made into jams or jellies, the
browning reaction stops as soon as the fruit is heated sufficiently to denature the
enzyme.

2.Change in pH: The optimum pH for polyphenolase activity is between 6.0 and 7.0,
lowering of the pH to 4.0 by the addition of citric acid inhibits the phenolase activity. It
is also possible citric acid reacts with the copper present in the enzyme. Malic acid also
has been found to be effective. Lemon juice contains both citric acid and ascorbic acid
and both are effective.
3. Use of antioxidants: Chemical additives like sulphur dioxide and vitamin C serve to
inhibit enzymes, alter enzyme substrates or limit entrance of oxygen. Sulphur dioxide,
sulphites and bisulphites inhibit effectively browning. A sulphite concentration
sufficient to maintain a free sulphur dioxide concentration of 10 parts/million will
completely inhibit phenolase. Being a reducing agent sulphite has an additional benefit
of preserving the ascorbic acid level. Pineapple juice has a relatively high percentage of
sulphydryl compounds which are active antioxidants. Fruits can be dipped in dilute
solution of 0.025 percent sodium metabisulphite for 45 seconds. If the sliced fruit is
then immersed for a short time for 5 minutes in a solution of 0.2 percent dipotassium
phosphate, the odour of sulphur is less pronounced and the fruit remains crisp and does
not brown subsequently
Ascorbic acid retards browning by virtue of its reducing power. It is used along with
citric acid to reduce browning. A solution of ascorbic acid is effective in preventing
browning as it acts as a reducing agent for the oxidised intermediate of a phenolic
compound and thus prevent polymerisation and subsequent oxidation of the substrate.
Sometimes, it acts directly on some functional groups in the enzyme.
4. Prevention of contact with oxygen: Contact with oxygen can be reduced by
immersing the fruits in water, or liquids like milk, curd, fruit juice or honey or by
covering with a wet clothafter cutting.

Addition of sodium chloride or sugar to the cut fruit prevents browning. Due to
osmosis, fruit is covered by leached solution and prevents contact with oxygen. 
In a large scale, this is technically difficult to implement and costly. This used when
other methods are not applicable or effective in controlling browning. A typical
example is browning in avocado products. Packaging the product under nitrogen
prevents surface browning effectively.

Deoxygenation and vacuum closing are also used to diminish oxidation. High
concentration of sodium chloride or sugar solution depresses the activity of plant
oxidases, including phenolases.

SPICES:
The food is to be seasoned by the addition of flavouring agents which include spices
and condiments. Spices are usually dried roots, barks or seeds used whole, crushed or
powdered. Herbs are usually the fresh leaves, stems or flowers of herbaceous plants.
Spices are shorter than herbs.
Aromatic food substances which enhance flavour are spices and herbs. Spices are
usually roots, barks or seeds used whole, crushed or powdered. Herbs are usually the
fresh leaves, stem flowers of herbaceous plants. Spices are stronger than herbs.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF SPICES
 Spices add flavour and colour to food and make the food palatable and hence
add vaniety in the Cereals, pulses, vegetables or meat can be cooked in variety
of forms due to addition of differ kinds of spices.
 Spices in general stimulate salivation, acid secretion, and digestive enzymes.
Spices increase secretion of saliva containing more of ptyalin so that foods rich
in carbohydrates are easily digested Spices are used for digestion and to reduce
flatulence.
 Some spices have anti-int lammatory, antibacterial and antiOxidant properties.
 Some spices help in improving the impaired blood glucose levels in the body
and help diabetics.
 Some spices reduce cholesterol levels and may be useful in preventing heart
diseases.
 Some spices are considered antimutagenous or anticarcinogenous.
 Flavour moiety is well protected in whole spices by the cells from evaporation and
oxidation Whole spices release flavour slowly. Grinding spices release the flavour,
finer the powder, more readily available is the flavour.

SPECIFIC SPICES MEDICINAL VALUE:

Ajwain(omum)
With its characteristics aromatic smell and pungent taste ajwain is widely used as a
spice in curries. The essential oil present is a natural source of thymol. It is used in
biscuits, namkeen, ompodi, rusks, pickles ,beverages and pan mixtures.
•Medicinal value
It is a household remedy for indigestion. Ajwain is much valued for its antispasmodic,
stimulant and carminative effects.
Aniseed (somfu)
The flavouring principle of it is a volatile oil. The chief compound of which is anethole.
It is chewed after meals and used as mouth freshener. It is used in cakes, breads,
cookies and candies, vada curry, kurma,non-vegetarian dishes, biryani, kachori and in
pickles.
•Medicinal value : An infusion of fennel is used to counteract flatulence. It is mildly
carminative and used in treating colic pain.
Asafetida
It is an oleo gum resin exuded from the rhizome or root of ferula asafoetida.The odour
components consists of a ferulic ester and sulphur containing volatile oil. Asafoetida is
available in the market mixed with starch to dilute the strong flavor. It is used in
seasonings of rasam, sambar and lemon rice.
•Medicinal value: Asafoetida is used as an antimicrobial agent. It is also used in
treating chronic bronchitis and whooping cough.It is used in counter acting intestinal
flatulence.It increases the levels of detoxification enzymes in the body.
Bay leaves (birinj leaves)
They are the dried aromatic leaves of laurel tree. They contain 1-3 percent of highly
aromatic volatile oil. Oil of bay leaves is used in the preparation of pickling spice and
in the flavouring of vinegar. The leaves are used for flavouring meat preparations,
pulav, soups, kadi, chowders, stews, fish, tomato pickle and birinj sweet.
Cardamom
The fruit contains brownish black seeds which have about 2-10% volatile oil with the
characteristic pleasant odour.The active principles present in the oil cineole, terpinyl
acetate, pinene, sabinene and porneol. It is mainly used for flavouring sweet
preparations, cookies, breads, cakes and preserves
Chilies
They occur in different sizes, shapes and colour shades.The red colouring matter of
chillies is due to a carotenoid pigment, capsanthin. The pungency of chilli extracts are
expressed in terms of “Scoville value”. Ground chilli is used in most of the Indian
gravies and vegetable dishes. It is used in making chutneys, pickles, dehydrated chilies
and in day-to-day preparations. Dry chillies are used for seasoning. In Chinese cookery
chilli and vinegar are used as a side dish. Chilli chicken, chilli fish, chilli mutton and
chilli sauce are also used in Chinese cookery. Powder or fresh ground chilli is used in
gravies.Smaller the chilli more is the pungency. Sometimes chilli powder may be
adulterated with saw dust, brick powder and coloring matter.
•Medicinal Value
Chillies contain a substance called capsaicin which increases the gastric secretion and it
causes the destruction of the mucosal cells. Capsaicin present in chillies stimulates
digestive system.
Cinnamon
It is thin inner bark of the cinnamon tree. The bark contains about 1% essential oil. The
active principles are eugenol, cineole and cinnamaldehyde. It is used in stick form in
fruit preserves. It is used in ground form in cakes,cookies and puddings,sauces and
pickles.Cinnamon is used for making garam masala powder. Methyl hydroxyl chalcone
polymer present in cinnamon is a flavonoid which acts as antioxidant.
Clove
It is the dried flower bud of the clove tree. It contains about 15% essential oil. Eugenol,
the major component of clove oil is a phenolic compound, a naturally occurring
antioxidant which prevents foods from turning rancid. Eugenol esters are used as
flavouring agent. Cloves are used whole is meats,pickling and fish.It is used ground in
cakes,cookies and puddings.It is used as flavouring agent in pulav,rice puttu and fruit
cake.
Due to strong aroma and hot pungent taste, cloves are used as flavouring and dietary
additives, particularly in meats and bakery products.
•Medicinal value: Cloves and clove oil are extensively used in many households as an
aid to combat minor ailments like indigestion, flatulence, tooth ache etc. Its bactericidal
and fungicidal properties favour its use in human medicine as an antiputrescent.
Coriander seed
Seeds contain 0.5-1% essential oil which has an active principle coriander an isomer of
geraniol.The roasted powdered seeds are used as an ingredient of curry powders.It is
used as flavouring and thickening agent in cookery. In the form of powder it is used in
rasam,all curries and vegetables and chutney powders. It is also used as whole in
kamandhokla, samosas and kachori.
•Medicinal value: Dhania seeds are chewed to correct foul breath. An infusion of
coriander seeds is used in flatulence, vomiting and intestinal disorders. Coriander seeds
contain thalides which increase the levels of anticancer protectiveenzymes.
Cumin seeds
It is pungent sharp and astringent. It contains 2-4% essential oil. The active principle is
an aldehyde cumino. The seeds are used in soups, cheese-spreads, candies, lassi,
pongal, pulav and rava pongal. It is also used as part of curry powder, sambar powder
and rasam powder.
•Medicinal Value: It is used as stimulant and carminative agent. Cumin seeds contain
bio-active substances called pthalides which increase the levels of anticancer protective
enzymes in the body.
Fenugreek seeds
It is hard lentil seed. Its colour is dark fawn and has astringent aroma. Seed contain 5%
bitter fixed oil. It is bitter in taste and used in small quantities in seasonings like sambar
and kadhi. In pickles, this improves
flavor and keeping quality. To reduce bitterness it is always used in cookery with sour
substances
•Medicinal value: Fenugreek seeds aid in maintaining the blood glucose levels in non-
insulin dependent diabetics. The fibre present in the seed may be responsible for this. It
is also used with butter milk in the treatment of dysentery.
Garlic
Garlic contains an antibiotic principle “allin” (inactive form) which is converted to
allicin (active form) by the enzyme allinase. Allicin further breaks down to allyl
disulphide, which is responsible for characteristic flavour It is used in recipes like
rasam, pickle,chutney,pulav, sauces, most of the non-vegetarian dishes and in soups.
•Medicinal Value: Garlic is used to treat various digestive disorders. It has
antibacterial properties against gram positive and gram negative bacteria. The extracts
of garlic and onion are known to inhibit growth of many pathogenic fungi belonging to
aspergillus and candida.
Ginger
It is the root of the plant Zingiber officinale Roscoe.The volatile oil present is
‘gingerol’.It is mainly pungent with lemony or camphory note. The flavouring
compound has sharp burning sensory stimulation. Dry ginger is more pungent and
valuable for the zest it gives to blander spices.Whole root is used for curries, pickles,
chutney, preserves dried fruit. Ground ginger is used as masala, in preparations like
pulav, pongal,all non-vegetarian dishes, as chutney, pickles, salad ( mango salad). It is
also used in beverages
like tea, lime juice and buttermilk. Ginger is used as preserve in murabba.
•Medicinal Value: Ginger is known to have antioxidant properties. Ginger is reported
to reduce inflammation and pain in joints. The gingerol in ginger act as natural cough
suppressant.It also as potential prophylactic use in treating migraine headaches.It may
also be effective in alleviating nausea.
Mustard
These are the small reddish black seeds of annual herbs. The leaves of this plant are
consumed as vegetables. Mustard seeds have a pungent flavor. The characteristic
flavour of mustard seed is due to an allyl iso thiocyanate. The mustard paste is used to
flavour hotdogs, sandwiches, cheese, eggs, meat and salad dressings. Dry mustard is
used in meat, sauces, gravies and mayonnaise. It is used in the powdered form in
pickles. It is used in the vegetable preparations and raitha. It is used mainly for the
seasoning. Mustard oil is also used in cookery.
•Medicinal Value
Mustard seeds are rich in sulphur containing compounds namely the dithiol thiones
which protect against the toxic effects of aflatoxin. The dithiothione is also used as
antischistosomal drug.
Nutmeg is the dry hard wrinkled seed or pit of the nutmeg fruit. Mace is the orange red
fleshly covering of the nutmeg kernel. They contain 7-14% essential oil. This essential
oil contains highly toxic compound known as myristicin. Nut Meg and mace are used
in small amounts to flavour puddings and fruit pie. Mace is more delicate and used for
flavouring fish sauces, certain meat and fish dishes.It is used in gram masala.
Myristicin present in nutmeg seeds could lead to delirium and deep stupor. Smaller
amounts of nutmeg may cause vomiting and colic.
•Medicinal value
Nut Meg has antimicrobial property. The volatile components of these spices are
believed to be responsible for this property.
Onion
It is used as a flavouring agent in food preparations. It contains an essential oil the
active principle of which is responsible for the characteristic cooked flavour is allyl
propyl disulphide.It is used in cookery to improve the flavour or to mask undesirable
flavours and to increase the thickness of the gravies.
•Medicinal Value
Consumption of raw or cooked onion is believed to aid in maintenance of normal
glucose levels. Onion has antibacterialproperties.The sulphur containing compounds
from these plants strongly act against both gram positive and gram negative
bacteria.The extract of onion are known to inhibit growth of many pathogenic fungi
belonging to aspergillus and candida. Onion can lower blood cholesterol and lipid
levels and is also useful in preventing heart diseases. Onion has stimulative, diuretic
and expectorant properties. It is good for flatulence and dysentery.
Poppy seeds
They are tiny dark cream colour seeds of poppy plant which are used for topping of
bread, cake,rolls or fillings for buns. Oil extract is used for salads. Poppy seeds are used
as thickening agent in the preparation of gravies. It is also used in korma, non-
vegetarian dishes and sweets.
Pepper
They are the dried small round berry of a tropical vine with small white flowers. Pepper
owes its characteristics pungency and aroma ti its oleoresin. The alkaloid peperine is
considered to be the major constituent responsible for the biting taste of black pepper.
The characteristic aromatic odour of pepper is due to the presence of volatile oil in the
cells of pericarp.
Pepper corns are used whole or crushed. Ground pepper is used for seasoning many
dishes and is also used as a condiment at thetable.Pepper corns are generally used
whole in pickling meat and stews.It is used ground for general seasoning of meat fish,
poultry, vegetables and salads. White pepper, for which black coat removed, is used in
dishes that require a less pungent flavour. It is used in making bonda, pongal,
rasam,kolambu,vadai and fried rice, and also used as substitute for chilli powder. It is also
used in marinating the non – vegetarian foods. Flavour can be improved by the addition of
pepper powder to omelettes, sandwich,salads, papads, soups and chips. Sometimes it is
adulterated with papaya seeds.
Tamarind
This spice is the pulp of the tamarind fruit after the outer shell and seeds are removed.
The extract is used in making rasam and sambar. It is used as souring agent in
chutneys,chat,pickle,pani puri and in tamarind rice. It is also used as thickening agent
in gravies. Tamarind puree and tamarind powder are available in the market.
Turmeric
It is the ground dried aromatic root. It contains 5% essential oil. The colouring
substance present is known as curcumin .
Its natural aroma is most appetizing and on its own without the use of other spices, can
produce delicious food. It is used ground in curry powder, meat and egg dishes, in
pickles and as a colouring agent in cakes and rice, It is used in lemon rice, sambhar,
dhal,kadi and kichidi and in marinating meat. Sometimes turmeric may be adulterated
with metanil yellow or lead salts.
Medicinal value: Protective factors in turmeric help in detoxifying harmful drugs or
chemicals that are converted to toxic metabolites.Turmeric help in increasing the mucin
content of gastric juice and reduce irritation in stomach. It is also used to relieve sore
throat, cough, cold and against flatulence. Turmeric can be a potent anticancer agent.
The active principle of turmeric, curcumin is known for • its inhibitory action on
bacteria and arresting the growth of fungi.
Vanilla
The active principle is “vanillin”. Synthetic vanilla is much cheaper than that of the
natural product. It imparts the flavour and it is used in ice-creams, custards, puddings
and cakes.
Vinegar and monosodium glutamate are not spices ,but they improve taste and flavour
of food .
Vinegar
It is used in Chinese cookery and also as souring agent in preserves.
Monosodium glutamate
Ajinomoto is a Japanese brand name for MSG. Monosodium glutamate is the sodium
salt of the amino acid, glutamic acid. It is believed to stimulate the taste receptors of the
tongue enhancing perception of the flavour.
Monosodium glutamate is known to cause MSG syndrome, symptoms of which include
a burning sensation, headache, weakness and coronary palpitations.
Though use of spices has many advantages sometimes spicy food may suppress the
subtle natural taste and odour and sometimes may cause gastric disturbances.
Unit- v

Nutritional significance of fats and oils

 Concentrated source of energy (9 k.cal / 1 gm) . By weight provides 2.25

times more energy than proteins and Carbohydrates.
 Reduce bulk in the diet.
 Excellent sources of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
 Play important role in the bio-synthesis of several long chain fatty acids.
 Provide EFA (linoleic acid) are components of membranes of living
cells.
 Used in prostaglandlin synthesis which is involved in large variety of
vital physiological functions, like reducing the blood clotting rate and
presents clot blocking of coronary arteries.
 Slow in leaving stomach and lance retard digestion. Thus delays the
pangs of hunger.
 Digestibility – 95 to 98%
 Digestibility depends on melting point (M.P)
 Melting point – < 430C – completely digested
 Melting point – > 430C – slowly digested.

 Butter: Cream pasteurized to inactivate lipase and destroy microorganisms.

Starter added to produce lactic acid which alters flavor. Cream churned by
agitation by adding H2O forms batter by the coalesee of fat globules by
rupturing the protein – surrounded by each globule. Salt can be added to butter.

Ex. Oil in water emulsion

 Lard:
 Lard is an animal fat of pigs
 Prepared by heat rendering of fatty tissues.
 The quantity of lard depends on the location of fatty tissues in the
animal and the method of heating.
 Methods to delay the rancidity
  Autoxidation
 Bleaching
 Homogenization
 Deodorisation
 Adding emulsifiers

 Margarine
 Margarine is used as a substitute for butter made from vegetable
oils like soya bean, cotton seed etc., mixture of vegetable and animal fat
by hydrogenation.
 Made from one or more optional fat ingredients churned with
cultured pasteurised skimmed milk (SM) or whey.
 vitamin A & D can also be added to enhance nutritive value
 Other ingredients that can be added are
 Lactin monoglycerdes and/or
 Fat forming fatty acids
 Emulsifying agents
 Artificial colors
 Salt
 Citric acid /certain citrates / sodium benzoate – as
preservative to the extent of 0.1%.

 Ground nut oil

 Clear colored liquid
 Used exclusively in cooking
 Used in margarine preparation and vanaspathy
 Used to preserve fish tinned sardines

 Other oils
 Rape seed / mustard oil : Used as edible oil and as a lamp oil
 Sesame oil – Used as edible oil
 Coconut oil – Used in the preparation of soaps, vanaspathy and
margarine. Also used as edible oil
 Cotton seed
 Sun flower
 Soya bean oil –Can be used to get concentrated and isolated
sources of protein
 Palm oil – Rich in β-carotene.
spoilage of fats and oils

1. Flavor reversion
1. An objectionable flavour found before the onset of rancidity in
refined oils when exposed to UV light, visible light or heating.
2. The reaction is catalysed by O2 and small amounts of metals
such as iron and copper
3. Fats containing nucleic acid are most susceptible to reversion.
 4. Soya bean oil is mostly subjected to flavor reversion.

Prevention of reversion
5. Hydrogenation
6. Small amount of linolenic acid prevents reversion.
7. Metallic activators or sequestrants tie up to iron and copper
and prevents revertion in soya oil.

2. Rancidity
1. Occurs mostly in fats containing unsaturated fatty acids.

Hydrolytic rancidity
2. Occurs due to enzymes that decomposes fat in to free fatty
acids (FFA) and glycerol.
3. Butyric acid and caproic acids are the volatile fatty acids,
predominately present in butter are responsible for rancid flavour or
odour in butter and makes butter inedible.
4. Long chain fatty acids such as stearic, palmitic and oleic acids
do not produce rancidity unless oxidation occurs.
5. Heating thoroughly to destroy lipase catalyses hydrolysis of
trans fats and prevents hydrolytic rancidity.
6. Certain microorganisms also produces lipase.

Oxidation
7. Unsaturated fats have lipoxygenase and are susceptible to
oxidative changes.
8. Highly hydrogenated saturated fatty acids are resistant to
oxidation.
9. Hydro peroxides that are formed readily producing smaller
volatile substances will give characteristic odours of rancid fat.

Characteristics of Rancidity
10. Undesirable changes in odour, flavour, colour and consistency
11. Inactivates vitamin A & E
12. Oxidative rancidity may be a problem in dry foods containing
only small quantities of fat such as prepared cereals.

Prevention of rancidity
13. storage at refrigerator temperature prevents rancidity.
14. Light coloured glass containers absorb active rays and gives
protection against spoilage.
15. Certain shades of green bottles, cora papers, yellow transparent
cellophane etc. prevents rancidity.
16. Vacuum packaging
17. Anti-oxidants naturally present in food such as vitamin ‘C’, β-
carotene and vitamin E.
18. Added antioxidants such as
1. Butylated hydrogen anisole (BHA)
 2. Tertiary butly hydro quivous (TBHQ)
3. Propyl gallate
19. synergists or sequestering agents – citric acid – bind or chelate
the metals and prevents oxidation process.

1. Smoking point
 Temperature at which smoke comes continuously from the surface
of fat.
 Development of free fatty acids by hydrolysis of fat during frying
causes a decrease in the smoking point.
 Fat that has had repeated or prolonged use will begin to smoke at a
temperature too low for frying.
 Suspended matter such as flour or batter particles lowers smoking
point
 Greater the surface of fat exposed the lower is the smoke point.
 Fats heated in shallow wide pans with slightly sloping sides begin
to smoke at low temperature than those heated in smaller pans, with
vertical sides.
 Smoking point of soya, cotton seed, pea nut and corn oils is 2300C.
 The smoking point of hydrogenated fats is 221-2320C.
 Shortenings containing monoglyceride as an emulsifier smoke at a
lower temperature of about 1760C.

2. Changes in fat on heating

 There are four main ways in which oil decomposes and all of these
lead to a diminution of smoke point and operating temperature and
lowers cooking quality, if the oils are kept for a long time.

3. Pyrolysis (thermal break down)

 The action of heating oil , whether or not it is in contact with food,
causes a break down in its molecular structure
 When fat begins to smoke, its chemical break down begins and free
fatty acids and acrolein are formed from glycerol.
 If the fat is allowed to smoke for any periods of time , the acrolein
causes irritation of eyes and nostrils.

4. Oxidation
 Reaction of hot oil surface with oxygen in air causes molecular
break down and development of rancidity.

5. Hydrolysis
 As water is boiled in large quantities from food during frying, some
of this water will tend to decompose the oil.

6. Reaction with food residues

 Food fragments left in oil after cooking undergo chemical reaction
particularly if the oil is heated without removing residues. Straining oil
 after use reduces this type of deterioration.

ROLE OF FATS AND OILS IN COOKERY

1. Fat or oil used as medium of cooking
 Used in shallow and Deep fat frying .
 Better cooking medium than air or water as it is having greater
specific heat. Temperature of fats and oil is about 2000C higher than
that of H2O.
 Pan frying to cook dosa, chapatti, omelettes, cutlets
 Deep fat frying to cook vadas, cutlets, bajjis and pakodas.
 A satisfactory fats has high decomposition point, high smoking
point with no undesirable odor.

2. Fat absorption
 Fat absorption should be minimum from the point of palatability
and ease or rapidity of digestion.
Factors affecting fat absorption are

1. Foods containing high sugar and fat absorb more oil

2. Addition of egg cause increased absorption of fat
3. Doughnuts made from soft wheat flours absorb more fat than made
from strong flours
1. Gluten present in soft wheat  flours increases fat
absorption
4. Porous surfaces like bread or fermented foods absorbs more fat
5. Surfaces with more cracks absorbs more fat
Ex. Adding sodium bicarbonate to bajji causes porousness in food and
results in high fat absorption.
6. Greater the surface areas of the food products, the more will be fat
absorption
7. Higher moisture content leads to enhanced fat absorption 
Ex. Pooris and vadas
Temperature of fat and the length of time of heating

8. Longer the time the food is cooked with fat, higher will be fat
absorption
9. Using the repeated heated oils lowers smoking point
10. Higher the free fatty acid content, the higher will be the oil
absorption.
11. Presence of finely divided material in fat accumulated during
repeated frying lowers smoking point
The frying life of fat can be improved by

12. Filtering after use,

13. Storing in a refrigerator
14. Low surface of fat exposed lowers smoking point . This indicates
the importance of using deep rather than shallow pan for frying.
 Importance of fats and oils

 Fat improves texture: In cakes biscuits and cookies, acts as leavening

agent – in cake by incorporating oil in the flour forms walls around each
little bubble.

 Fat as a shortening agent: In baked products being insoluble in water,

fat interferes with the hydration of gluten and cohesion of gluten strands
during mixing, thus shortening them and making the product tender.

 Fats for smoothness:

 In ice cream and frozen desserts limits size of crystal and gives
smooth texture
 Fats interferes with crystallization of sugar – halwa, candies.
 Avoid lump formation – Upma
 Forms emulsion in mayonnaise gives smooth texture

 Fats enhances flavour

 Aromatic flavour substances dissolve in fat and intensifies
flavor
Ex. Onion, ginger, garlic, pepper etc.
 Fats improve palatability in taste, flavor, palatability, eg. Ghee.
 Fats acts as coloring agents. Ex. Turmeric added to oil
distributed in food uniformly.

 Synergists
 Compounds that delays auto-oxidation by reinforcing the
action of antioxidants.
 Ex. Citric acid, phosphoric acid, ascorbic acid,
lecithin, EDA – They combine with the pro oxidant metals
like cupper and iron and makes them ineffective.

SUGARS AND RELATED PRODUCTS

Sweeteners have been used for food since prehistoric times, probably beginning with
the discovery of honey. Desire for sweet taste is inherent in every individual. Sugar and
jaggery are used in beverages and other foods to increase palatability.
NUTRITIVE VALUE

Sugar provides only energy to the body. Therefore, foods that contain relatively
large amounts of sugar generally have low nutrient density-proportionately less
protein, minerals and vitamins

Table: nutritive value of sugar per 100g

 Energy(kcal) Carbohydrate(g) Calcium(mg) Iron(mg)

Sugar 398 99.4 12 0.15

Jaggery 383 95.0 80 2.64

Honey 319 79.5 5 0.69

Molasses, which contains the natural ash of the plant juices from which it is
made, furnishes some nutrients other than carbohydrate such as a small
amount of calcium and iron.

Properties

 Solubility
In the natural state of foods, sugars are in
solution. crysatallisation of sugar occurs from a sufficiently
concentrated sugar solution, and use of this is made in the
commercial production of sugar from sugarcane and beets. The
most-soluble sugar is fructose, followed by sucrose and lactose.
The sugar that is the most soluble such as fructose is most
difficult to crystallise than that the least-soluble sugar, lactose.

 Absorption of moisture
Sugars are hygroscopic. Fructose is more hygroscopic than the
other sugars. Cakes made with honey, molasses remain moist for
a long time.

 Fermentation
Most sugars, except lactose, may be fermented by yeasts to
produce carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. This is an important
reaction in making bread and other baked products. The carbon
dioxide leavens the product and the alcohol volatilises
during baking.

 Acid hydrolysis
Sucrose is easily hydrolysed by acid but maltose and lactose are
slowly acted on. The end products of sucrose hydrolysis are a
mixture of glucose and fructose. This mixture is commonly called
invert sugar. The monosaccharides are not appreciably affected by
acids. Heat accelerates the action of acid.
 Enzyme hydrolysis 
The enzyme sucrose also called invertase is used in the candy
industry to hydrolyse some of the sucrose in cream fondant to
fructose and glucose. This is done to produce soft, semi fluid
centres in chocolates. The enzyme is commonly added to the
fondant layer around the fruit in chocolate coated cherries.

 Melting point and decomposition by heat

1. Caramelisation 
With the application of sufficient dry heat, sugar melts or
changes to a liquid state. Heating beyond the melting point
brings about a number of decompositional changes. As
sucrose melts around 160oC, a clear liquid forms that
gradually changes to a brown colour with continued
heating. At about 170oC, carmelisation occurs with the
development of a characteristic caramel flavour along with
the brown colour.
Caramelisation is a complex reaction, involving the
removal of water and eventual polymerisation. Caramel
has a pungent taste, is often bitter, is much less sweeter
than the original sugar from which it is produced, and is
non-crystalline. It is soluble in water. Fructose caramelises
at 110oC, and maltose caramelises at about 180oC,
galactose at 170oC.

2. Decomposition by alkalies 
The monosaccharides are markedly decomposed by
alkalies and flavour may become strong and bitter.
Sucrose is least affected by alkalies.

3. Sweetness
Of the sugars, lactose is the least, followed by maltose,
galactose, glucose and sucrose with fructose being the
most sweet. A maximum sweetness from fructose is most
likely to be achieved when it is used slightly with acid,
cold foods and in beverages.

Sugar Related Products

 D-Glucose
It is a natural sugar commonly called as dextrose in
 confectionery industry. Honey and fruits also contain glucose.
The source of glucose for commercial manufacture is starch.

 D-fructose
It is a hexose monosaccharide. It is a natural sugar. It is
sweeter than sucrose. The richest sources are honey and ripe
fruits. It is used in confectionery to provide sweetness,
flavour and colour.
 Dextrose syrup
The manufacture of dextrose from starch is a multi-enzyme
process.

Carbohydrate composition

Glucose : 94 - 98 %

Maltose : 1-3%

Saccharide : 1-2%

Corn syrup
It contains 75.0 % carbohydrate and 25.0 % water. Acid and high
temperatures are applied to hydrolyse corn starch. The
carbohydrate of the resulting product comprises from 10 - 36 %
glucose and from 9 - 20 % maltose and the remainder consisting
of higher sugars and dextrins. It inhibits crystallisation in foods. It
is useful in baked products. It enhances citrus flavour in fruit
products used in cola beverages. Dried corn syrup is also available
and is used in dry beverage mixes, instant breakfast mixes, cereal
bars and sauce mixes. Liquid glucose is used in chikkis (16 %) to
get lighter colour and chewy taste.

High Fructose Corn syrup (HFCS)It is manufactured from high

quality dextrose syrup by enzymatic isomerisation. It is sweeter
than sucrose. HFCS inhibits crystallisation in foods. It is useful in
baked products and in cooking. It enhances citrus flavour in fruit
products used in cola beverages. HFCS is marketed in three types
42 percent, 55 percent and 90 percent fructose with the
following composition. Fructose, 42-90 percent, glucose, 52-9
percent, other sugars, 6-1 percent. HFCS is superior to sugar that
at a given concentration, its osmotic pressure is twice that of
 sucrose.

Table : Sugars and their characteristics and uses

Type Characteristics Uses

Castor Fine white crystals Bakery

Granulated Crystals of medium size General sweetening

agent

Cube Crystals compressed to cubes. Tea service

Icing Fine white powder with or Cake icings

without starch

Golden syrup Processed to a yellow syrup Cooking and baking

confectionery

Molasses Dark by-product of sugar Cooking and

confectionery

Diamond sugar Small rectangular crystals Used with beetle nuts,

confectionery.

Rock sugar Big slabs Used on festive

occasions

Brown sugar Contains molasses, glucose and Baked products

fructose, pleasing and distinctive
flavor.

Sugar powder Pulverized granulated sugar Doughnuts, hard puris

 Isomalt 
It is derived from beet sugar and is said to be similar to sugar
in sweetness, taste, technological properties. Isomalt gives
 body and texture to foods unlike aspartame and saccharin.
 Maltodextrins
These are prepared from corn starch by controlled enzymatic
hydrolysis. Functional properties are low hygroscopicity,
bland flavour, extremely low sweetness, potential of
retarding crystal formation in ice-creams. They can serve as
fat substitute. Maltodextrins are useful in flavour
encapsulation and prevention of oxidation of unstable
compounds.
 Molasses
Molasses is the residue that remains after sucrose crystals
have been removed from the concentrated juices of sugar
cane or beet. It contains not more than 25 percent water and
not more than 5 percent mineral ash.

After the first crystallisation  of sucrose, the molasses is high

in sugar and light in colour. After the final process, a dark
and bitter product with a relatively high mineral content,
called black-strap molasses, remains.

 Maplesyrup
It is high prized of all syrups used for culinary
and table purposes. It is made by evaporation of the sap of
the sugar maple to a concentration containing not more than
35 percent water.
 Honey
Honey contains about 17 percent water and 82.5 percent
carbohydrate with small amounts of minerals and vitamins
and enzymes. The carbohydrate portion of honey includes
fructose (38 percent) glucose (31 percent), maltose (7
percent) and sucrose (2 percent).

The colour of honey may vary from white to dark amber. The
colour of fresh honey is related to its mineral content and is
characteristic of its flowers- its source.

 Jaggery
Jaggery is malty obtained from sugar cane though it can also
be prepared from palm, date palm and coconut.

Cane is crushed and coarse suspended impurities from the

juice are removed by straining and then the juice is boiled.
Chemical clarificants are used to flocculate colloids present
in the juice. After clarification, the cane juice is boiled
vigorously to 115-177oC with constant stirring and then
concentrated into thick, almost semisolid mass, which on
 cooling solidifies into jiggery.

Generally good quality jaggery has a light colour, good

flavour, hardness, crystalline structre and good keeping
quality. It contains 65 to 85 percent sucrose, 10-15 percent
invert sugar and 2.5% ash. Jaggery is peculiar to only Indian
cookery. It does not easily crystallise because of invert sugar
and it is very much preferred when non crystalin candies are
prepared. It is especially used when it is used as binder in the
preparation of chikki (groundnut: jaggery in 1:1 proportion)
and puffed rice balls. It is also used in making sweet pongal,
payasam coffee and kozhukattai.

Jaggery is preferred to sugar because it is rich in iron, gives

colour, has a typical flavour, gives body or thickness and it is
less expensive.

 Caramel sugar
The brown colour of caramels results chiefly from Maillard
reaction. It is obtained from sugars when they are heated
either dry or with certain additives or in concentrated
solutions. Chemically caramel is polymeric in its character
containing about 143 volatile and non-volatile compounds. It
contains caramel, caramelen, caramelin methyl imidazole,
furans fructose, glucose, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, esters,
carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide as breakdown products.
It is used in brewing, vinegar making, blending of spirits like
whisky, rum and wines as well as soft drinks. They are also
used in biscuits, pickles, sauces and pastries. Caramel sugar
can be prepared from soyabean, tapioca or sago. Caramel is a
multi-purpose food additive contributing colour, flavour and
sweetness to the product.

SUGAR COOKERY
Testing the doneness of sugar mixtures by measuring the temperature of
the boiling solution is a method of estimating the concentration of sugar in the
mixture. The final concentration of sugar is related, in general to the consistency of
the product when it is completely prepared, the more concentrated the sugar
solution, the firmer the consistency of the finished product.
Table: Stages of sugar cookery

Product oC oF Doneness Description of

test

Syrup(Gulab 110-112 230-234 Thread Syrup spins a 2-

 jamun, Jalebi) inch thread
between
thumb and
first finger

Barfi Fondant 112-115 234-240 Soft ball Syrup when

fudge dropped in
cold water
forms ball that
flattens on
removal from
water

Boondi laddoo 118-120 244-248 Firm ball Syrup when

dropped into
very cold
water forms a
ball that does
not flatten on
removal from
water.

Divinity 121-130 250-256 Hard ball Syrup when

Marashhmallows dropped into
very cold
water forms a
ball that is
hard enough
to hold its
shape.

Butterscotch Toffies 132-143 270-290 Soft crack Syrup when

dropped into
very cold
water, threads
that are hard
but not brittle.

Brittle Glace Chikki 149-154 300-310 Hard crack Syrup when

dropped into
very cold
water threads
that are hard
and brittle.

Barley Sugar 160 320 Clear liquid Sugar liquefies

 Caramel (peanut 170 338 Brown liquid Liquid becomes
brittle) brown.

CRYSTALLISATION

A crystal is composed of closely packed molecules arranged in a pattern.

Crystallisation occurs only if the solution is supersaturated. The size of the crystals
produced will depend on the rate of the formation of nuclei about which the
crystals grow and the rate of growth of crystals around the nuclei. If only one or
two nuclei are formed, the size of the crystals produced will be large but if the rate
of formation of nuclei is very rapid, many small crystals will form. Both the rate of
crystallisation and the rate of nuclei formation are modified by many factors.

FACTORS AFFECTING CRYSTALLISATION:

1. Nature of the crystallising substances
Some sugars like glucose do not have the ability to produce very large crystals,
rather they produce nuclei rapidly. Thus formation of many small crystals takes
place. Probably because it causes the breaking of many nuclei from crystals
already formed.
2. Concentration of the solution (saturation)
Fairly large amounts of sugar dissolve easily in water. The higher the temperature
of water, the greater the amount of sugar that will dissolve in water . Maltose and
glucose are less soluble than sucrose. Hence, when syrups containing a large
proportion of these sugars are used, more water must be added to dissolve them.
The right conditions for rapid crystallisation is to have the syrup to heat upto the
right temperature or adjust to the right concentration. The lower the temperature
the smaller the size of the crystals . Gulab jamun and jalebi syrups are not
supersaturated solutions hence do not crystallise.
3. Agitation or stirring
Agitation favours the formation of finer crystals than are produced spontaneously.
Stirring brings the supersaturated solution in contact with each crystal. It is
important to stir crystalline candy not only until crystallisation starts, but until it is
complete.
4.Impurities
Impurities that may be deposited on the crystals reduce the growth of the crystals.
The presence of glucose interferes with the crystallisation of sucrose. Another way
an impurity may interfere with crystallisation is by coating the crystals. The use of
fat, flour, milk, coconut, nuts, interfere with the crystal formation. For example, in
making mysore pak, flour and fat are added which interfere with crystallisation.
5. Addition of acid
An acid ingredient like cream of tartar, lemon juice or vinegar may be
added to hasten the inversion of sucrose to glucose and fructose. For example,
addition of citric acid to jams and jellies prevent crystallisation. In sweet pickles
when mango is used crystallisation is prevented.

Boiled sugar solutions may be treated to produce either crystalline or non-

crystalline candies. Crystalline candies are generally soft. If properly made, they
are so smooth and creamy that the tiny sugar crystals that make up their
microscopic structure cannot be felt on the tongue. The principal
crystalline candies are fondant, mysore pak and coconut burfi. 

Non-crystalline candies are sometimes called amorphous which means

“without form”. In their preparation, by use of various techniques, crystallisation
of sugar is prevented. Non-crystalline candies may be chewy, such as caramels or
hard such as butter scotch, toffees and brittles.
Role of sugar cookery

 It is used as sweetening agent in ice-creams and beverages

like coffee, tea, cocoa, milk shake and sharbath and sweets.

 It is used in the form of syrup in preparations like gulab jamun and

rasagulla.

 In high concentration, it prevents the growth of micro-organisms. This

principle is used in preserving jams and jellies.

 Caramel sugar is used in puddings to improve colour and flavour.

 It is used in making bread to increase the fermentation of yeast.

 It gives not only sweetness but also body to the products like jam,
pudding, fondant and ice-cream.

 It helps in improving the texture of cake and confectionery.

Property of crystallization of sugar is used in preparations like badushah, laddoo,
fondant and fudge.