LEXICOLOGY :

Neologism:

 You can very quickly understand a new word in your language.

COINAGE

 The invention of totally new terms

 e.g. aspirin, nylon, zipper, xerox, kleenex, teflon. (selpak, klorak in Turkish)

Eponym

 Sometimes the products that the companies want to sell, take over the name of the
creator/inventor. e.g. sandwich, hertz, hoover,volt ,celsius

BORROWING

 Taking over words from other languages

 A lot of loan-words in English
 e.g. alcohol (Arabic), boss (Dutch), croissant (French), piano (Italian), robot (Chech), pretzel
(German), tycoon ( Japanese), yogurt

Calque/Loan-Translation:

A special type of borrowing

There is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language.

e.g. English word “Superman” is coming from the German “Übermensch”.

honeymoon-balayı

COMPOUNDING

 Joining two separate words to produce a single form

 Very common in languages like German and English, less common in French & Spanish
 e.g. text + book, sun + burn, finger + print, book + case, wall-paper, doorknob, wastebasket,
waterbed. Çanak-kale in Turkish, Lehn-Wort (Lehnwort) in German

Some compounds are written with hypens.

 e.g. full-time, good-looking.

Some are written separately.

 e.g. bank account, mini skirt.

Some can be written in both ways.

 e.g. notebook/note-book

BLENDING

 Combining two separate forms to produce a single new term

 Typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of
the other word e.g. smoke + fog: smog, breakfast+lunch: brunch
 e.g. In the United States there is a product which is used like ‘gasoline’, but made from
‘alcohol’, so blended as ‘gasohol’.
 smoke+haze:smaze, smoke+murk:smurk, binary+digit:bit, motor+hotel:motel,
television+broadcast:telecast, channel+tunnel:the Chunnel (connecting England and France),
television+marathon:telethon, information+entertainment:infotainment,
simultaneous+broadcast:simulcast, Franglasi(French/English), Spanglish (Spanich/English),
modulator+demodulator:modem

CLIPPING

 The element of reduction

 Reducing or shortening long words
 Occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual
speech
 e.g. gasoline: gas, advertisement: advert/ad, fanatic: fan, telephone: phone, brassiere: bra,
influenza: flu, facsimile: fax, cabriolet: cab, condominium: condo.
 Clipping samples about educational environments:
 e.g. chem, exam, gym, lab, phys-ed, prof.
 Reducing each other’s names is also clipping. e.g. Alison: Ali.

BACKFORMATION

 A word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type.

 A process in which a word changes its form and function.
 e.g. donation: donate, typewriter: typewrite.
 e.g.: babysit (babysitter), opt (option), emote (emotion), enthuse (enthusiasm), liaise
(liaison), backform (backformation).A regular source of backformation: -er e.g.: worker-
work, editor-edit, sculptor-sculp
 CLIPPING GİBİ AMA ANLAMI DEĞİŞİYOR.

Hypocorisms:

 First, a longer word is reduced to a single syllable, then “-y” or “-ie” is added to the end.
  Favored especially in Australian and British English
 e.g. moving pictures: movie, television: telly, Aussie (Australian), barbie (barbecue), bookie
(bookmaker), brekky (breakfast), hankie (handkerchief).

CONVERSION / CATEGORY CHANGE / FUNCTIONAL SHIFT

 A change in function of a verb without changing its form

 No reduction
 When a noun comes to be used as a verb

 e.g. bottle: to bottle, butter: to butter, water: to water, guess (v): a guess (n), must: a must,
to print out (phr. v.): a printout, to take over (phr. v.): a takeover (n), want to be (v.
combination): a wannabe, to stand up (v): a stand-up (adj), crazy (adj): a crazy (n), dirty
(adj): to dirty (v)

MORPHEMES:

1) Free Morphemes:

 can function independently as words (e.g. town, dog) and can appear with other lexemes
(e.g. town hall, doghouse).
 can stand by themselves as single words, e.g. open, tour.
 all stems

2) Bound Morphemes:
  Appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a root(stem) and sometimes with
other bound morphemes.
 For example, ‘un-’ appears only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word.
 Most bound morphemes in English are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes.
 Bound morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another
form, e.g. ‘re-’, ‘ist-’, ‘-ed’, ‘-s’.
 All affixes in English are bound morphemes.
 When free morphemes are used with bound morphemes, the basic word-form involved is
technically known as the ‘stem’.

undressed (un-dress-ed):

un- (prefix-bound morpheme)

dress (stem-free morpheme)

-ed (suffix-bound morpheme)

carelessness (care-less-ness):

care (stem-free morpheme)

-less (suffix-bound morpheme)

-ness (suffix-bound morpheme)

FREE MORP:

1) Lexical Morphemes:

Set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs

The words which carry the content of messages

‘Open’ class words: We can add new lexical morphemes to the language rather easily.

e.g. open, see, look, house, woman, break, happy, short … etc.

2) Functional Morphemes:
Functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.

‘Closed’ class words: We almost never add new functional morphemes to the language.

e.g. while, when, on, in near, the, that, it, but, and, because … etc.

BOND MORP:

1) Derivational Morphemes:

Used to make new words in the language

Often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.

e.g. care-less-ness:

care: stem (noun),

-less: derivational bound morpheme (changes noun to adj),

-ness: derivational bound morpheme (changes adj to noun)

2) Inflectional Morphemes:

used to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word.

Inflectional morphemes modify a verb’s tense or a noun’s number without affecting the word’s
meaning or class.

Examples of applying inflectional morphemes to words are adding ‘-s’ to the root ‘dog’ to form
‘dogs’ and adding ‘-ed’ to ‘wait’ to form ‘waited’.

Inflectional morphemes are used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and
if it is a comparative or possessive form. English has 8 inflectional morphemes.

–s (possessive)

–s (plural)

–s (3rd person present singular)

–ing (present participle)

–ed (past tense)

–en (past participle)

–est (superlative)

–er (comparative)

DERIVATIONAL VS INFLECTIONAL
  Derivational morphemes can change the grammatical category of a word.
 Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word.
 First the derivational, then the inflectional suffix appear in the same word.
 e.g. teach-er-s (-er derivational from Old English –ere, -s inflectional plural)
 e.g. old-er (-er inflectional for comparative adj from Old English –ra)
 Suffix –er can be derivational as part of a noun or inflectional as part of an adj.

WORDS IN SEMANTIC

Conceptual vs Associative Meaning

Associative Meaning:

 All the related words given with the main word

 Associations, connotations, attached to a word
 E.g. Book (Types of books, reading, the feelings we have while we are reading)

Conceptual Meaning:

 Literal meaning
 Basic, essential components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal use of a word
 E.g. Book (Schema of book)

E.g.

“needle” means “thin, sharp, steel, instrument” in its conceptual meaning.

However, it may also mean “pain, suffer, sorrow” in its associative meaning.

“The door saw the music.”

NP V NP

The hamburger ate the man.

We have to use a Subject that can eat sth to be able to have a meaningful sentence.

They seem syntactically good, but they are semantically odd.

Agent, Theme, Instrument :

Agent:

 Doer of the action

 The entity that performs the action
Theme:

 Object
 Influenced by the doer of the action
 The entity that is involved in or affected by the action
 Can also be human

Instrument:

Used by the agent to do sth

If an agent uses another entity in performing an action, that other entity fills the role of instrument.

E.g. The boy ate the meal with a spoon.

agent theme instrument

The boy kicked himself. (the boy : agent, himself : theme)

Experiencer, Location, Source, Goal :

Experiencer:

The person who has a feeling, a perception or a state.

E.g. Do you hear the music?

Location:

Where the entity is

E.g. on the wall, outside, in the kitchen

Source:

Where we moved “from”

E.g. out of the bank

Goal:

Where we moved “to”/”into”

E.g. from school to house E.g. from John to Jack (source) (goal)
 LEXICAL RELATIONS

Synonymy:

Sameness of meaning

E.g. broad – wide, hide – conceal, almost-nearly, answer-reply, cab – taxi, liberty – freedom

Not necessarily “total sameness”

Antonymy:

Opposite meanings

E.g. big-small, long-short, quick – slow, rich – poor, happy – sad, male – female, true – false, dead –
alive

1. Gradable Antonyms:

Can be used in comparative constructions

E.g. big – small (bigger – smaller)

2. Non-gradable Antonyms:

Can’t be used in comparative constructions

E.g. dead – alive, true – false, male – female

Reversives:

Opposite of the activity

E.g. tie-untie (“untie” doesn’t mean “not tie”)

pack-unpack, enter-exit, lengthen – shorten, raise – lower, dress – undress

Hyponymy:

Giving the meaning with the form of that entity

E.g. Dog-animal, carrot-vegetable

Horse and dog are co-hyponyms and the superordinate term is animal.

Prototypes:

An instance of a category or a concept that combines its most representative attributes

When sth is said to you, the immediate things that you think.

E.g. When we say “clothing”, people recognize “shirts” quicker than “shoes”.

E.g. “Robin/sparrow/pigeon” can be prototype of “bird”, unlike “penguin”.

Homophony, Homonymy and Polysemy :

Homophony:

Two or more different (written) forms having the same pronunciation

The same pronunciation for words of different origins

E.g. meat-meet, bare-bear

Polysemy:

One form (written or spoken) having multiple meanings

One entry is given in the dictionary but the different meanings are numbered.

Even though the meanings are different, they are related to each other.

E.g.

Foot: (1) of person, (2) of bed, (3) of mountain.

Metonymy:

Container-contents relation (bottle-coke, can-juice)

Whole-part relation (car-wheels, house-roof)

Representative-symbol relationship (the President- the White House)

The use of a single characteristic or name of an object to identify an entire object or related object.

E.g. The kettle is boiling.

e.g. : beyaz saray kararını verdi

Collocation:

An arrangement or justaposition of words or other elements, especially those that commonly co-
occur

Words that usually go together

The tendency for words to occur regularly with others

E.g. butter-bread, salt-pepper, husband and wife, fresh air, knife and pork

e.g. : ayrılmaz ikililer sırası değişmez karı koca, çatal bıçak