Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.

Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET

UNIT – II: Motivation and Leadership:

Motivation: Definition; Theories: Maslow’s need of Hierarchy, Herzberg two
Factor, Mc Gregor Theory X and theory Y and Alderfer’s ERG.
Leadership: Definition; Styles and Theories: Trait, Behavioural and
Contingency

MOTIVATION
Introduction
The word Motivation derives from the Latin word “Movere”. The Latin word
“Movere” means “To move”, “To drive” or “To drive forward” etc. Motivation
can be defined as stimulating, inspiring and inducing the employees to
perform to their best capacity. Motivation is a psychological term which
means it cannot be forced on employees. It comes automatically from inside
the employees as it is the willingness to do the work. Motivation is the
processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence
of effort toward attaining a goal. The main features of motivation are a goal-
oriented continuous process and a psychological phenomenon that converts
abilities into performance.
Definition
Motivation may be defined as the act of stimulating someone to take a desired
course of action.
Joe Kelly defined Motivation as “Motivation is a process whereby needs
instigate behavior directed towards the goals that can satisfy those needs.”
According to W. G. Scot, “Motivation means a process of stimulating people
to action to accomplish the desired goals.”
n the words of L.A. Allen,
Motivation is the work of a manager who performs to inspire, encourage and
impel people to take the required action.
Motivation is often referred to as the “dynamic of behavior”.
According to Michael J. Jucius, “Motivation is the act of stimulating someone
or oneself to get a desired course of action, to push the right button to get a
desired result.”

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Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Features of Motivation
1. Motivation is a psychological phenomenon. Motivation is an internal
feeling which means it cannot be forced on employees. The internal
feelings such as need, desire, aspirations etc. influence human behavior
to behave in a particular manner. For example, desire to have a new
house, respect and recognition etc.
2. Motivation produces goal directed behavior. Motivation induces
people to behave in such a manner so that they can achieve their goal.
Motivated person need no supervision or direction. He will always work
in desired manner. For example, of a person has a motive to get
promotion so he will work efficiently to get promotion.
3. Motivators can be positive as well as negative. To motivate
employee’s managers, use various motivators. Some motivators are
positive and some are negative few examples of positive motivators are
promotion, increment, bonus, respect, recognition etc. if employee does
not improve his performance with positive motivators then manager
uses negative motivators such as warning, issue of memo, demotion,
stopping increments etc. sometimes fear of negative motivators also
induces person to behave in a desired manner.
4. Motivation is a complex process. Motivation is a complex and difficult
task. In order to motivate people a manager must understand various
types of human need. Human needs are mental feelings which can be
measured accurately. If manager measures them accurately then also
every person uses different approaches to satisfy his need. Some get
satisfied with monetary incentives, some with non-monetary, some with
positive and some with negative motivators. So it is not possible to make
generalization in motivation.
5. Motivation is a dynamic and continuous process. Human beings are
ever-changing. Human needs are unlimited and go on changing
continuously. Satisfaction of one need gives rise to another so manager
have to continuously perform the function of motivation.

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Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Theories of Motivation

1. Abraham Maslow Theory of Human needs

Abraham Maslow between 1943-1954 developed his 'Hierarchy of needs'
motivation theory. It is probably the most popular and most read motivation
theory. His theory suggests that within each person there is a hierarchy of
needs and the individual must satisfy each level before they move onto the
next. He demonstrated this by creating a pyramid to show how people are
motivated and mentioned that ONE CANNOT ASCEND TO THE NEXT LEVEL
UNLESS LOWER-LEVEL NEEDS ARE FULFILLED. The lowest level needs in
the pyramid are basic needs and unless these lower-level needs are satisfied
people do not look at working toward satisfying the upper-level needs.
There are five hierarchical levels. These are:
 Physiological needs: Food, shelter and sexual satisfaction i.e those
needs needed for basic survival.
 Safety needs: The need to feel safe within your environment. Also
refers to emotional and physical safety.
 Social Needs: The need for love, friendship and belongingness
 Esteem needs: The need for self-respect, status and recognition from
others.

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Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
 Self-actualisation: The point of reaching one’s full potential. Are you
capable at excelling yourself?
Diagram: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

So an individual will need to satisfy their most basic need before they can
move onto the next. Only when that individual knows that they have met their
physiological needs will they move onto their safety needs. Maslow suggests
that if you wanted to motivate an individual you will need to know where
within the hierarchy they are placed.
2. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor (1906 – 1964) was a Management professor at the MIT
Sloan School of Management and president of Antioch College from 1948 to
1954. His 1960 book The Human Side of Enterprise had a profound influence
on education practices. In the book he identified an approach of creating an
environment within which employees are motivated via authoritative,
direction and control or integration and self-control, which he called theory X
and theory Y, respectively. Theory Y is the practical application of Dr.
Abraham Maslow's Humanistic School of Psychology, or Third Force
psychology, applied to scientific management.
He is commonly thought of as being a proponent of Theory Y, but, as Edgar
Schein tells in his introduction to McGregor's subsequent, posthumous

4
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
(1967), book The Professional Manager : "In my own contacts with Doug, I
often found him to be discouraged by the degree to which theory Y had become
as monolithic a set of principles as those of Theory X, the over-generalization
which Doug was fighting....Yet few readers were willing to acknowledge that
the content of Doug's book made such a neutral point or that Doug's own
presentation of his point of view was that coldly scientific".
Theory X
This theory is also referred to as “the authoritarian management style”, as it
states that the average person needs to be coerced (even threatened with
punishment), into working towards organisational objectives.
 The average employee does not like work and will attempt to avoid it.
 As employees are lazy they do not want responsibility and have no
ambition.
 Individuals prefer to be directed and want security above everything
else.
 Individuals need to be closely supervised and controlled.
Theory Y
Also known as “the participative management style”, a theory Y organisation’s
view of people is the opposite of an organisation applying theory X.
 The average employee likes work, and is self-motivated.
 Employees can learn to not only accept but seek greater responsibility.
 Individuals are ambitious not lazy, and work is as natural as rest and
play.
 Individuals exercise self-control and self-direction to achieve objectives
that they are committed to. Threats of punishment are unnecessary.
 The rewards of achievement generate commitment from employees.
 If individuals are given freedom, there is opportunity to increase
productivity.
Managers applying theory Y believe that if employees are given the
opportunity, they will develop a desire to be imaginative and creative at work.
They will therefore try and remove obstacles that prevent employees from
realising their potential. They believe that negative attitudes such as

5
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
avoidance of responsibility are caused by experience and are not “inherent
characteristics”. Therefore, by creating the positive experiences and
conditions such negatives can be banished.
McGregor’s theory of X and Y represents two extremes, which probably aren’t
applied in full by today’s organisations. However, the theory has provided the
foundations for today’s management strategy and elements of it can be seen
in other management evaluations
3. Two Factor theory of Motivation
Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory
Herzberg's Two Factor Theory is a "content theory" of motivation" (the other
main one is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs).

Herzberg analysed the job attitudes of 200 accountants and engineers who
were asked to recall when they had felt positive or negative at work and the
reasons why.

From this research, Herzberg suggested a two-step approach to

understanding employee motivation and satisfaction:

Hygiene Factors

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Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid
unpleasantness at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by
employees, then they can cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors
include:

- Company policy and administration

- Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration

- Quality of supervision

- Quality of inter-personal relations

- Working conditions

- Feelings of job security

Motivator Factors

Motivator factors are based on an individual's need for personal growth. When
they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are
effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average
performance and effort. Motivator factors include:

- Status

- Opportunity for advancement

- Gaining recognition

- Responsibility

- Challenging / stimulating work

- Sense of personal achievement & personal growth in a job

There is some similarity between Herzberg's and Maslow's models. They both
suggest that needs have to be satisfied for the employee to be motivated.
However, Herzberg argues that only the higher levels of the Maslow Hierarchy
(e.g. self-actualisation, esteem needs) act as a motivator. The remaining needs
can only cause dissatisfaction if not addressed.

7
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Applying Hertzberg's model to de-motivated workers

What might the evidence of de-motivated employees be in a business?

- Low productivity

- Poor production or service quality

- Strikes / industrial disputes / breakdowns in employee communication and

relationships

- Complaints about pay and working conditions

According to Herzberg, management should focus on rearranging work so that

motivator factors can take effect. He suggested three ways in which this could
be done:

- Job enlargement

- Job rotation and Job enrichment

4. Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Clayton P. Alderfer’s ERG theory from 1969 condenses Maslow’s five human
needs into three categories: Existence, Relatedness and Growth.

Existence Needs
Include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air, clothing,
safety, physical love and affection). Maslow’s first two levels.

Relatedness Needs
Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with significant others
like family, friends, co-workers and employers. This also means to be
recognized and feel secure as part of a group or family. Maslow’s third and
fourth levels.
Growth Needs
Internal esteem and self-actualization; these impel a person to make creative
or productive effects on himself and the environment (e.g., to progress toward
one’s ideal self). Maslow’s fourth and fifth levels. This includes desires to be
creative and productive, and to complete meaningful tasks.

8
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Even though the priority of these needs differ from person to person,
Alberger’s ERG theory prioritises in terms of the categories’ concreteness.
Existence needs are the most concrete, and easiest to verify. Relatedness
needs are less concrete than existence needs, which depend on a relationship
between two or more people. Finally, growth needs are the least concrete in
that their specific objectives depend on the uniqueness of each person.

LEADERSHIP
Introduction
Leadership is the ability to influence the behavior and performance of an
individual or group of individuals towards the achievement of common
objectives in a given situation. It is the art of influencing and inspiring the
behavior of others in accordance with requirements.

Leadership is the personal quality of an individual who organizes the efforts

of the individuals and directs them to achieve common objectives. It is an
important and necessary skill for achieving group performance.

Definition
Koontz and O’Donnell, Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce
subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.
Dubin, R.Leadership is the exercise of authority and making of decisions.

9
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Allford and Beaty, Leadership is the ability to secure desirable actions from
a group of followers voluntarily, without the use of coercion.

Features of Leadership
Influence the behaviour of others: Leadership is an ability of an individual
to influence the behaviour of other employees in the organization to achieve a
common purpose or goal so that they are willingly co-operating with each
other for the fulfillment of the same.
Inter-personal process: It is an interpersonal process between the leader and
the followers. The relationship between the leader and the followers decides
how efficiently and effectively the targets of the organization would be met.
Attainment of common organizational goals: The purpose of leadership is
to guide the people in an organization to work towards the attainment of
common organizational goals. The leader brings the people and their efforts
together to achieve common goals.
Continuous process: Leadership is a continuous process. A leader has to
guide his employees every time and also monitor them in order to make sure
that their efforts are going in the same direction and that they are not
deviating from their goals.
Group process: It is a group process that involves two or more people together
interacting with each other. A leader cannot lead without the followers.
Dependent on the situation: It is situation bound as it all depends upon
tackling the situations present. Thus, there is no single best style of
leadership.

Qualities of a Leader
Personality: A pleasing personality always attracts people. A leader should
also friendly and yet authoritative so that he inspires people to work hard like
him.

Knowledge: A subordinate looks up to his leader for any suggestion that he

needs. A good leader should thus possess adequate knowledge and
competence in order to influence the subordinates.

10
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Integrity: A leader needs to possess a high level of integrity and honesty. He
should have a fair outlook and should base his judgment on the facts and
logic. He should be objective and not biased.

Initiative: A good leader takes initiative to grab the opportunities and not
wait for them and use them to the advantage of the organization.

Communication skills: A leader needs to be a good communicator so that he

can explain his ideas, policies, and procedures clearly to the people. He not
only needs to be a good speaker but also a good listener, counsellor, and
persuader.

Motivation skills: A leader needs to be an effective motivator who

understands the needs of the people and motivates them by satisfying those
needs.

Self-confidence and Will Power: A leader needs to have a high level of self-
confidence and immense will-power and should not lose it even in the worst
situations, else employees will not believe in him.

Intelligence: A leader needs to be intelligent enough to analyze the pros and

cons of a situation and take a decision accordingly. He also needs to have a
vision and fore-sightedness so that he can predict the future impact of the
decisions taken by him.

Decisiveness: A leader has to be decisive in managing his work and should

be firm on the decisions are taken by him.

Social skills: A leader should possess empathy towards others. He should

also be a humanist who also helps the people with their personal problems.
He also needs to possess a sense of responsibility and accountability because
with great authority comes great responsibility.

Leadership Styles
Leadership styles refer to a leader’s behavior. Behavioral pattern which the
leader reflects in his role as a leader is often described as the style of

11
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
leadership. It is the result of the philosophy, personality and experience of
the leader. The important leadership styles are as follows:-
1. Autocratic (or) Authoritarian leaders
2. Participative (or) Democratic leaders
3. Free rein (or) laissez faire leaders
4. Toxic leaders
5. Narcissistic Leaders
Autocratic Leadership Style: - This is also known as authoritarian,
directive style. In this style manager centralizes decision-making power in
him. He structures the complete work situation for his employees. He does
not entertain and suggestions or initiative from subordinates. He gives
orders and assigns tasks without taking subordinates opinion. There are
three categories of autocratic leaders.
Strict Autocrat: - He follows autocratic styles in a very strict sense. His
method of influencing subordinates behaviour is through negative
motivation that is by criticizing subordinates, imposing penalty etc…
Benevolent Autocrat: - He also centralizes decision making power in him,
but his motivation style is positive. He can be effective in getting efficiency in
main situations. Some like to work under strong authority structure and they
drive satisfaction by this leadership.
Incompetent autocrat: - Sometimes, superiors adopt autocratic leadership
style just to hide their in competency, because in other styles they may
exposed before their subordinates. However, this cannot be used for a long
time.
Advantages:-

1. It provides strong motivation and reward to manager.

2. It permits very quick decisions.
3. Less competent subordinates also have scope to work in the organisation.
Disadvantages:-

1. People in the organisation dislike it specially when it is strict and

the motivational style is negative.
2. Employees lack motivation frustration, low morale and conflict develops

12
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
in the organisation.
3. There is more dependence and less individuality in the organisation.

C
B

Participative Leadership Style: - It is also called as democratic,

consultative or idiographic leadership style. In this style the manager
decentralizes his decision-making process. Instead of taking unilateral
decision he emphasizes consultation and participation of his subordinates.
He can win the cooperation of his group and can motivate them effectively
and positively.
Advantages:-

1. Employees are highly motivated.

2. The productivity of employees is very high.
3. Subordinates share the responsibility with the superior and try to
safeguard them also.
Disadvantages:-

1. Complex nature of organisation requires as through understanding

of its Problems which lower-level employees may not be able to do.
2. Some people in the organisation want minimum interaction with their
superior.
3. Some leaders may use this style as a way of avoiding responsibility.

13
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET

Free-rein Leadership:- A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group
entirely to itself as shown in the following figure.

In this style, manager once determines policy, programmes, and

limitations for action and the entire process is left to subordinates group
members perform everything and the manager usually maintains contacts
with outside persons to bring the information and materials which the group
needs.
Toxic Leadership: - A toxic leader refers to a person who has responsibility
over a group of people or an organisation, and who abuses the leader-follower
relationship by leaving the group or organisation in a worse-off condition than
when s/he first found out. The phrase was coined by Marcia Whicker in 1996.

14
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Narcissistic Leadership:
It is a leadership style in which the leaders are interested in him/her only.
Their priority is themselves at the expense of their people /group members.
This leader exhibits the characteristics of a narcissist: arrogance, dominance
and hostility. It is a common form of leadership.

Theories of Leadership
1. Trait Theory of Leadership
The trait theory of leadership focuses on identifying different personality
traits and characteristics that are linked to successful leadership across a
variety of situations.
Leadership Traits
While the list of leadership traits can vary by whoever is drawing up the list,
a recent study outlined behavioral traits that separated lower-level
supervisors from higher-level supervisors.
According to the researchers, the traits most commonly associated with great
leadership include:
Adaptability and flexibility: Effective leaders don't get stuck in a rut. They
are able to think outside of the box and adapt quickly to changing situations.
Assertiveness: A great leader is able to be direct and assertive without
coming off as overly pushy or aggressive.
Capacity to motivate people: A great leader knows how to inspire others
and motivate them to do their best.
Courage and resolution: The best leaders are brave and committed to the
goals of the group. They do not hide from challenges.
Creativity: Perhaps most importantly, great leaders not only possess their
own creativity, but they are also able to foster creativity among members of
the group.
Decisiveness: A great leader is capable of making a decision and is confident
in his or her choices.

15
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
Eagerness to accept responsibility: Strong leaders take on responsibility
and don't pass the blame on to others. They stand by their success and take
ownership of their mistakes.
Emotional stability: In addition to being dependable overall, strong leaders
are able to control their emotions and avoid overreactions.
Intelligence and action-oriented judgment: Great leaders and smart and
make choices that move the group forward.
Need for achievement: Strong leaders have a need to succeed and help the
group achieve goals. They genuinely care about the success of the group and
are committed to helping the group reach these milestones.
People skills: Excellent interpersonal skills are essential for leading
effectively. Great leaders know how to interact well with other leaders as well
as with team members.
Perseverance: Strong leaders stick with it, even when things get difficult or
the group faces significant obstacles.
Self-confidence: Many of the best leaders are extremely self-assured.
Because they are confident in themselves, followers often begin to share this
self-belief.
Task competence: A great leader is skilled and capable. Members of the
group are able to look to the leader for an example of how things should be
done.
Trustworthiness: Group members need to be able to depend upon and trust
the person leading them.
Understanding their followers and their needs: Effective leaders pay
attention to group members and genuinely care about helping them succeed.
They want each person in the group to succeed and play a role in moving
the entire group forward.
2. Behavioural Theory of Leadership
The behavioural theory of leadership assumed that effective leaders behaved
differently from ineffective leaders. It also identified the need of consistency of
behaviour of good leaders. This theory can be more clearly understood with
the help of following case studies.

16
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
 The Michigan Studies: Researchers at the University of. Michigan, led
by Rensis Likert, began studying leadership in the late 1940s. Depending on
broad discussions with both the managers and sub-ordinates, the Michigan
studies identified two forms of leadership behaviour. They are discussed as
below:
Job-centered leadership behaviour: The first was called job-centered
leadership behaviour, which focuses on performances and efficient
completion of the assigned tasks. A job-centered leader interacts with group
members to explain task procedures and oversee their work.
Employee centered leadership behaviour: The second behaviour was
identified as employee centered leader behaviour, which focuses on, high
performance standards to be accomplished. This can be done by developing a
cohesive work group and ensuring that employees are satisfied with their jobs.
Thus, the leader’s primary concern is the welfare of the ordinates. The
Michigan researchers thought a leader could show signs of one kind of
behaviour, but not both.
 The Ohio State Studies: At about the same time, a group of
researchers at Ohio State also began studying leadership. The Ohio State
leadership studies also identified two major kinds of leadership behaviours or
styles, which are as follows:
Initiating-structure behaviour: In initiating-structure behaviour, the leader
clearly defines the leader-subordinate roles so that everyone knows what is
expected. The leader also establishes formal lines of communication and
determines how tasks will be performed.
Consideration behaviour: In consideration behaviour, the leader shows
concern for subordinate’s feelings’ and ideas. He attempts to establish a
warm, friendly and supportive.
3. Contingency Theory of Leadership
The main assumption of contingency theory is that the behavior of an
appropriate leader varies from one situation to another. The motive of a
contingency theory is to identify key situational factors and to specify how
they interact to determine appropriate behavior of a leader

17
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
The three most important and widely accepted contingency theories of
leadership are as follows:

3.1 The LPC Theory

The first contingency theory of leadership is Fred Fielder’s Least Preferred Co-
worker (LPC) Model. Fielder identified two types of leadership: task-oriented
and relationship-oriented. Fielder believes that a leader’s tendency to be task-
oriented or relationship oriented remains constant. In- other words, a leader
is either task-oriented or relationship-oriented while leading his group
members. Fielder used the Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) scale to measure
the type of leadership. A leader is asked to describe characteristics of the
person with whom he or she is least comfortable while working. They can do
this by marking in a set of sixteen scales at each end, by a positive or negative
adjective. For example, three of the scales Fielder uses in the LPC are:

Helpful ——————– Frustrating 87654321

Tense ——————- Relaxed 12345678

Boring ——————- Interesting 12345678

The leader’s LPC score is (hen calculated by adding up the numbers below the
line checked on each scale. A high total score is assumed to reflect a
relationship orientation and a low score, a task orientation by the leader. The
LPC measure is controversial because researchers disagree about its validity.
This is because some of the LPC measures show whether the score is an index
of behavior, personality or some other unknown factor.
According to Fielder, the contingency factor favors the situation from the
leader’s point of view. This factor is determined by leader-member relations,
task-structure and position-power, which are discussed as below:
Leader-member relations: A Leader-member relation refers to the nature of
relationship between the leader and his work group. If the leader and the
group enjoy mutual trust, respect, confidence and they like one another,
relations will remain good. If there is little trust, respect or confidence and. if

18
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour Dr.B.Prathyusha,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of H&S,
VNRVJIET
they do not like one another, relations will remain bad. Good relations are
assumed to be favorable and bad relations unfavorable.
Task-structure: Task-structure is the degree to which the group’s task is
clearly defined. When the task is routine, easily understood, and
unambiguous and when the group has standard procedures, the structure is
assumed to be high. When the task is non-routine, ambiguous, complex, with
no standard procedures and precedents, structure is assumed to be low. High
structure is more favorable for the leader and low structure is unfavorable. If
the task structure is low, the leader will have to play a major role in guiding
and directing the group’s activities. If the task structure is high, the leader
will not have to pay much attention.
Position-power: Position-power is the power vested in the position of a leader
in an organization. If the leader has the power to assign work, administer
rewards and punishment, recommend employees for promotion or demotion,
position-power is assumed to be strong. If the leader does not have required
powers, the position-power is weak. From the leader’s point of view, strong
position power is favorable and weak position power is unfavorable.
Fielder and his associates conducted various studies highlighting if a
situation favors the leadership and group effectiveness or not.
When the situation includes good relations, high structure and strong power,
a risk-oriented leader to lie most effective. However, when relations are good
but task structure is low and position-power is weak, li relationship-oriented
leader is considered to be most effective.
A final point about LPC theory is that, Fielder argues that any particular-type
of leadership, which is measured by the LPC is inflexible and cannot be
changed. In other words, a leader cannot change his behavior to fit a
particular situation. Fielder’s contingency theory has been criticized on the
ground that LPC measure lacks validity and that the assumption about the
inflexibility of the leader’s behaviour is unrealistic.

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