Ornaments:

• Trill: A rapid alternation between two adjacent notes. Example: In a trill, a musician
rapidly alternates between two neighboring notes, creating a musical ornament.
• Mordent: A rapid alternation between a note and its lower neighbor or higher
neighbor. Example: In a mordent, a musician quickly plays the main note, the lower
neighbor, and then returns to the main note.
• Turn: A group of four notes that embellish a main note. Example: A turn typically
consists of the main note, the note above it, the main note again, and then the note
below it.

Articulation Signs:
• Legato: Smooth and connected performance of notes. Example: Legato is indicated by
a curved line, and it suggests that the notes should be played smoothly without any
separation.
• Staccato: Short and detached performance of notes. Example: Staccato is indicated by
a dot above or below a note, and it suggests that the notes should be played with a
short and crisp sound.
• Marcato: Strong emphasis on a specific note or notes. Example: Marcato is indicated
by a V-shaped symbol above or below a note, and it suggests that the note should be
played with a strong accentuation.
• Mezzo-staccato: A combination of legato and staccato, with slight separation between
the notes. Example: Mezzo-staccato is indicated by a dot above or below a note with a
curved line extending to the next note, suggesting a slightly detached and accented
performance.
• Staccatissimo: Very short and detached performance of notes. Example: Staccatissimo
is indicated by a wedge-shaped symbol above or below a note, and it suggests that the
notes should be played very short and sharply.

Melody and Rhythm: Scales:

• Major: A scale consisting of seven notes with a specific pattern of whole and half
steps. Example: The C major scale consists of the notes C, D, E, F, G, A, and B, with
a pattern of whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half steps.
• Minor: A scale similar to the major scale but with a different pattern of whole and half
steps. Example: The A minor scale consists of the notes A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, with
a pattern of whole, half, whole, whole, half, whole, whole steps.
• Chromatic: A scale that includes all twelve pitches within an octave. Example: The
chromatic scale includes all the pitches from C to B, encompassing all the notes in
between.
• Whole-tone: A scale consisting solely of whole steps. Example: The whole-tone scale
includes the notes C, D, E, F#, G#, A#, and C.
• Pentatonic: A scale consisting of five notes, commonly used in traditional music.
Example: The C pentatonic scale includes the notes C, D, E, G, and A.

Melodic Movement:
• Ascending: Notes moving upward in pitch. Example: A melody that starts on a lower
note and gradually moves higher.
• Descending: Notes moving downward in pitch. Example: A melody that starts on a
higher note and gradually moves lower.
 • By Step: Successive notes moving by adjacent pitch. Example: A melody that moves
from C to D or from F to E.
• Leap: Large intervallic jumps between notes. Example: A melody that moves from C
to G or from A to E.
Sequence:
• A melodic pattern that repeats at different pitch levels. Example: A sequence that
starts on C, then repeats on D, E, F, and so on.
• Phrasing: The division of a musical composition into smaller sections, often indicated
by slurs, phrase marks, or breath marks. Phrasing helps to convey the musical
structure and the relationship between different musical ideas.
Call and Response:
• A musical technique where one musical phrase (the "call") is followed by another
phrase (the "response") that answers or complements the call.
• Metre: The organization of beats into regular patterns in a musical composition. It can
be duple (two beats per measure), triple (three beats per measure), quadruple (four
beats per measure), or irregular.
Syncopation:
• The accentuation of weak beats or off-beats, creating a rhythmic tension and
unexpected accents.
• Swing: A rhythmic style commonly associated with jazz music, characterized by a
slightly uneven or "swung" feel, where notes played on the beat are slightly
lengthened and those between the beats are slightly shortened.
• Polyrhythm: The simultaneous use of multiple rhythmic patterns or meters.
• Baroque Pitch: The historically lower standard pitch used during the Baroque period,
typically around A=415 Hz.

Harmony: Chord Function:

• Primary Chords (I, IV, and V(7)): The most important chords in a tonal key. The I
(tonic) chord represents stability, the IV (subdominant) chord provides contrast or
tension, and the V(7) (dominant) chord creates tension and leads back to the tonic.
Example: In the key of C major, the primary chords are C (I), F (IV), and G (V or
V7).
• Inversions: Inversions of chords are when the notes within the chord are rearranged so
that a different note becomes the lowest or bass note.
• Secondary Chords (II and VI): Chords that provide additional harmonic color and
variety beyond the primary chords. Example: In C major, the secondary chords are D
(II) and A (VI).

Harmonic Sequence:
A series of chords that follows a specific pattern or progression, often based on a repeating
melodic or harmonic pattern. Example: A harmonic sequence based on a circle of fifths may
progress from C major to F major to B-flat major, then back to E-flat major, and so on.

Cadences:
Musical phrases or chord progressions that create a sense of ending or resolution.
• Perfect Cadence: A chord progression from the dominant (V or V7) to the tonic (I),
creating a strong sense of resolution. Example: In C major, a perfect cadence would
be G (V) to C (I).
 • Plagal Cadence: A chord progression from the subdominant (IV) to the tonic (I),
creating a gentler sense of resolution. Example: In C major, a plagal cadence would
be F (IV) to C (I).
• Imperfect Cadence: A chord progression that creates a sense of momentary pause or
suspension, often ending on the dominant. Example: In C major, an imperfect cadence
could be C (I) to G (V).
• Interrupted Cadence: A chord progression that unexpectedly ends on a different chord
than expected, creating a sense of surprise or disruption. Example: In C major, an
interrupted cadence could be G (V) to A minor (vi).

Modulations to Related Keys:

Key changes within a piece of music to a related key.
• Sub-dominant: A modulation to a key a perfect fourth below the current key.
Example: Going from C major to F major.
• Dominant: A modulation to a key a perfect fifth above the current key. Example:
Going from C major to G major.
Relative Minor:
• A modulation to the minor key that shares the same key signature as the current major
key. Example: Going from C major to A minor.
• Relative Major: A modulation to the major key that shares the same key signature as
the current minor key. Example: Going from A minor to C major.

Suspensions:
• A dissonant note that is held over from the previous chord and then resolved by
moving it down by step to a consonant note in the next chord.
• Diatonic/Chromatic: Diatonic refers to notes or chords that belong to a particular key,
while chromatic refers to notes or chords that are altered or outside of the key.

Instrumental and/or Vocal Effects:

• Arco: Playing a stringed instrument with the bow.
• Pizzicato: Plucking the strings of a stringed instrument.
• Glissando: Sliding smoothly from one pitch to another.
• Tremolo: Rapid repetition of a pitch or alternation between two pitches.
• Double and Triple Stopping: Playing two or three strings simultaneously on a stringed
instrument.
• Strumming: Playing the strings of a stringed instrument with a sweeping motion.
• Pitch Bending: Altering the pitch of a note by bending the string or using a pitch bend
wheel or lever.
• Mute: Placing a device or hand on an instrument to dampen or muffle the sound.
• Flutter Tonguing: Rapidly rolling the tongue while playing a wind instrument to
create a fluttering sound.
• Roll: A rapid and continuous repetition of a single note on a percussion instrument.
• Melisma: Singing or playing a single syllable of text over multiple notes.

Structure:
• Binary: A musical form consisting of two contrasting sections, usually labeled as A
and B.
• Ternary: A musical form consisting of three sections, with the middle section often
contrasting the outer sections.
 • Rondo: A musical form with a recurring main theme (A) that alternates with
contrasting episodes (B, C, etc.).
• Theme and Variations: A musical form where a main theme is presented and then
followed by a series of variations on that theme.
• Ground Bass: A repeating bassline that serves as the foundation for the entire
composition.
• Ritornello: A recurring musical passage or theme that serves as a unifying element in
a larger composition.
• Episode: A section between the main themes or sections in a longer musical piece.
• Cadenza: A virtuosic solo passage, usually improvised, in a concerto or other solo
piece.
• Improvisation: Spontaneously creating or performing music on the spot, usually
within a given framework or set of rules.

Compositional Techniques:
• Repetition: Repeating a musical phrase or section.
• Imitation: Using the same or slightly varied melodic or rhythmic material in multiple
voices or instruments.
• Sequence: Repetition of a melodic or harmonic pattern at a higher or lower pitch
level.
• Canon: A contrapuntal composition where multiple voices or instruments imitate the
main melody at different time intervals.
• Ostinato: A repeated melodic or rhythmic pattern that serves as a foundation or
accompaniment.
• Drone: Sustained or repeated note or pitch that underlies or accompanies other
musical elements.
• Alberti Bass: A broken chord accompaniment pattern consisting of a repeated
sequence of a low note, a high note, a middle note, and then another high note.
• Pedal (Tonic and Dominant): Sustaining or holding a note, usually in the bass, while
the harmony changes above it.
• Contrary Motion: When two or more voices or instruments move in opposite
directions.

Texture and Timbre:

• Melody and Accompaniment: A musical texture where one voice or instrument carries
the melody, while others provide accompanying harmonic and rhythmic support.
• Monophonic: A musical texture with a single melodic line, without any accompanying
harmony.
• Homophonic: A musical texture where all voices or instruments move together,
creating chords and harmonies.
• Heterophonic: A musical texture where two or more voices or instruments perform
variations of the same melodic line simultaneously.
• Polyphonic: A musical texture with two or more independent melodic lines played
simultaneously.
• Contrapuntal: A musical texture characterized by the interweaving of independent
melodic lines that are equal in importance.
• Imitation: A musical technique where one voice or instrument imitates or echoes
another voice or instrument.
 • Canon: A contrapuntal composition where multiple voices or instruments imitate the
main melody at different time intervals.
• Fugue: A complex polyphonic composition based on a theme or subject, with multiple
voices entering separately and then interacting with each other.
• Parallel Motion: Two or more voices or instruments moving in the same direction,
maintaining the same intervallic relationship.

Style:
• Baroque: A style that emerged in the period from approximately 1600 to 1750,
characterized by ornate and elaborate compositions, intricate contrapuntal textures,
and the use of basso continuo. Baroque music is often associated with composers such
as Johann Sebastian Bach and Antonio Vivaldi. Example: Bach's Brandenburg
Concerto No. 3 in G Major is a quintessential Baroque composition, known for its
contrapuntal writing and elaborate ornamentation.
• Classical: A style that developed in the late 18th century, featuring balanced and
concise compositions, clear structures, and an emphasis on melody and symmetry.
Classical music is often associated with composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart and Joseph Haydn. Example: Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in G minor is a
notable example of Classical music, characterized by its elegant melodies, balanced
proportions, and clear-cut structures.
• Romantic: A style that emerged in the early 19th century, known for its emotional
intensity, expressive melodies, and experimentation with form and harmony.
Romantic music is often associated with composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven
and Franz Schubert. Example: Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, with its powerful
opening motif and dramatic shifts in mood, exemplifies the emotional depth and
grandeur of the Romantic style.

Twentieth Century: A diverse period spanning from the late 19th century to the present day,
characterized by a wide range of musical styles, experimentation, and innovation. The
Twentieth Century saw the emergence of various subgenres such as Impressionism, Neo-
Classicism, Jazz, and Minimalism. Example genres within Twentieth Century:
• Impressionism: A style influenced by the visual arts movement of the same name,
characterized by ethereal and atmospheric textures, rich harmonies, and a focus on
evoking moods and impressions. Composers such as Claude Debussy are associated
with Impressionism. Example: Debussy's Clair de Lune, with its delicate and
shimmering textures, is a quintessential piece of Impressionist music.
• Neo-Classicism: A style that revived classical forms and structures from the Baroque
and Classical periods while incorporating modern harmonies and rhythms. Composers
such as Igor Stravinsky are associated with Neo-Classicism. Example: Stravinsky's
Pulcinella Suite, which reimagines Baroque music through a modern lens, is a well-
known example of Neo-Classical composition.
• Jazz: A genre originating in African American communities, characterized by
improvisation, syncopated rhythms, and a combination of European harmonic
traditions with African musical elements. Jazz encompasses various subgenres
including swing, bebop, and fusion. Example: Duke Ellington's "Take the 'A' Train" is
a classic jazz composition, featuring swinging rhythms, bluesy melodies, and
improvisation.
 • Minimalism: A style characterized by repetitive patterns, simplicity, and gradual
development of musical ideas. Minimalist composers often explore the subtleties of
timbre and texture. Figures such as Steve Reich and Philip Glass are associated with
Minimalism. Example: Reich's "Clapping Music" showcases the minimalist approach
with its repetitive rhythms and gradual shifts in timing.

Genre:
• Opera: A theatrical genre that combines music, singing, acting, and often includes
elaborate staging and production. Operas typically feature solo arias, recitatives
(dialogue-like passages), and choruses. Example: Mozart's "The Marriage of Figaro"
is an iconic opera that tells the story of complex relationships and social dynamics
through a combination of spoken dialogue, recitatives, and arias.
• Oratorio: A large-scale vocal composition, usually on a religious or biblical theme,
performed by soloists, chorus, and orchestra. Oratorios often include recitatives, arias,
and choruses, and are typically performed in concert settings. Example: Handel's
"Messiah" is a well-known oratorio that tells the story of Christ's life, death, and
resurrection through a combination of solo arias, choruses, and recitatives.
• Musical: A genre of theater that combines spoken dialogue, songs, and dance to tell a
story. Musicals often feature a mix of styles, including pop, jazz, and classical music.
Example: "The Phantom
• Symphony: A symphony is a large-scale orchestral composition typically divided into
multiple movements. It is written for a full symphony orchestra, consisting of various
instruments including strings, brass, woodwinds, and percussion. An example of a
famous symphony is Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 5.
• Concerto: A concerto is a musical composition usually composed for a solo
instrument accompanied by an orchestra. It typically consists of three movements: a
fast, a slow, and a fast movement. One of the most well-known concertos is Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 21 in C major.
• String Quartet: A string quartet is a composition written for two violins, a viola, and a
cello. It consists of four movements and is typically performed by a group of four
musicians. An example of a renowned string quartet is Ludwig van Beethoven's String
Quartet No. 14 in C-sharp minor, also known as the "Quartettsatz."
• Sonata: A sonata is a musical composition written for a solo instrument or a solo
instrument accompanied by piano. It typically follows a three- or four-movement
structure. An example of a famous sonata is Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata
No. 14 in C-sharp minor, also known as the "Moonlight Sonata."
• March: A march is a musical composition that emphasizes a strong and steady rhythm,
often associated with marching or military procession. It is typically written for wind
instruments, percussion, and sometimes brass instruments. An example of a famous
march is John Philip Sousa's "The Stars and Stripes Forever."
• Waltz: A waltz is a dance and musical composition in triple meter (3/4 time). It is
characterized by its graceful and flowing movements. An example of a well-known
waltz is Johann Strauss II's "The Blue Danube."
• Minuet: A minuet is a social dance and musical composition in triple meter. It
originated in the 17th century and often served as a movement within larger
compositions such as symphonies or string quartets. An example of a famous minuet
is Luigi Boccherini's "Minuetto."
• Trio: In the context of classical music, a trio refers to a composition written for three
performers or a group of three instrumentalists. It can be a standalone work or a
section within a larger composition. One example is Franz Joseph Haydn's "Piano
Trio No. 39 in G major."