j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Original Article

Softening behavior of stationary shoulder friction

stir welded joint for thick-plate AleLieCu alloy

Chao Gu, Xinqi Yang*,1, Wenshen Tang, Ting Luo, Ruilin Wang
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Advanced Joining Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin
University, Tianjin, 300354, China

article info abstract

Article history: 12-mm-thick AleLieCu alloy plates were fabricated by stationary shoulder friction stir
Received 6 July 2022 welding (SSFSW) to evaluate the softening behavior of the whole joint under a given
Accepted 12 August 2022 rotational speed of 400 rpm and a welding speed of 60 mm/min. Continuous dynamic
Available online 27 August 2022 recrystallization, discontinuous dynamic recrystallization, and geometric dynamic
recrystallization are the main dynamic recrystallization mechanisms in SSFSWed joints.
Keywords: Such mechanisms help to gradually change rolling grains of base material (BM) into
AleLi alloy equiaxed grains of welding nugget zone (WNZ) and significantly lower dislocation density.
Thick plates The decrease in dislocation density is the main reason for joint softening. Continuous
Stationary shoulder friction stir coarsening of T1/q0 in heat affected zone (HAZ) and thermo-mechanically affected zone
welding (TMAZ) weakens the strengthening effect. The development of precipitate-free zones and
Softening behaviors re-precipitation of TB primarily contribute to severe softening at the interface between HAZ
Microstructure and TMAZ on the advancing side (AS-HAZ-TMAZ). The serious softening behavior at the
Tensile behavior bottom of WNZ is attributed to the re-precipitation of TB and the complete dissolution of
T1/q0 . Hardness profiles and tensile strength distribution of SSFSWed joint exhibit a “W”
pattern, while a “U” pattern appears at the bottom. The hardness profile and tensile
strength of WNZ are significantly poorer at 8e12 mm from the weld surface compared to
those at 0e8 mm. Softening behavior also results from the higher fractions of the
maximum Schmid factor (in 0.4e0.5) and Cube. From BM to WNZ, fracture mode transi-
tions from quasi-cleavage fracture to plastic fracture.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

strength, fatigue resistance, and corrosion resistance while

1. Introduction reducing the weight of aerospace vehicles. In the aerospace
industry, it is gradually taking the place of conventional Al
The precipitation-strengthened AleLieCu alloys, especially alloys as a widely applicated structural material [1,2]. How-
the T8-treated 2195 AleLi alloy, exhibit outstanding specific ever, due to higher heat sensitivity and lower melting point,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xqyang@tju.edu.cn (X. Yang).
1
Present address: School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, No 135 Yaguan Road, Jinnan District, Tianjin,
300354, China
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.08.060
2238-7854/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4
AleLi alloy components manufactured by fusion welding still
have to address a number of challenges, such as hydrogen
porosity, thermal cracking, and casting microstructure, which
seriously impair mechanical properties [3,4]. The develop-
ment of conventional friction stir welding (CFSW) avoids the
melting of AleLi alloys during welding. In addition to effec-
tively eliminating welding defects, it is possible to replace the
casting microstructure of the weld zone with fined equiaxed
grains [5,6]. During CFSW, the shoulder and stir pin simulta-
neously rotate and glide over the surface to form the weld,
releasing frictional heat that may account for 70e80% of the
total heat. Therefore, a higher temperature gradient is
generated in the stir zone along plate thickness. It produces
severe residual stress and plastic deformation, and consider-
ably increases the heterogeneity of microstructure and me-
chanical properties along plate thickness [7,8]. The shoulder
and stir pin are designed separately in stationary shoulder
friction stir welding (SSFSW) technology. During welding, a
stir pin rotates at high speed, squeezing and rubbing the
welded material, while the shoulder glides over the weld
surface without rotating [9,10]. Therefore, SSFSW fundamen-
tally addresses the problem of excessive heat input on the
weld surface to obtain more homogeneous microstructure
and mechanical properties along plate thickness, opening up
a novel method for welding materials with lower thermal
conductivity and thick-plate Al alloys [11,12].
Due to the extremely complex thermo-mechanical
coupling process, SSFSWed joints are separated into four
zones: base material (BM), heat affected zone (HAZ), thermo-
mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and welding nugget
zone (WNZ) [13]. Different areas suffer from heterogeneous
temperature histories and plastic deformation, resulting in
joint softening behavior. Fundamentally, there are four basic
factors of joint softening [14]. Firstly, solute atoms such as Cu
and Li experience rearrangement and migration when weld-
ing AleLi alloys. Solute atoms dissolved in solid solutions
cause lattice distortion, increasing dislocation resistance and
improving strength and hardness [15]. Secondly, 2195-T8
AleLi alloy exhibits a complicated precipitation system
involving GPZs, q00 (Al2Cu), q0 (Al2Cu), q(Al2Cu), d0 (Al3Li), b0 (Al3Zr),
T1(Al2CuLi), TB(Al7Cu4Li), T2(Al6CuLi3). Precipitate evolution
plays a more prominent role in the softening behavior of the
joint [16]. Furthermore, the recrystallization mechanism of
CFSWed joints comprises mainly of continuous dynamic
recrystallization (CDRX), geometric dynamic recrystallization
(GDRX) and discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (DDRX)
[17]. Dynamic recrystallization process reduces the disloca-
tion density and leads to joint softening [17,18]. Finally, the
relationship between grain size and yield strength is described
by a well-known strengthening mechanism: fine grain
strengthening [19,20]. However, the conventional HallePetch
relationship does not apply to SSFSWed joints and requires
further optimizing to explore the softening behavior deeply
[21,22].
So far, previous research has revealed that SSFSW pro-
vides more advantages than CFSW in terms of microstruc-
ture and mechanical properties. Contrast tests on 4 mm
6061-T6 sheets confirmed that SSFSW reduced stress con-
centrations in the weld and improved tensile properties by
15.1% over CFSW [23]. Similarly, welding tests on the 5 mm
3009
6061-T6 sheets revealed that SSFSWed joints had a more
symmetrical and homogeneous microstructure [24]. SSFSW
was found to have significantly lower heat input and torque
in the 2-mm-thick dissimilar 2024-T3 and 7050-T651 sheets,
with a significantly higher SSFSWed joint coefficient (94%)
than CFSWed joints (86%) [25]. However, recent research has
concentrated more on SSFSW traditional Al alloy sheets such
as 5 mm 7075-T651 and 6061-T6 [24,26]. Only one relevant
research, which primarily investigated the microstructure
heterogeneity along plate thickness and the precipitate
evolution along the transverse direction, existed for SSFSW
1.5-mm thick 2A97 AleLi alloy sheets. The joint coefficient
gradually increased to 78% with the rotational speed
increasing from 600 rpm to 1000 rpm [27]. Studies on soft-
ening behavior were restricted to WNZ and concentrated on
CFSW 7.5-mm-thick 2195-T8 AleLi alloy plates and 2-mm-
thick 2060-T8 AleLi alloy sheets. The increase in grain size
and the decrease in dislocation density were generally
thought to be responsible for softening behavior [28,29]. The
softening behavior on the whole joint was investigated only
on CFSW 1.8-mm-thick 2198-T8 AleLi alloy sheets. In
contrast, the whole joint softening was caused by precipitate
evolution and a decline in dislocation density [30]. Studies on
softening behavior, however, did not consider how orienta-
tion factors affected on the HallePetch relationship.
Furthermore, it is necessary to optimize the constant co-
efficients of the dislocation density equation for FCC metals
based on the research status of strengthening mechanisms.
There have not yet been any relevant studies on the soft-
ening behavior in thick-plate AleLi alloy joints fabricated by
the innovative SSFSW technology. Microstructure evolution,
precipitate evolution, and softening behavior are all gov-
erned by both manufacturing technology and plate thick-
ness. Consequently, it is essential to carry out SSFSW tests
on thick-plate AleLi alloys and investigate thoroughly soft-
ening behavior in different areas of the joint.
This investigation describes the successful extension of
AleLi alloy experiments to 12-mm-thick plates by the inno-
vative SSFSW technology and a self-designed stir tool. The
microstructure characteristics, recrystallization mechanisms,
and precipitate evolution in the whole SSFSWed joint are
systematically expounded. In conjunction with mechanical
properties, the softening behavior in different regions of the
whole joint is comprehensively analyzed from the perspec-
tives of precipitate evolution, dislocation density distribution,
and the optimized HallePetch relationship. It provides a
theoretical foundation for optimizing the SSFSW process for
thick-plate AleLi alloys, improving joint softening behavior,
and manufacturing complex aerospace components.
2. Materials and methods
2195-T8 AleLi alloy, a heat-treatable strengthened AleLieCu
alloy, was rolled and cut into sheets with dimensions of
300 mm  100 mm  12 mm. The chemical composition and
mechanical properties are shown in Tables 1 and 2. According
to Fig. 1a, SSFSW tests were performed on FSW-RL31-016
along perpendicular to the rolling direction (RD) under a
rotational speed of 400 rpm and a welding speed of 60 mm/
3010 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4
Table 1 e Chemical compositions of 2195-T8 AleLi alloy
(wt%).
Alloy Cu Fe Mg Zr Li Si
2195-T8 4.04 0.04 0.47 0.11 1.06 0.03
min. The stir tool is made up of two components: a stir pin and
a stationary shoulder (Fig. 1c). The stir tool is manufactured of
H13 steel and has a shape referenced to the M10 threaded
conical table, where the top diameter is 6.33 mm, the root
diameter is 11 mm, and the length is 12 mm.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction
(XRD), and electron backscatter diffraction microscopy (EBSD)
were employed to quantify the microstructure evolution in
different areas of the joint, as shown in Fig. 1d. Before carrying
out TEM tests on an FEI Talos F200X equipped with an energy
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), the specimens were prepared
on a Gatan 691 Ion Beam Thinner. In order to investigate pre-
cipitate evolution in various areas of the whole joint, the bright
field (BF) images and selected area electron diffraction (SAED)
were captured at an accelerating voltage of 200 kV. XRD tests
were carried out on a D8 Advanced diffractometer equipped
with a Cu target at a Bragg angle of 20 e90 (2q). The acceler-
ating voltage and current were 40 kV and 40 mA, respectively.
The scan step and speed were 0.02 and 3 /min. The EBSD
specimens with dimensions of 40 mm  10 mm  12 mm were
cut from the as-welded joints along the weld cross-section, as
shown in Fig. 1b. A scanning electron microscope (SEM, JSM
7900 F-SEM) with an EDAX-TSL system was utilized for EBSD
tests, and TSL OIM software was employed for data processing.
Tensile fracture morphology was analyzed by tungsten fila-
ment scanning electron microscopy (su1510).
In order to discuss mechanical properties of the whole
joint, tensile specimens were designed and fabricated, with
the sampling location and dimension shown in Fig. 1b and d.
Tensile specimens in different regions were designed and
processed to evaluate the variation of mechanical properties
in the joint. The sampling locations and dimensions are
shown in Fig. 1b and d for the yellow and purple specimens,
respectively. The dimensions of tensile specimens were
designed according to ASTM E8/E8M-2016a guidelines. A CSS-
44100 electronic testing machine was employed to conduct
tensile tests in the whole joint at a loading rate of 3 mm/min,
while an INSTRON 2710-004 instrument was utilized to
conduct tensile tests in different areas at a tensile speed of
0.3 mm/min at room temperature. An electronic hardness
tester (HVS-100) was applied to conduct hardness tests on the
cross-section with a load of 300 g for 10 s, where the interval
between adjacent hardness spots was 0.5 mm.
Table 2 e Tensile properties of 2195-T8 AleLi alloy at
room temperature.
Alloy Rolling direction UTS (MPa) YS (MPa)
2195-T8 ⊥ 530.5 492.5
k 546.8 514.1
Note: UTS: ultimate tensile strength; YS: yield strength; EL:
elongation.
3. Results
Al 3.1. Microstructure features in different regions of
Bal. SSFSWed joints
3.1.1. Grain characteristics and recrystallization mechanisms
Figure 2 shows the inverse pole figure (IPF) maps and misori-
entation angle distributions in different areas of SSFSWed
joint. A black line represents high angle grain boundaries
(HAGBs) with misorientation angles over 15 , while a white
line signifies low angle grain boundaries (LAGBs) with orien-
tation angles between 2 and 15 . The labeling colors for
different grains are based on the IPF coloring system (bottom
left in Fig. 2) to identify the crystal growth orientation. Figure 3
shows the recrystallized fraction (RF) maps and histograms in
various regions of the SSFSWed joint, where the blue, yellow
and red grains represent recrystallized, substructured and
deformed grains.
BM is characterized by a non-homogeneous rolling grain
mainly orientated along <101>//TD. The fraction of LAGBs is
about 44.7%, as shown in Fig. 2a. The fractions of recrystal-
lized, substructured and deformed grains in BM are approxi-
mately 23.37%, 43.59% and 33.04%, respectively, as shown in
Fig. 3a. It reveals that BM has a higher dislocation density
(Fig. 11d) due to more deformed grains and a lower recrys-
tallization degree. Subjected only to the welding thermal
cycling, HAZ still retains rolling grain characteristics similar
to BM. One part of crystals in HAZ still remains growing along
<101>//TD, while the other part changes to <0.5 0.5 1>//TD.
The frictional heat in HAZ converts certain rolling grains into
equiaxed grains, increasing the fraction of HAGBs to 49.6%
(Fig. 2b). Due to static recovery and recrystallization in HAZ,
the fraction of deformed grains drops to 25.12%, whereas
there is a significant increase in the proportion of sub-
structured grains to 53.76%. As shown in Fig. 2c, at the
interface between HAZ and TMAZ on the advancing side (AS-
HAZ-TMAZ), the area close to HAZ still maintains the primi-
tive grain characteristics. Subjected to weaker thermal-
mechanical coupling, grains close to TMAZ tend to bend
with an orientation switch to <0.5 0.5 1>//TD under the shear
friction of the stir pin. The fraction of HAGBs in AS-HAZ-
TMAZ increases to 51.0%. Fig. 3c illustrates the increasing
degree of recrystallization in AS-HAZ-TMAZ, where the pro-
portion of recrystallized grains climbs to 23.98%. However, a
part of substructured grains is transformed into deformed
grains due to shear deformation, bringing the fraction of
substructured grains down to 46.2% and the fraction of
deformed grains up to 29.82%. As shown in Figs. 2 and 3c,
numerous sub-grain boundaries occur in rolling grains due to
the slip and climb of dislocations, and transform into
recrystallized grains with the increase in misorientation
angle. The flattened grains are then separated into several
smaller grains after being compressed to subcrystalline
EL (%) thickness. Furthermore, there are a few recrystallized grains
7.0 present at grain boundaries. Therefore, the recrystallization
4.7 mechanisms in AS-HAZ-TMAZ are GDRX, CDRX and DDRX
[31]. Due of the more severe thermal-mechanical coupling,
the long-rolling grains in TMAZ show significant bending
deformation, with an inclination angle around 55 . The
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4
Fig. 1 e Schematic illustration of (a) SSFSW process, (b) sampling positions, (c) stir tool, and (d) dimensions of tensile
specimens.
crystal orientation evolves to <101>//TD under the shearing
effect of the stir pin. Nevertheless, the fraction of HAGBs is
significantly reduced to 36.9%. Combined with RF (Fig. 3d),
TMAZ exhibits a higher fraction (38.19%) of deformed grains
than AS-HAZ-TMAZ, whereas recrystallized and sub-
structured grains drop to 18.84% and 42.97%, respectively. It is
mainly attributed to the shear deformation of recrystallized
and substructured grains by the stir pin. As shown in Fig. 2d,
the bent rolling grains display typical GDRX features in that
they are continuously extruded and divided [31]. There are
smaller recrystallized grains and substantial sub-grain
boundaries in rolling grains, along with a few recrystallized
grains scattered along the grain boundaries, which indicates
that TMAZ experiences CDRX and DDRX [31]. Exposed to the
most violent temperature history and plastic deformation,
WNZ experiences severe dynamic recrystallization, gener-
ating equiaxed grains completely replacing rolling grains.
However, grain size is significantly smaller towards the bot-
tom of WNZ (Fig. 2f) than at the top (Fig. 2e). There is no
obvious crystal preferred orientation at the top of WNZ,
whereas grains at the bottom develop mainly along <001>//
TD. Due to slightly higher temperature and plastic deforma-
tion at the top by cone angle (11 ) of the stir pin, there is a
higher fraction of HAGBs at the top (76.8%) than at the bottom
(66.6%). The fraction of recrystallized grains reaches 76.57%
and 87.88% at the top and bottom, respectively, as illustrated
in Fig. 3e and f. Deformed grains are decreased to 8.22% and
4.38% at the top and bottom, while substructured grains are
3011
reduced to 15.21% and 7.75%. It suggests that WNZ has
experienced a higher level of dynamic recrystallization. The
distribution of large recrystallized grains near grain boundary
crossings is characterized by DDRX, whereas the “necklace”
distribution of plentiful recrystallized grains suggests that
CDRX is the primary recrystallization mechanism in WNZ
[34].
In conclusion, HAZ is primarily where static recovery and
recrystallization occur. The recrystallization mechanisms in
AS-HAZ-TMAZ and TMAZ consist mainly of DDRX, CDRX and
GDRX, while WNZ is dominated by CDRX and DDRX. As a
result, the grain features of SSFSW joints show a significant
non-homogeneity under the effects of different temperature
histories and plastic deformation degrees, namely a gradual
transition from the layered rolling grains in BM to the equi-
axed grains in WNZ. Except for TMAZ, the fractions of HAGBs
and recrystallization degree gradually increase from BM to
WNZ.
3.1.2. Texture development
Fig. 4 shows orientation distribution functions (ODFs) in
different regions of SSFSWed joint and the fractions of main
textures. Compared with ideal texture components (Fig. 4g),
BM (Fig. 2a) and HAZ (Fig. 2b) possess nearly similar texture
types, consisting mainly of stronger rolling textures, Brass
{110}<211>, Copper {112}<111>, S {123}<634>, and weaker
recrystallization textures, Cube {001}<100>, CubeND {001}
<310>. The intensities in BM and HAZ for rolling crystal
3012 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4

Fig. 2 e IPF maps and misorientation angle distribution in different regions of SSFSWed joint: (a) BM, (b) HAZ, (c) AS-HAZ-
TMAZ, (d) TMAZ, (e) the top of WNZ, (f) the bottom of WNZ.

orientations are up to 16.64 and 22.14, respectively. Rolling
texture fractions in BM and HAZ reach up to 71.4% (Fig. 4h)
and 83.4% (Fig. 4i), whereas recrystallization texture frac-
tions are only 19.1% and 5.6%, indicating that BM and HAZ
have strong rolling crystal orientations with lower recrys-
tallization degrees. In AS-HAZ-TMAZ, exposed to weaker
shearing by the stir pin, the region near TMAZ produces up to
24.2% of shear texture A {112}<110> (Fig. 4h and j), while the
higher heat cycle also enhances recrystallization degree. It
increases Cube fraction to 4% and generates up to 6.5% of F {111}
<112>. Moreover, the texture intensity drops to 9.49 with the
rolling crystal orientation divided by the recrystallization
crystal orientation. TMAZ produces flow-deformed preferred
orientations under shear stress, sacrificing part of recrystalli-
zation texture Cube, F and shear texture A to regenerate higher
proportions of S (22.9%) and Brass (13.3%), as shown in Fig. 4d
and k, leading to an increase in texture intensity to 11.03.
During the severe plastic deformation of WNZ, recrystalliza-
tion nucleation occurs in the deformation zones and develops
around the large particle, commonly referred to as particle
stimulated nucleation (PSN). PSN typically leads to the devel-
opment of recrystallization textures [32]. The top of WNZ
(Fig. 4e and l) is mainly composed of various recrystallization
textures such as F, Goss{110}<100>, CubeND, U{258}<121>, Q
{013}<231>, R{124}<211> and shear textures A, B/ B {111}<110>,
Rt Cube{001}<110>, with recrystallization textures and shear
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4 3013

Fig. 3 e RF maps and histograms in different regions of SSFSWed joint: (a) BM, (b) HAZ, (c) AS-HAZ-TMAZ, (d) TMAZ, (e) the
top of WNZ, (f) the bottom of WNZ.

textures accounting for 39.7% and 13.3%, respectively.
Recrystallization textures at the bottom of WNZ (Fig. 4f and m),
such as U, R, Cube, and F, account for 26.9% compared to 9.4%
for shear texture A. The equiaxed grains completely replace the
rolling grains, disrupting the initial growth direction and
significantly reducing the texture intensity of WNZ to
3.67e6.85.
In summary, BM and HAZ are primarily dominated by
rolling textures, while AS-HAZ-TMAZ develops shear texture
under the weaker shear stress. Owing to the significant flow
deformation of the crystals, TMAZ generates rolling textures
again. WNZ consists mainly of diverse recrystallization tex-
tures and a limited amount of shear textures.
3.1.3. Precipitate distribution
Fig. 5 shows TEM images in different regions of SSFSWed joint.
As shown in Fig. 5a, BM is composed of diffusely distributed
needle-like precipitates with a length of 60e80 nm and a
thickness of 3e7 nm. There are distinct diffraction spots at 1/
3<220> and 2/3<220> and diffraction streaks along <111> di-
rection, as shown in Fig. 5b. The four variants originate from
the superlattice reflection of T1 (Al2CuLi) in BM [33]. There are
3014 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4

Fig. 4 e ODFs in different sections of SSFSWed joint: (a) BM, (b) HAZ, (c) AS-HAZ-TMAZ, (d) TMAZ, (e) the top of WNZ, (f) the
bottom of WNZ, (g) ideal texture components, and the fractions of main textures: (h) BM, (i) HAZ, (j) AS-HAZ-TMAZ, (k) TMAZ,
(l) the top of WNZ, (m) the bottom of WNZ.

a number of coarsened needle-like precipitates that are
densely cross-distributed in HAZ, as shown in Fig. 5c. As a
result of the diffused solute atoms by the welding heat cycle,
the thickness and length of precipitates in HAZ are coarsened
to 65e160 nm and 5e12 nm, respectively. In addition to T1, a
tiny quantity of q' (Al2Cu) is also detected, which is determined
by the cross-distributed needle-like precipitates morphology
along three directions and the weaker diffraction spots
marked by red circles in Fig. 5d. Furthermore, weaker
diffraction spots of d' (Al3Li)/b' (Al3Zr) at 1/2<002>, marked by
blue circles in Fig. 5d, as well as a small number of small-sized
spherical precipitates (Fig. 5c) are also observed. Therefore, a
significant quantity of T1/q0 is coarsened in HAZ, along with a
negligible amount of d'/b0 re-precipitating. Compared to HAZ,
the length of T1/q0 is reduced to 30e130 nm in TMAZ, as shown
in Fig. 5e, which indicates that needle-like precipitates grad-
ually begin to dissolve locally along the edge of lengthwise
sides. However, it is clear that the thickness of T1/q0 increases
significantly to 12e25 nm, approximately twice as thick as
that in HAZ. Furthermore, amongst the coarsened T1/q0 , there
are dispersed fine spherical precipitates. As shown in the
SAED pattern along [100]Al zone axis (Fig. 5f), it can be
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4 3015

Fig. 5 e TEM images in different regions of SSFSWed joint: (a) the BF image of BM, (b) SAED pattern of BM along [110]Al zone
axis, (c) the BF image of HAZ, (d) SAED pattern of HAZ along [100]Al zone axis, (e) the BF image of TMAZ, (f) SAED pattern of
TMAZ along [100]Al zone axis.

observed that besides the diffraction spots of T1 and q0 , there
are distinct diffraction spots at 1/2<220> and 1/2<002>, iden-
tified as d'/b' [33]. It can be inferred from the diffraction peaks
in Fig. 11b that a small amount of T2 is also present in TMAZ.
Therefore, TMAZ consists mainly of further coarsened T1/q0 ,
as well as a few T2 and d'/b'.
Precipitate-free zones (PFZs) with a width of approximately
177e236 nm are detected along grain boundaries in AS-HAZ-
TMAZ, as shown in Fig. 6aeb. Within PFZs, spherical
precipitates with a diameter of around 56 nm are detected
along grain boundaries, while spherical precipitates with a
diameter of about 20 nm are dispersed outside PFZs. EDS
analysis is performed on the precipitates in Fig. 6b in order to
identify such two precipitates, with results shown in
Fig. 6ced. Since Li cannot be recognized, the precipitate types
can be identified by the atomic ratios of Al and Cu. The small-
sized precipitates outside PFZs have an exceptionally low Cu
concentration, referred to as d'. In contrast, the precipitates
3016 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4
Fig. 6 e TEM analysis of AS-HAZ-TMAZ: (a)e(b) the BF images, (c)e(d) EDS spectrums.
within PFZs have an atomic ratio (Al to Cu) of 7.5, identified as
T2 (Al6CuLi3). Moreover, the diffraction peak of TB (Al7Cu4Li) is
also evident in AS-HAZ-TMAZ, as shown in Fig. 11b. There-
fore, as result of higher thermal cycling and weaker shear
deformation, T1/q0 along grain boundaries in AS-HAZ-TMAZ
dissolves, and cannot re-precipitate in time during cooling,
delivering solute atoms for TB, T2, and d'.
When combined with Fig. 7a, d and the diffraction peaks
marked in Fig. 11b, it can be observed that the precipitate
morphologies at the bottom and top of WNZ are almost
identical, consisting of spherical and rod-like precipitates
with sizes of 80e180 nm, while needle-like T1/q0 is almost
completely dissolved. The top of WNZ is exposed to more
severe plastic deformation and higher heat input due to the
cone angle (about 11 ) of the stir pin, which causes a decrease
in size and gradual dissolution of the precipitates. Conse-
quently, the density and size of the precipitates at the bottom
are slightly higher than at the top. In order to identify the
precipitate types, EDS spectrums are performed on pre-
cipitates in Fig. 7a. According to EDS spectrums in Fig. 7bec
and f-h, Al/Cu is approximately 5e6, identified as T2 (Al6CuLi3).
It is the first time that significant amounts of T2 have been
discovered to re-precipitate in solid-state welding AleLi alloy
joints. The superlattice reflection along <100> direction is
considered to be TB (Al7Cu4Li) [34], as shown in Fig. 7e.
According to the EDS spectrum in Fig. 7i, the precipitate has an
Al/Cu ratio of around 2.3, significantly higher than T2 and
equivalent to the atomic ratio in TB. Although TB and T2 share
nearly similar dimensions and morphology, there is a clear
indentation in the transition zone between TB and Al matrix,
as shown in Fig. 7i. The diffraction peaks shown in Fig. 11b
indicate that T2 is widely distributed throughout WNZ, while
TB is more present toward the bottom.
In summary, BM consists mainly of abundant fine needle-
like T1. The length and thickness of T1/q0 are coarsened in
HAZ, as well as a few d'/b0 re-precipitated. Along with the re-
precipitation of TB in AS-HAZ-TMAZ, T1/q0 at the grain
boundaries dissolves, forming PFZs and T2 along the grain
boundaries. The length of T1/q0 shortens a little bit, thickens
twice, and a few T2 and d'/b0 are produced in TMAZ. T2 is
scattered throughout WNZ, while TB is mainly detected at the
bottom. Furthermore, the precipitate density is higher at the
bottom than at the top.
3.2. Mechanical properties in different regions of
SSFSWed joint
3.2.1. Hardness distribution
The 2D hardness contour map in the thick-plate 2195-T8 AleLi
alloy SSFSWed joint is compared with macroscopic
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4 3017

Fig. 7 e TEM images of the whole WNZ: (a) the BF image at the top, (b)e(c) EDS spectrums at the top, (d) the BF image at the
bottom, (e) SAED pattern at the bottom along [100]Al zone axis, (f)e(i) EDS spectrums at the bottom.
3018 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4

Fig. 8 e Hardness distribution of SSFSWed joint: (a) the 2D hardness contour map along ND-RD section, (b) hardness profile
at the top, middle and bottom of the joint, (c) hardness distribution of WNZ along plate thickness.

morphology, as shown in Fig. 8. It can be observed that BM has surface, the hardness values are homogeneously distributed,
the highest hardness value, approximately 160e170 HV. In approximately 120 HV, whereas the hardness values abruptly
HAZ, the area close to BM shows higher hardness values, decrease from 120 HV to around 90 HV within 8e12 mm from
around 160 HV, while the region farther from BM exhibits lower the weld surface. In conclusion, AS-HAZ-TMAZ and the bottom
hardness values. When close to AS-HAZ-TMAZ, the hardness
value drops to the minimum, around 95e100 HV. However, the
hardness values gradually recover from approximately 95 HV
to 120 HV in the narrower TMAZ, whereas the hardness values
adjacent to WNZ eventually rebound to around 120 HV. The
hardness values of WNZ remain constant at around 120 HV.
Furthermore, in the weaker part of the joint, i.e., HAZ-TMAZ,
the hardness values on the advancing side (about 95e105 HV)
are lower than on the retreating side (about 110e120 HV).
Therefore, the overall hardness distribution of SSFSWed joint is
approximate “W”. Fig. 8b shows hardness profiles at the top,
middle, and bottom of the joint, originating from Fig. 8a. It is
obvious that hardness profiles at the top and middle are almost
clear “W”, with the most severe softening in AS-HAZ-TMAZ.
However, the hardness distribution at the bottom is approxi-
mate “U”, with the most severe softening at the bottom of WNZ.
The bottom of WNZ, with a hardness value of around 90 HV,
lower than AS-HAZ-TMAZ, is where the whole joint is most
severely softened. Fig. 8c illustrates the hardness distributions Fig. 9 e Engineering stressestrain curves and fracture
of WNZ along plate thickness. Within 8 mm from the weld location of the entire joints.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4 3019

Fig. 10 e Tensile properties (a) in different regions of SSFSWed joint and (b) along plate thickness of WNZ, engineering
stressestrain curves (c) in different regions of SSFSWed joint and (b) at the top, middle and bottom of WNZ.

of WNZ are the areas with the lowest hardness values for
SSFSW thick-plate 2195-T8 AleLi alloy joint.
3.2.2. Tensile properties
Fig. 9 shows the tensile properties and the fracture location of
the whole joints at 400 rpm, 60 mm/min. It can be observed that
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the whole joint is approxi-
mately 399 MPa, and elongation is around 5.64%. The crack
extends from the top of AS-HAZ-TMAZ to the bottom of WNZ.
In order to investigate softening degree in the SSFSWed joint,
tensile tests in different regions of the joint are carried out, as
illustrated in Fig. 10a and c. It is noted that BM has the
maximum UTS and yield strength (YS), approximately 530 MPa
and 493 MPa, respectively. In HAZ, UTS and YS gradually
decrease from 518 MPa and 478 MPa to 387 MPa and 289 MPa,
with increasing distance from BM, whereas they fall to their
lowest values (370 MPa and 239 MPa) in AS-HAZ-TMAZ,
respectively. UTS and YS in TMAZ recover gradually from
around 370 MPa, 239 MPa to 392 MPa, 254 MPa, while WNZ
generally maintains about 390 MPa and 250 MPa. The elonga-
tion increases monotonically from around 7% in BM to around
19.3% in WNZ. Although UTS and YS of HAZ-TMAZ on the
advancing side (370 MPa, 239 MPa) are slightly lower than on
the retreating side (379 MPa, 246 MPa), they both exhibit a
similar softening tendency in the SSFSWed joint. Conse-
quently, similar to hardness distribution, tensile properties
distribution in different regions of the joint is approximate
“W”. Tensile tests along plate thickness are conducted to
evaluate the softening tendency of WNZ, with the results
shown in Fig. 10b and d. It is evident that the average UTS and
YS values are around 394 MPa and 259 MPa, homogeneously
distributed along plate thickness within 10 mm from the weld
surface. However, UTS and YS at the bottom of WNZ are
reduced to 336 MPa and 231 MPa. Along plate thickness, the
elongation increases from 21.4% at the top to 23.9% at the
bottom.
In conclusion, in the whole SSFSWed joint, the regions
with the lowest tensile strength are the bottom of WNZ and
AS-HAZ-TMAZ, coincident with the crack propagation direc-
tion of the tensile specimen.
4. Discussion
4.1. Softening behavior of SSFSWed joint
2195-T8 AleLi ally, a precipitation-strengthened Al alloy, is
characterized by four main strengthening mechanisms: solid
solution strengthening, fine grain strengthening, precipitation
strengthening, and dislocation strengthening [14]. However, it
is difficult to quantify the variation in solid solution
strengthening in different areas of the joint. The softening
3020 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4
Fig. 11 e The calculation of dislocation density and dislocation increments in different regions of SSFSWed joint: (a) XRD
patterns, (b) the partial enlarged patterns, (c) WilliamsoneHall plots, (d) histograms of dislocation density and dislocation
increments.
behavior in the SSFSWed joints can be explored through
dislocation density, precipitate evolution, and the HallePetch
relationship.
4.1.1. Influence of dislocation density on softening behavior
During SSFSW, different regions in thick-plate AleLi alloy
joint suffer from heterogeneous temperature histories and
plastic deformation. The heterogeneous dislocation density
distribution that results from the various recovery and
recrystallization degrees in the SSFSWed joint has a signifi-
cant impact on the softening behavior. The YS increment of
dislocation density can be evaluated by Eq. (1) [35]:
Dsdis ¼ MaGbr1=2
where Dsdis is dislocation increment, M is the Taylor factor
(3.06), a is the geometric factor of Al alloy (0.2), G is the shear
modulus of the aluminum alloy (26.2 GPa), b is the Burgers
vector (0.2864 nm), and r is the dislocation density. The
dislocation density can be calculated by Eqs. (2) and (3) [18,36]:
b cos q 0:9 2ε sin q
¼ þ
l D l
ε2
r ¼ 16:1
b2
where b is the peak width at half-peak height, l is the wave-
length of the X-rays (0.1542 nm for Cu Ka), D is the crystal size,
ε is the lattice strain, and q is the Bragg angle. After bringing b
and q from the XRD pattern (Fig. 11a) into Eq. (2), b cos
l
q
and 2 sin
l
q
can be calculated by linear fitting, as shown in Fig. 11c ε is the
slope of the fitting curve [37]. The dislocation increments and
dislocation density in different areas of the joint can be
calculated by Eqs. (1) and (3), respectively, with the results
displayed in Fig. 11d.
After rolling and T8 treatment, BM retains high-density
dislocation, with the dislocation density and dislocation
increment of around 2.09  1015 m2 and 205.53 MPa, as shown
in Fig. 11d. HAZ experiences recovery and recrystallization
(1)
under the thermal cycle, reducing dislocation density and
dislocation increment to 1.10  1015 m2 and 149.42 MPa,
respectively. Subjected to the weaker thermo-mechanical
coupling for dynamic recovery and recrystallization in AS-
HAZ-TMAZ, the dislocation density and dislocation incre-
ment are dramatically reduced to 5.34  1014 m2 and
104.02 MPa. One of the main reasons for the higher softening
degree in AS-HAZ-TMAZ is that the retreating side, with less
(2)
deformation than the advancing side, has a higher dislocation
density and dislocation increment of 7.38  1014 m2 and
(3)
122.25 MPa, respectively. Exposed to more intense shear
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4
deformation, the dislocation density and dislocation incre-
ment on the advancing side of TMAZ increase to
7.39  1014 m2 and 122.31 MPa, whereas they are
4.84  1014 m2 and 98.98 MPa on the retreating side of TMAZ
with weaker deformation degree. The violent deformation
and heat input at the top of WNZ release the dislocations,
leading to lower dislocation density and dislocation incre-
ment at the top (6.50  1014 m2, 114.74 MPa) than at the
bottom (1.19  1015 m2, 155.09 MPa).
In conclusion, a comparison with the tensile properties
shows that the decrease in dislocation density is the main
reason for the SSFSWed joint softening. However, the soft-
ening behavior of WNZ along plate thickness cannot be
reasonably explained in terms of dislocation density.
4.1.2. Influence of precipitate evolution on softening behavior
The precipitate-strengthened 2195-T8 AleLi alloy has an
extremely complex precipitate system, and SSFSW involves a
complex thermo-mechanical coupling process, which causes
coarsening, dissolution, and re-precipitation of precipitates in
different regions of SSFSWed joint [16]. The joint softening
behavior is therefore closely related to precipitate evolution. It
is known from previous studies that the dislocation move-
ment is mainly by bypassing precipitate and leaving a dislo-
cation ring. The increment of precipitation strengthening
caused by the bypassing mechanism can be evaluated by Eq.
(4) [38,39]:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!
gapb 3p2 f
Dsp;by ¼ 0:81M
2b 8 Fine grain strengthening is also a widely recognized
where Dsp;by is the increment of precipitation strengthening
due to the bypassing mechanism, gapb is the antiphase
boundary energy, f is the volume fraction of the precipitates.
Needle-like T1 and q0 , with higher antiphase boundary en-
ergies (gapb ) and the ability to hinder dislocation movement,
are the two most effectively strengthened precipitates in 2195-
T8 AleLi alloy [33,40]. It is the fundamental reason for the
highest strength and hardness in BM. Due to the lower weld
thermal cycle, T1/q0 coarsens in HAZ and is accompanied by
the precipitation of d'/b0 , weakening the strengthening effect.
A metastable phase d'/b0 , precipitating at lower temperatures
with lower activation and interfacial energy, contributes to
effective pinning grain boundaries and promoting grain
refinement. Although d'/b0 also contributes to improving me-
chanical properties, the strengthening effect is significantly
weaker than T1/q0 due to the lower antiphase boundary energy
(gapb ) [33,40]. T1/q0 in TMAZ is locally dissolved at the long edge
and further coarsened in thickness, weakening the strength-
ening effect. Higher welding thermal cycling and weaker
shear deformation lead to the dissolution of the precipitates
and migration of Cu atoms at the grain boundaries of AS-HAZ-
TMAZ. However, it does not have enough time to re-
precipitate substantially during cooling, contributing to
forming PFZs and T2 phase along grain boundaries. PFZs lose
the hindrance of precipitates relative to dislocation move-
ment, leading to localized softening [41]. The interface be-
tween T2 and Al matrix is smooth and flat, and the
compression effect produced during precipitation inhibits the
nucleation and extension of cracks along the interface during
3021
tension. It improves plasticity and toughness and alleviates
the fracture tendency while having an extremely weak effect
on strength [42]. Furthermore, AS-HAZ-TMAZ is accompanied
by the re-precipitation of TB, which usually nucleates on Si-
containing particles in the spherical precipitate b'/d0 ,
depleting the solute atoms available for forming supersatu-
rated solid solution zones and leading to a reduction in me-
chanical properties [34]. Due to forming PFZs at grain
boundaries and re-precipitating TB, AS-HAZ-TMAZ exhibits
less T1/q0 coarsening and more severe softening than TMAZ.
T1/q0 is completely dissolved in the whole WNZ, with signifi-
cant abundant T2 dispersing, while TB is only re-precipitated
at the bottom of WNZ. Therefore, the dissolution of T1/q0 is
responsible for the softening in the whole WNZ, whereas re-
precipitating TB leads to a higher softening degree at the
bottom. The higher elongation at the bottom than the top
(Fig. 10d) is attributed to re-precipitating the higher density of
T2.
In conclusion, the coarsening and dissolution of T1/q0 , and
transformation into b'/d0 , TB and T2 are fundamentally
responsible for the softening in different regions of the
SSFSWed joint. The severe softening in AS-HAZ-TMAZ is
mainly caused by forming PFZs along grain boundaries and re-
precipitating TB, while the dissolution of T1/q0 and re-
precipitating TB are responsible for the extreme softening at
the bottom of WNZ.
4.1.3. Influence of HallePetch relationship on softening
behavior
(4)
strengthening method [19,20]. However, the conventional
HallePetch relationship is limited to explaining the relation-
ship between grain size and YS, ignoring the effect of crystal
orientation [21,22]. Therefore, an optimized model is pro-
posed, as follows [43]:
.
1=2 1=2
Dsy ¼ 3ðptc Gb=2maÞ d m (5)
where Dsy is YS increment of the HallePetch relationship, d is
grain size, tc is the critical shear stress of polycrystal, m is
schmid factor, the ratio 3 is from well-accepted Tabor's rela-
tion between indentation hardness and YS of a material, an
average dislocation character is expressed in the factor
a2 ¼ 2(1y) (2y), y is Poisson's ratio. The optimized HallePetch
relationship primarily describes the relationship among YS,
grain size, and schmid factor.
In the SSFSWed joint, rolling grains from BM to WNZ are
continuously divided, refined, and transformed towards
equiaxed grains due to various recrystallization degrees,
whereas the strength and hardness are gradually reduced.
Moreover, the grain size in WNZ also decreases significantly
along plate thickness, but the strength and hardness are
significantly weaker at the bottom than at the top and middle.
It suggests that grain size does not seems to be a critical factor
affecting the YS increment, according to the conventional
HallePetch relationship. It is known from previous studies [44]
that the orientation factor plays a significant role in the joint
softening behavior. Compared to other textures, the average
of the five maximum Schmid factors for eight groups of
symmetrical slip systems in Cube is up to 0.41. It contributes
3022 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4

to being in a soft orientation during tension and tends to
soften in localized areas. The fraction of Cube increases from
1.1% in BM to 4% in AS-HAZ-TMAZ, as shown in Fig. 4hej, and
decreases to 3.3% in TMAZ (Fig. 4k). The fraction of Cube is
much lower at the top of WNZ (1.4%) than at the bottom (13%),
as illustrated in Fig. 4lem. Therefore, the fraction distribu-
tions of Cube in different regions of the SSFSWed joint are
opposite to the distributions of tensile strength and hardness.
Furthermore, in a previous study [44], the fractions of the
maximum schmid factor (distributed in 0.4e0.5) are signifi-
cantly higher at the bottom of WNZ (96.89%) and in AS-HAZ-
TMAZ (95.13%) than in other regions of SSFSWed joint. It
indicated that the softly oriented grains are more abundant at
the bottom of WNZ and in AS-HAZ-TMAZ, resulting in lower
YS increments. In conclusion, the softening degrees are
higher at the bottom of WNZ and in AS-HAZ-TMAZ with
higher fractions of the maximum schmid factor (distributed in
0.4e0.5) and Cube.
4.2. Fracture modes in different regions of SSFSWed
joint
Figure 12a shows the fracture morphology of BM. It can be
observed that there are a large number of elongated cracks

Fig. 12 e The fracture morphologies in different regions of SSFSWed joint: (a) BM, (b) HAZ, (c) AS-HAZ-TMAZ, (d) TMAZ on the
advancing side, (e) HAZ-TMAZ on the retreating side, (f) the top of WNZ, (g) the middle of WNZ, (h) the bottom of WNZ.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 3 0 0 8 e3 0 2 4
distributed at grain boundaries along the rolling direction.
There are also a large number of short, crooked tear ridges and
smooth quasi-cleavage facets. Moreover, a few dimple bands
are distributed non-homogeneously along the rolling direc-
tion across the whole fracture morphology. Therefore, the
fracture mode of BM (elongation is about 7%) is concluded to
be a quasi-cleavage fracture, a transitional fracture mode
between cleavage fracture and dimple fracture. Similar to BM,
the fracture morphology of HAZ consists of elongated cracks
along the rolling grain boundaries, dimple bands, and quasi-
cleavage facets, typical characteristics of quasi-dissociation
fracture, as shown in Fig. 12b. The number and depth of
dimples increase significantly in AS-HAZ-TMAZ, as shown in
Fig. 12c. The formation of PFZs is primarily responsible for the
dispersed distribution of small and flat quasi-cleavage facets.
It indicates that AS-HAZ-TMAZ begins to exhibit a plastic
fracture feature with elongation increasing to 15.5%. However,
the fracture morphology of HAZ-TMAZ on the retreating side
(Fig. 12e) shows numerous quasi-cleavage facets, dimples, and
tear ridges, confirming the fracture mechanism to be a quasi-
cleavage fracture. The number and size of quasi-cleavage
facets in TMAZ gradually decrease, accompanied by a scat-
tered distribution of small-sized dimples, as shown in Fig. 12d.
Therefore, TMAZ gradually transforms towards a plastic
fracture mode, with elongation increasing to around 17.0%. As
shown in Fig. 12feh, WNZ consists mainly of large equiaxed
dimples with particles distributed inside, which exhibits the
typical features of plastic fracture. The elongation of WNZ
monotonously rises from 21.4% to 23.9%, with the number and
depth of dimples gradually increasing from top to bottom,
representing the higher plasticity and toughness at the bot-
tom. In conclusion, the fracture mechanism from BM to WNZ
gradually changes from quasi-cleavage fracture to plastic
fracture, with the elongation changing from 7% to 23.9%.
5. Conclusions
1. The fraction of HAGBs increases from 44.7% (BM) to
66.6e76.8% (WNZ), while the fraction of recrystallized
grains similarly increases from 23.4% to 76.6e87.9%. The
recrystallization mechanisms in AS-HAZ-TMAZ and TMAZ
are DDRX, CDRX, and GDRX, and WNZ is dominated by
DDRX and CDRX, which results in the gradual transition
from rolling grain to equiaxed grain and the decrease in
dislocation density.
2. Fine needle-like precipitates T1/q0 are scattered in BM,
whereas they are gradually coarsened in HAZ and TMAZ
and completely dissolved in the whole WNZ. The dissolu-
tion of T1/q0 near the grain boundaries of AS-HAZ-TMAZ
contributes to forming PFZs and T2 along grain bound-
aries. A few metastable phases d'/b0 are sparsely distributed
in HAZ and TMAZ, while TB primarily re-precipitates in the
softening areas, such as the bottom of WNZ and AS-HAZ-
TMAZ. T2 is abundantly distributed in the whole WNZ but
only re-precipitates in a minor quantity in TMAZ.
3. Similar to tensile strength distribution, the hardness dis-
tributions at the top and bottom of the SSFSWed joint are
rough “W", whereas the bottom displays approximate “U".
The hardness and tensile strength in WNZ are
3023
homogeneously distributed within 8 mm from the weld
surface but considerably drop within 8e12 mm. The most
severely softening regions in the SSFSWed joint are the
bottom of WNZ and AS-HAZ-TMAZ. The fracture mecha-
nism transforms from quasi-cleavage fracture in BM to
plastic fracture in WNZ.
4. The joint softening is partly attributed to a decline in
dislocation density. The coarsening and dissolution of T1/q0
and transformation to d'/b0 , TB and T2 are the primary
reason for various softening degrees in the SSFSWed joint.
The severe softening in AS-HAZ-TMAZ is caused by form-
ing PFZs and re-precipitating TB, whereas that at the bot-
tom of WNZ is attributed to re-precipitating TB and the
complete dissolution of T1/q'. AS-HAZ-TMAZ and the bot-
tom of WNZ, with higher fractions of the maximum
schmid factor (in 0.4e0.5) and Cube texture, tend to be in
soft orientation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the sponsorship from The
National Natural Science Foundation of China (51775371 and
52175356), Tianjin Natural Science Foundation (19JCZDJC39200),
and Tianjin Research Innovation Project for Postgraduate Stu-
dents (2021YJSO2S05).
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