Journal of Indian History and Culture

JOURNAL OF INDIAN
HISTORY AND CULTURE
April 2021
Twenty Seventh Issue
www.journalcpriir.com
19

THE HISTORICAL USE OF INDIGENOUS

MILLETS IN TAMILNADU - THEIR DISUSE
AND THE CURRENT RESURGENCE
S. Manohar
Research Scholar
Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
3HUL\DU8QLYHUVLW\6DOHP
and
Poongodi Vijayakumar
Professor & Head
Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
3HUL\DU8QLYHUVLW\6DOHP

Abstract
Tamilnadu has been a consumer of cereals
like rice, wheat and millets from times as early as
the Sangam era (300 BC-300CE). With the climatic
unpredictability and rainfall shortages in most areas,
foods like millets lent themselves to dry and arid
farming while rice and wheat were wetland crops, thus
supplying the people with cereals and millets throughout
the year. But a growing population, import cuts,
famine, drought situations and acute food shortages
brought about the birth of the ‘Green revolution’
started in post-Independence India in (1960-70). This
strategized planning brought in High Yield Varieties of
rice, wheat and maize that were designed to overcome
the famine and shortage crisis. Along with these high

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 327

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

yielding varieties of rice (in the south) and wheat (in

the north), the farmers were introduced to modern
farming equipment, fertilizers and pesticides. The High
Yield Varieties increased the production of these cereals
dramatically. But, this, in turn, resulted in the loss of
many indigenous rice varieties and reduced the uses and
production of millets by farmers. However, recognizing
their value, there is a new wave to revive, substitute and
use indigenous millets (of which there are more than
10-15 varieties). Millets have also shown an intrinsic
QXWULWLRQDOVXSHULRULW\ ZLWKUHJDUGWR¿EUHDQGQXWULHQW
FRQWHQW WRWKHSUHVHQWW\SHRISROLVKHGUH¿QHGULFHWKDW
is in prevalent use. A new wave of ‘Millet Movement’
has started to popularize millets through various dishes
and has created a new awareness of its health and
DFFHSWDELOLW\SUR¿OH

Objectives of this review;

‡ To trace the history of eating patterns in India
from the time when millets were the commonly-
used staples of the day and to understand the
reasons for the changes that have occurred,
contributing to its disuse.
‡ 7R UHYLHZ VRPH RI WKH LQÀXHQFHV WKDW FKDQJHG
WKH 7DPLOQDGX (DWLQJ 3DWWHUQ 3UR¿OH DQG WR
recognize the resurgence of the use of millets with
the concomitant increase in health awareness.

Keywords: Millets, Polished Rice, HYVP, Green

Revolution, Nutrition Transition, C4 Crops, Millet
Movement

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 328

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

History of the use and disuse of cereals and millets

7KH3HUXPSƗQƗWUXSDGDL of Sangam circa 300 BC to 300
BCE describes the use of rice as well as millets like Kodo millet
(varagu). In this period, the use of broad beans, lentils, tamarind
pulp and bamboo rice have been ascribed to people in the hilly
areas (kurinji). Sangam literature (circa 300 BC to 300 CE) refers
WRFRRNLQJPHWKRGVVXFKDVGLUHFW¿UHFRRNLQJIU\LQJDQGVXQ
GU\LQJ7KHUHDUHGHVFULSWLRQVRIWKHXVHRI)R[WDLOPLOOHW tinai),
little millet (samai) and Kodo millet (varagu), rice, meat, spinach,
vegetables, dry cereals, pulses and legumes as diet staples.1 Kajale2
and Srinivasan3 trace the growth of cereals, millets and lentils in
the period between 1100 BCE and 800 BCE).

While the use of rice has also been delineated, a review of

historical writings suggests that this cereal was not accorded the
level of popularity in the early years as it has been given today.
7KHHDVHRIFXOWLYDWLRQRIPLOOHWVHYHQLQWKHGU\VHDVRQVRULQDULG
areas may have been contributory causes to the sustained use of
millets in the diet. While rice harvesting demanded an abundance
of water supply, the more arid regions or dry seasons of the year
allowed a harvesting of a variety of millets.

³7KXV ZHUH WKH DUWV RI DJULFXOWXUH GHYHORSHG WR VXFK

perfection in early days that modern science can add but little
to the traditional wisdom of the South Indian farmer”4. Whether
it was millets or rice, growing one’s food and harvesting was
emphasized.

7KH LPSRUWDQFH RI DJULFXOWXUH KDV EHHQ WRXWHG E\ WKH

JUHDW SRHW 7KLUXYDOOXYDU  %&( &(  7KH Thirukkural
(1033)5 clearly describes the importance of agriculture, stating that:

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 329

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

“cOJz;L tho;thNu tho;thH kw;nwy;yhk;

njhOJz;L gpd; nry;gtH”

“Who ploughing eat their food, they truly live; The rest to others
EHQGVXEVHUYLHQWHDWLQJZKDWWKH\JLYH´

7KH3X‫܄‬DQƗ‫ۮ‬nj‫܄‬X (333 CE), cites the use of different millets:

tuFk; jpidAk; cs;sit vy;yhk;

,uty; khf;fs; czf;nfhsj;jPHe;njdf;
Fwpj;JkhW vjpHg;ig ngwhmikapd;
Fuy;czq;F tpijj;jpid cuy;tha;g;nga;J
rpwpJ Gwg;gl;ld;NwhtpyNsjd;D}H

“O poets, because the housewife, since all her common millets and
little millets have been given to those in need, and unable to give
anything else, will set the clusters of millets that was set aside for
seed on her pounding stone, and feed you, before she lets you go.”

Below is a recipe listing the combined ingredients of rice and

millets:

rpWjiyj;JUtpd; gOg;G cWtpisjapH> ,ijg;Gdtufpd;

mitg;Gkhz; muprpnahL> fhHtha;j;J xope;j <Htha;g;Gw;wj;J
<ay;nga;J ml;l,d;Gsp ntQ;NrhW Nrjhd; ntz;nza;
ntk;Gwj;J cUf> ,isaHmUe;j> gpd;iw> ePAk; - $JDQƗQnjUX
3RHW8QNQRZQ:

rpwpajiyiaAila nrk;kwp Ml;bdJ gOg;Gepwk;

Nghd;w Kw;wpajapupNy> nfhy;iyapy; tpise;j tufpd;
Fw;wpa muprpNahL> fhHfhyj;J kioapy; eide;J <ukhd

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 330

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

thapiyAila Gw;wpypUe;J ntspg;gLfpd;w <aiyAk;

NrHj;Jr;rikj;j ,dpjhd #lhd GspaQ;Nrhw;wpidg;> gRtpd;
ntz;nzahdJ ntg;gk; fhuzkhf cUfpf;nfhz;bUf;f>
cd; VtyhsH mUe;JtH vd;fpwJ.

7KHDERYHUHFLSHIURPWKH6DQJDPHUDGHVFULEHVDQHODERUDWH
meal thus: “The curds from the milk of the sheep with a small head,
cooked with the milled varagu millet (cultivated in the backyard
during the rainy season), mixed with the winged white ant and the
mixture melted with cow ghee was eaten by the working class.”
($JQD‫ۮ‬nj‫܄‬X - 394)

6DQJDP/LWHUDWXUHGHVFULEHVPDQ\YLVLWRUVDQGLQYDGHUVRI
the southern part of India and their food habits must have invaded
the local cuisine as well, with the advent of food items like saffron,
fennel and fenugreek. Some of these were probably adopted into
$\XUYHGLFSUDFWLFH7KURXJKRXWWKLVSHULRGWKHXVHRIPLOOHWVDQG
cereals as staples seem to have continued.

Although this article focusses on the use and disuse of

millets, mention must be made here of the cultivation of rice as
RQH RI WKH PDLQ VWDSOHV RI 7DPLOQDGX 5LFH Oryza sativa) was
GRPHVWLFDWHG\HDUVDJR7KHRULJLQRIWKHZRUGULFH±
IURPWKH/DWLQRUL]DDULVLQJIURPWKH*UHHNoruza - is suggested to
KDYHFRPHIURPWKH7DPLOarisi.7KHUHLVDUFKDHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFH
of rice from Adichanallur (2000 BCE-200 CE), Kunrathur (300
%&(  ERWK LQ 7DPLOQDGX DQG 3HULDSXUDP .HUDOD  &(
CE)6. 7KXV ULFH FXOWLYDWLRQ in southern India should have been
well developed and perfected at least 5,000 years ago7.

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 331

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

Inscriptions of the ninth to twelfth centuries from

7DPLOQDGX LQGLFDWH WKDW ULFH \LHOGV ZHUH KLJK HYHQ E\ PRGHUQ
standards8. Epigraphical evidences of the late Chola period
(thirteenth century) refer to the cultivation of NƗU rice variety
ZKLOH 7DPLO OLWHUDWXUH OLVWV PRUH WKDQ  YDULHWLHV RI ULFH ZLWK
special names, based on their morphology, given to each. At this
time, there were two crops in a year: VDPEƗ and kuruvai. C.C.
Princep’s report to the East India Company on Madras Presidency
(1885) and J.A. Volcker’s report on the improvement of Indian
agriculture (1893) are useful records of the state of agriculture,
especially rice cultivation, in Madras Presidency9.

7KHVRXWKHUQG\QDVWLHVFRQVWUXFWHGVHYHUDOWDQNVDQGFDQDOV
WR HQFRXUDJH ULFH FXOWLYDWLRQ 7KH 3DOODYDV ZHUH WKH JUHDWHVW
builder of irrigation reservoirs or eri, many of which are still in
DQH[FHOOHQWVWDWHRISUHVHUYDWLRQWRGD\7KHJUHDWHVWRIWKHVHZDV
Mahendravarman Pallava (600-630 CE), who built the Mahendra
WDWƗNDP at Mahendravadi and enlarged the Perumpidugu YƗ\NƗO
(canal)10. According to Kasakkudi copper plates, Nandivarman
3DOODYD UHEXLOW WKH 7LUDL\DQ Eri, enlarging the earlier reservoir
EXLOW E\ ,ODQ 7LUDL\DQ  &(  ,Q WKH 3DOODYD SHULRG D YDVW
network of tanks, canals and wells were built for irrigation of rice
¿HOGVE\jala sutrada or engineers.7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQRILUULJDWLRQ
tanks soon led to social inequalities, for the rich landowners
obtained lands near the tanks and cut canals into their lands11.
In the 2nd century CE, Karikala Chola built the anicut across the
Kaveri, for agriculture, for which he cut down forests and established
YLOODJHVDQGWDQNV7KH&KRODVZHUHJUHDWEXLOGHUVRILUULJDWLRQV\VWHPV
Sangam literature delineates the spread of rice cultivation and the
SUHYDOHQW LUULJDWLRQ PHWKRGV 6LQFH PDQ\ SODLQV RI 7DPLOQDGX
have an average rainfall of less than 1000 mm and were described

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 332

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

as YƗQDP SƗUWKD EKnjPL12. With all these efforts, rice cultivation

H[SDQGHG LQ 7DPLOQDGX )XUWKHU ¿OOLS ZDV JLYHQ LQ WKH %ULWLVK
period when agricultural lands were expanded in order to increase
taxation revenue.
The rise in the use of rice as the main staple in Tamilnadu
Space does not permit a review of the changes in diet
over the subsequent centuries and the focus of this article is
RQ WKH FKDQJHV WKDW KDYH RFFXUUHG LQ WKH (DWLQJ 3DWWHUQ 3UR¿OH
RI 7DPLOQDGX WRGD\  %XW DV D UHVXOW RI WKH µ*UHHQ 5HYROXWLRQ¶
introduced in 1960-1970, the use of rice increased and the use of
PLOOHWVVWHDGLO\GHFOLQHGLQ6RXWK,QGLDµ'HVSLWHWKHLUQXWULWLRQDO
TXDOLWLHVDQGFOLPDWHUHVLOLHQFHWKHFRQVXPSWLRQRI¿QJHUPLOOHWV
in India declined by 47 per cent, while intake of other small
PLOOHWVIHOOE\SHUFHQWLQWKHODVW¿YHGHFDGHV¶DFFRUGLQJWR
Karthikeyan of Dhan Foundation’13.

As India’s population grew to make it the world’s second

PRVW SRSXORXV FRXQWU\ VHYHUH IRRG VKRUWDJHV GHYHORSHG ³7KH
government of India, after independence wanted to make India
self-dependent in terms of food-grain production and these efforts
coincided with the development of high-yielding varieties of
seeds of wheat developed by Norman Borlaug and his associates
in Mexico”14.

India’s post-Independence years witnessed a struggle

between a newly-formed Indian Government trying to meet the
food shortages of a growing population and farm lands that were
dependent on archaic methods of farming. Modernization of
farming techniques and the thrust to realize a high yield with the
use of fertilizers and pesticides, selective farming of high-yielding
crops and extensive farming yield were all part of the agricultural

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 333

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

SROLF\RIWKHQHZ*UHHQ5HYROXWLRQRIWKHVWKDWµSDYHGWKH
way’ for the increased production of rice, wheat and maize crops15.
bringing success to the Green Revolution. However, Shetty states
that while the High Yielding Variety Program (HYVP) improved
the rate of production of rice, wheat and maize, it resulted in a
µJUDGXDO GHFUHDVH LQ FRDUVH FHUHDO JUDLQ SURGXFWLRQ ± OLNH SHDUO
millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet, little millet and barnyard
millet’16 7KH JOREDO SURGXFWLRQ RI FHUHDOV LQFUHDVHG E\ 
between 1950 and 1990 while the global population increased by
110%. as per Otero and Pechlaner17. Ehrlich and Myrdal describe
how the increased production of cereals enabled the nations to feed
their growing population and averting the Malthusian scenario
predicted in the 1960s18.

7KLVDFFRUGLQJWR3DQGLDQHWDO19 has steered the country

WRZDUGV GLVSODFLQJ µWKRXVDQGV RI ORFDOO\ FXOWLYDWHG LQGLJHQRXV
species of coarse cereal crops’ with the new high yielding
YDULHWLHV7KH+<93LQ,QGLDZHUHPDLQO\IRFXVHGRQ¿YHPDMRU
IRRG JUDLQV ULFH ZKHDW PDL]H MRZDU DQG EDMUD 7KHVH K\EULG
varieties of food crops were more responsive to fertilizer, were
drought-resistant, and had a shorter growing period. But of these
crops, jowar, bajra and maize were stigmatized as a poor man’s
food, and with declining demands, farmers stopped growing them.
Meanwhile the government’s Public Distribution System (PDS),
providing cheap grains to the poor, played a key role in pushing
nutritionally rich millet away from the plate20.

The need for a resurgence in the use of millets

7KH*UHHQ5HYROXWLRQRI,QGLDZDVLQLWLDWHGE\LQWURGXFLQJ
the high yielding varieties of rice and wheat to increase the
production in order to mitigate hunger and poverty, but Keshari

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 334

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

DQG0LVKUDZULWHWKDWµDIWHUDIHZGHFDGHVRIWKH*UHHQ5HYROXWLRQ
the production of millets had gone down, and the traditional rice
varieties consumed prior to the Green revolution, had become non-
existent, and the availability of local rice varieties had decreased21.
7KXV ,QGLD KDV ORVW PRUH WKDQ RQH ODNK YDULHWLHV RI LQGLJHQRXV
rice after the 1970s that took several thousand years to evolve22.
*RSDODQ DWWULEXWHV WKH µYLUWXDO GLVDSSHDUDQFH RI PLOOHW IURP WKH
diet of a large section of Indian population to the over-emphasis on
ULFHDQGZKHDWSURGXFWLRQ¶DQGFLWHVWKLVDVRQHRIWKHµGHOHWHULRXV
side effect of the Green Revolution’23.

Source: Agricultural Census, Ministry of Agriculture

7KHUHLVDQRWKHUIDFWRUWKDWKDVLPSDFWHGWKH(DWLQJ3DWWHUQ
3UR¿OHRI7DPLOQDGXWKURXJKWKHDGYHQWRIµIDVWIRRGSURGXFWV¶
An ever-growing commercial food industry popularized packaged,
SURFHVVHG FRQYHQLHQFH µIDVW¶ IRRGV XVLQJ VRFLDO PHGLD DV DQ
effective conduit to capture the market targeting populations of
all ages. Success in this area has also been aided by urbanization.
7KHVHIDFWRUVKDYHDFWHGLQFRQFHUWWREULQJDERXWFKDQJHVLQWKH
WUDGLWLRQDOHDWLQJSDWWHUQ7KHUHKDVEHHQDVKDUSULVHLQSURFHVVHG
SDFNDJHGµMXQN¶IRRGVLQFOXGLQJVRGDSRWDWRFKLSVIULHGIRRGV
sweetened juices and drinks24. India’s fast-food industry is growing
by 40 percent a year and statistically India is in the 10th place in
fast food per capita spending25.

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 335

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

But, with the rise of diabetes and with an increasing number

RISHRSOHEHFRPLQJµSURQHWRGLDEHWHVVNHZHGOLSLGSUR¿OHVDQG
various lifestyle diseases’, history will chronicle how communities
DUH PLQGIXOO\ VZLWFKLQJ RYHU WR D KLJK¿EUH QXWULWLRXV GLHW
Fortunately, to keep up with demands, most varieties of millets
seem to be well known for their hardiness and have the capacity
to withstand prolonged periods of drought, high temperatures and
VWLOOSURGXFHJUDLQVDQGIRGGHU7DPLOQDGXKDGEHHQFKDUDFWHUL]HG
DV D µULFH ERZO¶ ZKHUH µD VRXWK ,QGLDQ SODWH RU thaali usually
comprised of lemon rice, sambar rice, rasam rice and curd rice
EXWWRGD\µPLOOHWPDQLD¶VHHPVWRKDYHWDNHQFHQWUHVWDJHZKHUH
a variety of millets and millet preparations are being substituted
for rice and rice dishes, bringing in an added appeal of being
µKHDOWKIXODQGZKROHVRPH¶26.

$µ0LOOHW0RYHPHQW¶LQWKHFRXQWU\DFFRUGLQJWR3DQGLDQ
27
et al, can help to improve the health of the country by replacing
WKHFXUUHQWXVHRIKLJKJO\FHPLFSROLVKHGULFHDQGUH¿QHGZKHDW
like maidaZLWKWKHORZJO\FHPLFKLJK¿EUHQXWULWLRQDOO\ULFKHU
PLOOHWV 7KLV UHYLYDO RI WKH XVH RI PLOOHWV DQG WKH LQFUHDVHG
FXOWLYDWLRQRIµFOLPDWHVPDUW¶PLOOHWVZLOOQRWRQO\EHDVXVWDLQDEOH
step in agronomics but also contribute to improving the quality
of the Indian diet28 -KDZHU VKRZV KRZ µWKH PDJLF RI PLOOHWV¶
compares well against the nutritional composition of wheat and
rice29. So, the cultivation of millets has come a full cycle - from
feeding India through dry and drought times to falling out of
favour and now resurfacing with growing acclaim.

Conclusion
7RGD\ VFLHQWL¿F VWXGLHV KDYH HVWDEOLVKHG WKH UHODWLRQVKLS
between diet, disease and health. We are witnessing the whole

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 336

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

world turning back to traditional foods that include whole grains

and millets and the food industry is trying to keep pace by exploring
QHZDQGKHDOWK\ZD\VWRXVHWKHP7KH,QGLDQIRRGVFHQHLVDOVR
currently in the process of change where the dominant white rice
and wheat/maida staples have had to yield to a competing array
of millet dishes that are being created to appeal to taste, cost and
nutritive richness.

7KHUHLVDOVRDJURZLQJSRSXODWLRQWKDWLVVHQVLWLYHWRIRRGV
OLNH WKH JOXWHQ LQ ZKHDW 7R PHHW VXFK FKDOOHQJHV LQJHQLRXV
commercial, gluten - free grains and millets have come to the rescue
and gluten-free dishes have carved out a niche for themselves in
WKHVXSHUPDUNHWVKHOYHV7KXVWKHGLVXVHRIPLOOHWVVHHPVWRKDYH
EHHQDWHPSRUDU\DEHUUDWLRQ6FLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKLVDOVRVKRZLQJ
us that choosing from a wide array of choices in staples - from
rice and wheat to millets, may even go a long way to improve the
health of the nation’s population.

References
1. 3DYLWK 6 3RUWUD\DO RI )RRG LQ VHOHFW ZRUNV RI 7DPLO
DQG(QJOLVK/LWHUDWXUHLanguage in India, Vol. 19, 2019,
pp. 153-161
2. .DMDOH 0' µ$QFLHQW *UDLQV IURP ,QGLD¶ Bulletin of
the Deccan College Research Institute, 34(1/4) 1974,
pp. 55-74.
3. 6ULQLYDVDQ 70 $JULFXOWXUDO 3UDFWLFHV DV *OHDQHG IURP
WKH7DPLO/LWHUDWXUHRIWKH6DQJDP$JHIndian Journal of
History of Science, 51(2).1, 2016, pp. 167-189
4. 6ULQLYDVD ,\HQJDU 37 History of the Tamils: from the
earliest times to 600 A.D., New Delhi, Asian Educational
Services, 2001, (First Edition 1929).

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 337

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

5. 7KLUXYDOOXYDU Thirukkural, Chapter on Adhigaram-2,

Porulpal Section 2 Iyal group 11 Kudiyial, -1033.
6. 5DPDQ $ µ3ODQW 'RPHVWLFDWLRQ DQG (YROXWLRQ RI
Agriculture in India’, in R. Chakrabarti (ed.), Critical Themes
in Environmental History of India, Sage Publications India
3YW /WG  ,QGLDQ &RXQFLO RI +LVWRULFDO 5HVHDUFK 1HZ
Delhi, 2020.
7. Watt, G., A Dictionary of Economic Products of India,
Vol. 5, Superintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta,
1891-1892.
8. 6PLWK 0/ µ7KH $UFKDHRORJ\ RI )RRG 3UHIHUHQFH¶
American Anthropologist 108, 2006, pp. 480-493.
9. Op.cit., Raman, 2020, p. 226.
10. 706ULQLYDVDQIrrigation and Water Supply - South India,
200 B.C-1600 A.D, Madras, 1991, p. 21.
11. $PLUWKDOLQJDP0µ+LVWRU\RI:DWHU%RGLHVLQ,QGLD¶,Q
R. Chakrabarti (ed.), in Critical Themes in Environmental
History of India, 6DJH3XEOLFDWLRQV,QGLD3YW/WG ,QGLDQ
Council of Historical Research, New Delhi, 2020, p. 91.
12. Op.cit.6ULQLYDVDQ70S
13. .DUWKLNH\DQ0DVWROGWR7KH+LQGX-XQH'HFOLQH
in production, consumption of small millets, 2016.
14. Dowswell, C., (15 October 2009). “Norman Ernest Borlaug
(1914–2009)”, Science, 326 (5951): 381.
15. 3DQGL\DQ$%DUEKDL0DQG0HGLWKL6µ$5HYLHZRQ
*UHHQ 5HYROXWLRQ 1XWULWLRQDO 7UDQVLWLRQ 'LDEHWHV DQG
Millet Movement in India’, The Indian Journal of Nutrition
and Dietetics, 56(4), 2019, pp. 456-457.
16. 6KHWW\ 36 1XWULWLRQ 7UDQVLWLRQ LQ ,QGLD Public Health
Nutrition, 2002, 5:175-182.
17. 2WHUR*3HFKODQHU*µ/DWLQ$PHULFDQDJULFXOWXUHIRRG

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 338

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

and biotechnology: temperate dietary pattern adoption and

unsustainability’, in Otero, G.A., (ed.) Food for the few:
Neoliberal Globalism and Biotechnology in Latin America.
8QLYHUVLW\RI7H[DV3UHVV86$SS±
18. Ehrlich, P.R., The Population Bomb, Ballantine Books, New
York, 1968, p.15, and Myrdal, G., Asian Drama: an inquiry
into the poverty of nations, Pantheon, New York, 1968.
19. Op.cit., Pandiyan, A., 2019, p. 457.
20. Ibid, p. 456.
21. .HVKDUL 3 0LVKUD &3 µ*URZLQJ PHQDFH RI IDVW IRRG
consumption in India: time to act,’ International Journal of
Community Medicine and Public Health, June;3 (6) 2016,
pp.1355-1362.
22. (OLD]HU1HOVRQ$5/5DYLFKDQGUDQ.DQG$QWRQ\8
µ7KHLPSDFWRIWKH*UHHQ5HYROXWLRQRQLQGLJHQRXVFURSV
of India’. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 6 (1), 2019.
23. *RSDODQ & 7KH FKDQJLQJ QXWULWLRQ VFHQDULR 7KH
Ind.J.Med.Res., 2013, 138:392.
24. $VKDNLUDQDQG'HHSWKL5µ)DVW)RRGVDQGWKHLU,PSDFWRQ
Health’, JKIMSU, Vol.1, No 2, 2012, pp. 7-15.
25. Op.cit., Keshari, P., 2016, June;3(6):1356.
26. 1DUD\DQ&µ&RPHEDFN&HUHDO¶Business Today, May 10,
2015.
27. Op.cit., Pandiyan, A., 2019, p. 462.
28. %RVH+µ)DUPHUVWXUQWRPLOOHWVDVDFOLPDWHVPDUWFURS¶
India Climate Dialogue DQG -KDZHU 0  µ0LOOHW
versus Wheat and Rice’, Med India Publication, July 20,
2018.
29. Op.cit., Jhawer, M, July 20, 2018.

December 2020, Twenty Seventh Issue 339