Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688

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Additive Manufacturing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/addma

Low cycle fatigue behavior of wire arc additive manufactured and solution
annealed 308 L stainless steel
Yajing Li a, c, Yutong Yuan a, Dexin Wang a, Sichao Fu a, Danrong Song b, Maurizio Vedani c,
Xu Chen a, *
a
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300354, China
b
Nuclear Power Institute of China, Sichuan Chengdu, Chengdu 610213, China
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan 20156, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has attracted much attention for many industrial fields owing to its
Additive manufacturing high productivity and flexibility. However, little is known about the fatigue behavior of WAAM austenitic
Wire arc additive manufacturing stainless steel (SS). In this study, microstructural characterization, quasi-static tensile tests, and strain controlled
Austenitic stainless steel
low cycle fatigue tests were carried out on a 308 L SS fabricated by WAAM and solution annealing. Hot-rolled
Low cycle fatigue
308 L SS was also studied as a reference material. The quasi-static tensile properties, cyclic deformation be­
Fatigue failure mechanism
haviors, fatigue lives and fatigue failure mechanisms are comparably investigated and found to be dependent on
their distinct microstructures. Compared with the hot-rolled counterparts, the WAAM specimens showed slightly
longer fatigue life at relatively high strain amplitudes, but shorter fatigue life at low strain amplitudes, which is
attributed to their worse crack initiation, but better crack propagation resistance.

1. Introduction
Metal-based additive manufacturing (AM) is a manufacturing tech­
nology based on the stacking of materials layer by layer according to the
geometry set by a digital model, which has the advantages of rapid
forming, low cost, and efficient ability to form complex components in
comparison with the conventional subtractive manufacturing technol­
ogies [1,2]. The most commonly used fabrication processes of AM
metallic parts are Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) and Directed Energy
Deposition (DED). In PBF the powder for each layer is spread over the
previous layer and then melted in selected regions using either a laser
beam, or an electron beam. The DED process allows simultaneously
melting and depositing the powder or wire feedstock in a layer-by-layer
fashion. Among the DED technologies, wire arc additive manufacturing
(WAAM), which uses an electric arc as the heat source to melt a welding
wire feedstock, has received widespread attention due to its ability to
produce large-scale structural components with high deposition speed
and low manufacturing cost [3–6].
Austenitic stainless steels (SS) are widely employed in automobile,
aviation and nuclear industry owing to their good combination of
corrosion resistance and mechanical properties [7]. For the austenitic SS
components, both the tensile failure under monotonic loading and fa­
tigue failure under cyclic loading are common failure modes during
engineering services [7]. Therefore, understanding the mechanical
performance and its relationship with microstructure of WAAM fabri­
cated austenitic SS is critical for reliable engineering applications.
The relationship among processing parameters, microstructure and
mechanical properties of WAAM fabricated austenitic SS has been
studied in the literature [6,8–15]. Most of the information available is
focused on monotonic tensile properties. Li et al. [6] studied the rela­
tionship between the microstructure and tensile properties of WAAM
AISI 308 L SS and found that the deformation occurs by the formation of
slip bands of austenite and ferrite well aligned with highly stressed slip
systems. Wang et al. [8] discussed the impact of arc mode on the mi­
crostructures and mechanical properties of WAAM processed AISI 316 L
SS. They found that SpeedArc WAAM produced a finer solidification
structure than SpeedPulse WAAM owing to its lower heat input and
higher cooling rate, resulting in a greater tensile strength. Wu et al. [9]
achieved a WAAM 316 L build with an optimal molding efficiency and
good mechanical properties in high speed cold welding mode, with 10 s
cooling time, 30 cm/min scanning speed and gradually reduced bottom
current. Cunningham et al. [10] used in-process cryogenic cooling to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xchen@tju.edu.cn (X. Chen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.102688
Received 20 October 2021; Received in revised form 29 January 2022; Accepted 12 February 2022
Available online 16 February 2022
2214-8604/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y. Li et al.
obtain WAAM AISI 316 L SS with significantly more random orienta­
tions and high numbers of equiaxed grains, resulting in significantly
higher Young’s Modulus than samples produced using interpass tem­
perature control. In addition, anisotropic monotonic tensile properties
were reported in WAAM AISI 316 L, with lower strength in the direction
parallel to the deposition direction [9,11]. However, the yield and ul­
timate strengths did not present a statistically significant difference
along the deposition direction [11,12]. Finally, the strength of WAAM
AISI 316 L steel were comparable to the wrought counterparts and
exceeded the standard requirements for AISI 316 L [13].
Studies on the fatigue properties of AM fabricated austenitic SS are
limited in the literature. Most of them focus on PBF technology, inves­
tigating the effect of processing parameter, post-treatments, stress
gradient, surface roughness and defects on the fatigue behaviors
[16–20]. Few researches concentrated on DED technology [21–23]. It
has been reported that the presence of manufacturing defects can in­
crease scatter in fatigue life data [21,22] and decrease the overall fatigue
life compared to wrought austenitic SS [21]. In contrast, enhanced or
comparable fatigue performance was found in WAAM AISI 304 L SS in
the transitional and high cycle fatigue (HCF) loading regimes when
compared to wrought and DED-fabricated materials [23]. These con­
flicting findings indicate that the fatigue behavior of WAAM austenitic
SS need to be further clarified.
In this study, the quasi-static tensile properties and low cycle fatigue
(LCF) properties of WAAM AISI 308 L SS are systematically investigated.
Similar tests were also performed on hot-rolled 308 L SS as a reference
state for comparison. Microstructure observations were performed to
elucidate the underlying mechanisms of the distinct tensile and LCF
fatigue behavior of the materials AISI 308 L in WAAM and hot rolled
condition.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Material fabrication
The materials used in this study were AISI 308 L SS fabricated by two
methods: WAAM and hot rolling. For the fabrication of WAAM 308 L SS,
a 304 SS plate with a size of 500 mm × 500 mm × 2 mm was chosen as
the substrate and an ER308L welding wire with a diameter of 1.2 mm
was selected as feedstock. The shielding gas during the process was a
mixture of 2.5% CO2 and 97.5% Ar to avoid oxidation and other
contamination of the molten pool during solidification as well as to
improve the stabilization of the arc and the viscosity of the molten pool.
The welding power source was a cold metal transfer (CMT) Advanced
4000 R from Fronius Company. The scanning path changed back and
forth, indicating that the scanning directions were opposite in two
adjacent tracks. Other technical parameters are listed in Table 1. After
the WAAM process, the as-deposited 308 L SS plate was solution-
annealed at 1050 ◦ C for two hours and then subjected to water
quenching. The option to investigate the WAAM-processed 308 L steels
after solution annealing is related to the need of providing useful data
for real engineering applications since austenitic stainless steels are
almost always serviced after a solution annealing following hot fabri­
cation stages, to remove precipitated Cr carbides. The obtained 308 L SS
sample was a plate containing 87 deposited layers with the length,
width, and height size of 340 mm, 23 mm, and 265 mm, respectively, as
Table 1
Technical parameters of WAAM process.
Scanning Wire Contact Temperature Current, Voltage,
speed feeding tube to between layers I (A) U (V)
(mm/s) speed work (℃)
(m/min) distance
(mm)
6–8 5.5–7.0 12–15 135–150 19–21
＜170
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Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688
shown in Fig. 1(a). The average height of each layer was about 3 mm.
The side surface of the plate exhibited a slight corrugation due to layer-
by-layer deposition.
The hot-rolled 308 L SS was produced by continuous casting and hot
rolling. Continuously cast billets were produced with a square section
having a side length of 220 mm utilizing an electromagnetic stirring
device. Two hot rolling passes were then performed with preheated
billet to obtain a round bar. In the first pass, a round bar with a diameter
of 90 mm was obtained with a rolling ratio of 2.4, with the second pass,
the bar was reduced to 55 mm with a rolling ratio of 1.6. Next, the
surface oxide scale was removed to obtain a round bar with a diameter of
52 mm. The bar was then cut into short sections with a length of
120 mm. Finally, the same solution annealing as that for WAAM 308 L
SS was conducted. The image of a hot-rolled 308 L SS bar is given in
Fig. 1(b).
The chemical compositions of WAAM and hot-rolled 308 L SS are
listed in Table 2. According to the Schaeffler diagram, the nickel
equivalent (Nieq) and Chromium equivalent (Creq) were calculated by
the following equations (in wt%) [24]:
Nieq = Ni + 0.5Mn + 30C (1)
Creq = Cr + Mo + 1.5Si + 0.5Nb (2)
The calculated values for Nieq and Creq were 12.37 and 20.99 for the
WAAM 308 L SS and 12.36 and 20.23 for the hot-rolled 308 L SS,
respectively. The limited differences in the estimated Nieq and Creq
values between WAAM and hot-rolled 308 L SS samples lead to the
reasonable assumptions that any difference in microstructure and me­
chanical properties can be attributed to the different processing tech­
nique and less to their chemical compositions.
2.2. Microstructure characterization
Two plate samples with dimensions of 10 mm × 10 mm × 2 mm
were extracted from the mid-thickness position of WAAM 308 L SS
plates and from the hot-rolled 308 L SS bar to observe the microstructure
of each material in horizontal and vertical sections, as illustrated in
Fig. 2. The microstructure was observed by optical microscope (OM,
Keyence VHX-900 F), scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Apreo S
LoVac), and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD, EDAX) equipped on
the SEM with an OIM system. Before OM observation, each sample was
mechanically ground and then polished with diamond abrasive paste,
and finally electrolytically etched using 10% oxalic acid solution at 20 V
for about 20 s. Before SEM and EBSD characterization, the samples were
mechanically ground up to 2000 grit SiC paper and then electro-polished
using 10% perchloric acid alcohol solution at 20 V for about 10 s. The
EBSD pattern was acquired at a specimen tilt angle of 70◦ to the hori­
zontal plane, with the acceleration voltage of 20 kV and working dis­
tance of 12 mm. The ferrite content was measured by a magnetic
induction method through a Ferritescope FMP30 on two cube samples
with dimensions of 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm [25].
2.3. Quasi-static tensile tests and fatigue tests
The mechanical tests, including quasi-static tensile tests and fatigue
tests, were all conducted at ambient temperature on an MTS axial-
torsional testing system with a force and torque capacity of 25 kN and
250 Nm, respectively. All specimens of WAAM 308 L SS and hot-rolled
308 L SS were sampled along the deposition direction and rolling di­
rection, respectively, as shown in Fig. 2. The specimen geometry for
quasi-static tensile tests and fatigue tests are shown in Fig. 3.
The quasi-static tensile tests were performed by displacement control
at a rate of 0.065 mm/s (about 0.1%/s) and the strain was measured by a
uniaxial extensometer with a gage length of 12.5 mm. Three repeated
tensile tests were conducted to ensure the accuracy of results. The fa­
tigue tests were conducted under fully reversed axial strain control with
Y. Li et al. Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688

Fig. 1. Views of (a) WAAM 308 L SS plate and (b) Hot-rolled 308 L SS bar.

Table 2
Chemical compositions (wt%) of WAAM and hot-rolled 308 L SS. ASTM standard is also provided for reference.
C N O Cr Ni Mn Si P S Fe

WAAM 308 L 0.049 0.0714 0.0684 20.42 10.04 1.72 0.38 0.012 0.002 Balance
Hot-rolled 308 L 0.021 0.0523 0.0046 19.70 10.68 2.10 0.35 0.013 0.010 Balance
ASTM ≤ 0.08 – – 19.5–22.0 9.0–11.0 1.00–2.50 0.25–0.60 ≤ 0.030 ≤ 0.030 Balance

Fig. 2. Sampling methods for microstructural observation of horizontal and vertical sections as well as tensile and fatigue tests with vertical orientated samples of (a)
WAAM 308 L SS and (b) hot-rolled 308 L SS.

Fig. 3. Specimen geometry for (a) quasi-static tensile tests and for (b) fatigue tests.

a tension-torsional extensometer. Five strain amplitudes ranging from was reduced by 5% from the stabilized value. The fatigue failure
0.2% to 1.0% were applied with a constant strain rate of 0.5%/s. At each mechanism was characterized using the post-test specimens with the
strain amplitude the fatigue tests were repeated three times. The fatigue strain amplitude of 0.6%. The fatigue crack initiation sites were char­
life was defined as the number of cycles when the axial stress amplitude acterized by the secondary cracks on the surface of the failed specimen

3
Y. Li et al.
at 10 mm near the main crack using SEM, and the crack propagation
paths were examined along the wall thickness direction using SEM and
EBSD. The corresponding sampling methods are schematically depicted
in Fig. 4.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructure
The microstructure of WAAM 308 L SS is shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
Defects such as internal pores, cracks, or lack of fusion defects are not
found. Fig. 5 gives the overall morphology and partial enlarged view of a
vertical section. The OM image of Fig. 5(a) exhibits a typical hierarchical
structure with the layer height of approximately 2.7 mm. By enlarging
the white box of Fig. 5(a), layer i & i + 1 as well as heat affect zone
(HAZ) with a height of approximately 100 µm between adjacent layers
are observed. The grains of the deposited layers are generally coarse and
columnar, while in the HAZ of the deposited layers (the uppermost re­
gion of already deposited material which was subjected to overheating
on deposition of the following layer) smaller and equiaxed grains are
revealed, as shown in Fig. 5(c), which was also reported in [11,26]. In
order to further characterize the morphology of deposited layers, Fig. 6
gives the EBSD images of horizontal and vertical sections. The inverse
pole figures (IPFs) of austenite are characterized by a relatively low
magnification, with a step size of 2.5 µm, as shown in Fig. 6(a) and (d).
The austenite grains present a columnar morphology with the major axis
parallel to the deposition direction, with a height of more than 1300 µm
and a width about 340 µm. Some small equiaxed austenitic grains are
also observed in conjunction with the large columnar grains. To reveal
the ferrite features of the WAAM 308 L SS, a higher magnification and a
smaller step size of 0.2 µm was employed. The corresponding IPFs and
phase maps are given in Fig. 6(b, e) and (c, f), respectively. It is shown
that in both horizontal and vertical sections, granular ferrite grains with
the size of about 3 µm are evenly distributed in the austenitic matrix.
The amount of ferrite of WAAM 308 L SS is 0.7 ± 0.3% measured by
Ferritescope.
Fig. 7 shows the microstructure detected from horizontal and vertical
sections of hot-rolled 308 L SS sample. Similar to WAAM 308 L SS, the
hot-rolled 308 L SS also contains two phases: austenite and ferrite.
However, the austenite of the hot-rolled 308 L SS has an equiaxed
crystal morphology with a grain size of about 60 µm and contains lots of
twins. A small amount of lathy ferrite is distributed along the rolling
direction, as illustrated in Fig. 7(c). The ferrite content is measured to be
0.4 ± 0.2%, which can be considered as substantially comparable with
WAAM 308 L SS.
From the comparison of microstructure between WAAM and hot-
rolled 308 L SS, it can be concluded that the processing technique in­
duces a significant effect on the microstructure. Both the
Fig. 4. Sampling method of post-test fatigue specimens for the observations of fatigue crack initiation and propagation.
4
Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688
microstructures include an austenitic matrix and small amounts of
ferrite. However, the austenite grains of the WAAM 308 L SS exhibit
extremely larger columnar morphology compared with the smaller
equiaxed crystal morphology of the hot-rolled 308 L SS. Similar large
columnar austenitic grains were also reported in WAAM austenitic SS [6,
7,11–13,27–30], suggesting that they result from epitaxial grain growth
along the direction of heat dissipation, which is parallel to deposition
direction [4,31,32].
Besides, the texture and dislocation density are also affected by the
processing technique. Fig. 8 gives the {001} pole figures of austenite for
both types of samples investigated. A strong < 001 > crystallographic
texture is observed in WAAM 308 L SS but no obvious texture is present
in hot-rolled 308 L SS. Similar crystallographic texture was also reported
in austenitic SS manufactured by different AM technologies [12,13,19,
33–39]. It can be attributed to the fact that the < 001 > direction is the
fastest growing direction during the solidification of cubic metals, and
grains tend to grow with this crystallographic orientation aligned to the
maximum temperature gradient during the solidification process [40].
The dislocation density is indicated by kernel average misorientation
(KAM) maps of horizontal sections given in Fig. 9, with the KAM
calculated by the average misorientation between each pixel and its
nearest neighbors [41,42]. In contrast to hot-rolled 308 L SS, WAAM
308 L SS has a distribution of a higher KAM value (green areas),
demonstrating that the dislocation density of WAAM 308 L SS is obvi­
ously higher, even if the same solution annealing was performed on the
two materials.
3.2. Quasi-static tensile properties
Table 3 lists the tensile properties of WAAM 308 L SS and hot-rolled
308 L SS obtained by three repeat tests. Fig. 10 gives the representative
engineering stress-strain curves. It is shown that the WAAM and hot-
rolled 308 L SS exhibit obvious differences in Young’s modulus, yield
stress, ultimate tensile strength and elongation. Symmetrical stress-
controlled cyclic tests were conducted on three samples in the elastic
stress range to obtain the Young’s modulus. The average Young’s
modulus of WAAM 308 L SS is 151 GPa, only 80% of the hot-rolled
308 L SS (191 GPa) mainly owing to their texture difference. It was re­
ported that different crystal orientations of SS with face-centered-cubic
(FCC) structure have distinct elastic modulus. The < 111 > crystal
orientation has the highest modulus of 297 GPa and the < 001 > crystal
orientation has the lowest modulus of 101 GPa [43]. For the hot-rolled
308 L SS with random texture, the Young’s modulus is about 191 GPa,
while for WAAM 308 L SS, the strong < 001 > texture makes its Young’s
modulus significantly lower. Smaller Young’s modulus ranging from
130 to 170 GPa has been reported in many austenitic SS manufactured
by AM technology with significant < 001 > texture [12,13,36,39,44]. In
addition, WAAM 308 L SS has a 15% higher yield stress than that of
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 5. Microstructure of WAAM 308 L SS in vertical section (a) the hierarchical structure characterized by OM, (b) enlarged view of the white box of (a) char­
acterized by SEM, (c) enlarged view of the white box of (b). DD refers to the deposition direction.
hot-rolled 308 L SS even after the 1050 ◦ C solution annealing. This
might be because the solution annealing has removed much of the
built-up dislocations and residual stresses; however, as seen in Fig. 9,
WAAM 308 L SS still has relatively higher dislocation density, which
hinders the plastic flow of the material [45]. Moreover, the ultimate
tensile strength of WAAM 308 L SS is 4% lower than that of hot-rolled
308 L SS. Because ultimate tensile strength is determined at the
maximum load in each load-displacement record and is an engineering
parameter measured at a relatively large strain or in a later part of
tensile deformation [45]. The total elongation of WAAM 308 L SS is 17%
lower in comparison with the reference specimen.
3.3. Cyclic deformation behavior
Fig. 11 (a) illustrates the cyclic deformation behaviors under various
strain amplitudes of WAAM 308 L SS and hot-rolled 308 L SS. The data
are plotted as the stress amplitude versus the number of cycles on a semi-
logarithmic coordinate system. The two materials exhibit distinct cyclic
deformation behaviors. The hot-rolled 308 L SS displays different cyclic
deformation behaviors under various strain amplitudes. Three-stage
cyclic stress response is observed under strain amplitudes of 1.0% and
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Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688
0.8%, corresponding to an initial hardening for the first few cycles, cy­
clic softening in the following few hundreds of cycles, and then cyclic
saturation until final failure. However, when the strain amplitude is
smaller than 0.8%, only the initial hardening and a continuous cyclic
softening are observed. Unlike hot-rolled 308 L SS, WAAM 308 L SS
exhibits a two-stage cyclic stress response, regardless of the strain
amplitude. An initial hardening is observed for the first few cycles and
then continuous cyclic softening until final failure. The initial hardening
has been reported to relate to the increase of total dislocation density,
whereas cyclic saturation or softening was attributed to the movement
and re-arrangement of dislocations [46]. During cyclic deformation, the
stress amplitudes of WAAM SS relative to that of hot-rolled SS show
dependency on the strain amplitude and the number of cycles simulta­
neously. Under the strain amplitude of 0.2%, the stress amplitude of
WAAM 308 L SS is higher than that of hot-rolled 308 L SS throughout
the whole life range. Under the other strain amplitudes, the stress
amplitude of WAAM 308 L SS is higher than that of hot-rolled 308 L SS
only at the initial stage of the fatigue life.
Fig. 11 (b) gives the stress-strain hysteresis loops at half life cycle
under different strain amplitudes. The shapes of the hysteresis loops of
the two materials show two major differences. One is the obvious
Y. Li et al. Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688

Fig. 6. Microstructure of deposited layers of WAAM 308 L SS characterized by EBSD in (a-c) horizontal and (d-f) vertical section. (a) and (d) are Inverse pole figures
(IPFs) taken at low magnification; (b) and (e) are IPFs taken at high magnification; (c) and (f) are phase maps corresponding to (b) and (e). DD refers to the
deposition direction.

Fig. 7. Microstructure of hot-rolled 308 L SS in (a-b) horizontal and (c-d) vertical section. (a) and (c) are OM images; (b) and (d) are IPFs characterized by EBSD. RD
refers to the rolling direction.

6
Y. Li et al. Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688

Fig. 8. {001} pole figures of (a) WAAM 308 L SS and (b) hot-rolled 308 L SS. DD and SD refer to the deposition direction and scanning direction of WAAM 308 L SS,
respectively; RD and TD refer to the rolling direction and transverse direction of hot-rolled 308 L SS, respectively.

Fig. 9. Kernel average misorientation (KAM) maps of horizontal section of (a) WAAM 308 L SS and (b) hot-rolled 308 L SS.

Table 3
Tensile properties of WAAM and hot-rolled 308 L SS.
Processing E (GPa) σy (MPa) σu (MPa) εt (%)
WAAM 151 ± 8 293 ± 7 557 ± 4 62 ± 5
Hot-rolling 191 ± 1 256 ± 5 580 ± 3 75 ± 3

different linear stage due to different Young’s modulus, as a result of the

texture difference. The other is that the loop of WAAM 308 L SS is
shorter than that of hot-rolled 308 L SS at strain amplitudes larger than
0.2%, which indicates the lower stress amplitude at half life cycle, as
also noted in Fig. 11 (a). However, the loop of WAAM 308 L SS is longer
than that of hot-rolled counterpart at the strain amplitude of 0.2%,
representing the higher stress amplitude at half life cycle, which can be
explained by the higher yield stress of WAAM 308 L SS.
Fig. 12 displays the cyclic and quasi-static stress-strain curves, where
the cyclic stress amplitudes are obtained at half-life cycle. The yield
stress is defined as the stress corresponding to 0.2% plastic strain
(amplitude). The WAAM 308 L SS presents cyclic softening under strain Fig. 10. Representative engineering tensile stress-strain curves of the WAAM
amplitudes of 0.2–1.0%, indicated by the markers of the cyclic tests 308 L SS and hot-rolled 308 L SS.
being below the quasi-static tensile curve. While the hot-rolled 308 L SS
exhibits cyclic softening under the strain amplitude of 0.2%, cyclic
saturation under the strain amplitude of 0.4%, and cyclic hardening for
higher strain amplitudes. In addition, the stabilized stress amplitudes of

7
Y. Li et al. Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688

Fig. 11. (a) Stress amplitude versus number of cycles and (b) stress-strain hysteresis loops at half life cycle under different strain amplitudes of WAAM and hot-rolled
308 L SS.

Table 4
Fatigue testing results of WAAM 308 L SS.
Spec. ID Δε/2 Δεe/2 Δεp/2 Δσ/2 (MPa) Nf (cycles)

AM1 0.2 0.152 0.048 238.5 36,841

AM2 0.2 0.138 0.062 216.0 36,421
AM3 0.2 0.150 0.050 236.1 36,098
AM4 0.4 0.169 0.231 265.6 8108
AM5 0.4 0.159 0.241 248.9 6438
AM6 0.4 0.166 0.234 260.7 6410
AM7 0.6 0.179 0.421 280.5 3703
AM8 0.6 0.159 0.441 248.9 3207
AM9 0.6 0.172 0.428 270.5 3288
AM10 0.8 0.191 0.609 299.7 1748
AM11 0.8 0.174 0.626 273.7 3164
AM12 0.8 0.185 0.615 290.0 3084
AM13 1.0 0.214 0.786 336.5 1220
AM14 1.0 0.199 0.801 312.1 1715
AM15 1.0 0.209 0.791 327.7 1690

Fig. 12. Cyclic and quasi-static stress-strain curves of WAAM and hot-rolled Table 5
308 L SS in present study. Fatigue testing results of hot-rolled 308 L SS.
Spec. ID Δε/2 Δεe/2 Δεp/2 Δσ/2 (MPa) Nf (cycles)
WAAM 308 L SS are slightly higher than that of hot-rolled 308 L SS CA1 0.2 0.109 0.091 217.8 101,142
under the strain amplitude of 0.2%, comparable under the strain CA2 0.2 0.093 0.107 186.3 82,068
amplitude of 0.4%, and obviously higher under strain amplitudes larger CA3 0.2 0.111 0.089 221.9 93,094
CA4 0.4 0.135 0.265 270.5 9178
than 0.6%.
CA5 0.4 0.117 0.283 234.7 15,577
Cyclic softening behavior is common for additive manufactured SS CA6 0.4 0.133 0.267 266.7 11,008
[19,47,48] which is related to the density and arrangement of the CA7 0.6 0.160 0.440 319.1 3299
dislocation structure and substructure of the metal. For the investigated CA8 0.6 0.145 0.455 289.8 5545
CA9 0.6 0.155 0.445 310.0 4086
WAAM 308 L SS, it still exhibited larger dislocation density compared
CA10 0.8 0.181 0.619 362.9 1740
with the hot-rolled specimen, shown in Fig. 9, even though the same CA11 0.8 0.170 0.630 339.7 2257
solution annealing was carried out on both materials. When subjected to CA12 0.8 0.180 0.620 360.0 1984
inelastic cyclic loading, the existing dislocation structure of the WAAM CA13 1.0 0.201 0.799 402.0 1017
308 L SS rearranged into a configuration such that there is less resistance CA14 1.0 0.178 0.822 356.5 1727
CA15 1.0 0.198 0.802 395.3 1316
to deformation. Reconfiguration of the dislocation structure tends to
promote greater dislocation mobility. Therefore, dislocations are able to
circumnavigate around microstructural barriers that generally tend to under each loading condition are small. Corresponding elastic strain
restrict deformation, leading to cyclic softening. amplitude, plastic strain amplitude and stress amplitude are all deter­
mined from the experimental data at the half-life cycle.
Fig. 13 (a) compares the fatigue lives of WAAM 308 L SS and hot-
3.4. Fatigue life and failure mechanism
rolled 308 L SS. It can be noted that WAAM 308 L SS has slightly
longer fatigue life at the strain amplitudes of 1.0% and 0.8%, but shorter
The fatigue lives of WAAM 308 L SS and hot-rolled 308 L SS obtained
fatigue lives at the other lower strain amplitudes. The ratio of fatigue life
from the fully reversed tension-compression fatigue experiments are
of WAAM 308 L SS to that of hot-rolled 308 L SS is defined to describe
summarized in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. The scatters of fatigue lives

8
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 13. (a) Strain amplitude versus fatigue life curves of WAAM and hot-rolled 308 L SS in present study and (b) the ratio of fatigue lives between WAAM and hot-
rolled 308 L SS under various strain amplitudes.
the relationship of fatigue life between the two materials quantitatively.
The life ratio under various strain amplitudes is illustrated in Fig. 13(b).
It is larger than 1 at the strain amplitudes of 1.0% and 0.8%, but smaller
than 1 at the other strain amplitudes. In addition, under strain ampli­
tudes lower than 0.6%, the life ratio decreases with decreasing strain
amplitude, which indicates that the gap of fatigue life of WAAM
compared to that of hot-rolled 308 L SS is more significant at a lower
strain amplitude. Similar observations were also reported for laser based
PBF 15–5 precipitation hardening (PH) SS and 17–4 PH SS [48,49].
Lower fatigue strength values or shorter fatigue lives were obtained
compared to the conventionally manufactured steels, especially at lower
strain amplitudes, which is due to the presence of irregular-shaped de­
fects e.g. voids, un-melted regions [48,49]. In addition, by reducing the
porosity, the strength of the fatigued laser-based PBF TiAl6V4 could be
increased to match the value reported for the conventionally processed
Ti-6Al-4 V [50]. However, the WAAM 308 L SS in the current study can
be considered as substantially defect-free. Therefore, there are other
factors causing the difference in fatigue life between WAAM and
hot-rolled 308 L SS, which will be discussed from the perspective of
different fatigue failure mechanisms.
The fatigue damage process can be characterized by three distinct
stages: crack initiation, crack propagation and final sudden fracture
stage. In the first stage, a micro-crack initiates at one or multiple loca­
tions in the material. Afterwards, one of these micro-cracks develops
Fig. 14. Crack initiation locations in hot-rolled 308 L SS with strain amplitude of 0.6%. Cracks initiated from slip bands.
9
Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688
into a main crack and propagates in a stable manner under cyclic
loading, which is dependent on the crack surface morphology and
microstructural features. Finally, when the crack reaches a critical size,
it becomes so unstable that sudden fracture occurs, usually within one or
a few cycles [51]. The differences in fatigue lives between WAAM and
hot-rolled 308 L SS are attributed to different mechanisms of crack
initiation and propagation, which are directly related to the distinct
microstructures.
Figs. 14 and 15 present the crack initiation locations of hot-rolled
and WAAM 308 L SS with strain amplitude of 0.6%, respectively,
characterized by secondary cracks on failed specimen surface. Only one
type of crack initiation site is observed in hot-rolled 308 L SS, which is
along the slip bands. However, three different types of crack initiation
sites are observed in WAAM 308 L SS, including the site of initiation
along slip bands on specimen surface shown in Fig. 15 (a), initiation at
austenite grain boundaries shown in Fig. 15 (b), and initiation along
ferrite grains shown in Fig. 15 (c). It is reported in many literature re­
ports that the microstructural discontinuities, such as slip bands, in­
clusions, pores, voids, grain boundaries, second-phase particles, twin
boundaries, etc. can become fatigue crack initiation sites caused by local
plastic deformation where local microscopic stresses are larger than the
yield stress [52–54]. The crack initiation site along the slip bands is
common under cyclic loading in metals due to the preferred stress
concentration along slip bands [51,54,55].
Y. Li et al. Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688

Fig. 15. Crack initiation locations in WAAM 308 L SS with the strain amplitude of 0.6%. Cracks initiated from (a) slip bands, (b) austenite grain boundary and (c)
ferrite grains.

Fig. 16. (a) SEM image and (b) IPF of fatigue crack propagation path of hot-rolled 308 L SS with the strain amplitude of 0.6%. RD refers to the rolling direction.

The fatigue crack propagation appearances observed by SEM and
EBSD of hot-rolled and WAAM 308 L SS are shown in Figs. 16 and 17,
respectively. Both materials exhibit transgranular fracture mode, with
fatigue cracks propagating through grains. Similar transgranular frac­
ture mode has also been reported for WAAM 304 L [13] and WAAM
Ti-6Al-4 V [56]. However, the crack propagation paths present great
distinction. The hot-rolled 308 L SS exhibits a relatively straight fatigue
crack propagation path, while the crack of WAAM 308 L SS changes its
propagation direction at the grain boundary and a highly torturous crack
path is observed. This is due to the fact that the fine grains of hot-rolled
308 L SS promote a flatter crack growth path while the large austenitic
grains of WAAM 308 L SS tend to promote a rougher crack path [57].
The small equiaxed ferrite grains embedded within the austenite grains
in WAAM 308 L SS are also possibly contributing to the torturous crack
propagation by diverting the crack tips around them. In contrast, the
thin lathy ferrites in hot-rolled 308 L SS could impose less resistance to
letting crack through. Similar torturous crack propagation path was also
observed in WAAM 304 L [13].
Since more crack initiation sites occur in WAAM 308 L SS than hot-
rolled SS, WAAM 308 L SS has worse resistance to crack initiation.
Meanwhile, the torturous crack propagation paths of WAAM 308 L SS
lead to slower fatigue crack propagation rates, indicating higher crack
propagation resistance [58]. Both the crack initiation life and crack
propagation life contribute to the fatigue life of material. At different
loading levels, the proportions of crack initiation life and crack propa­
gation life are different. For larger strain ranges or shorter fatigue life,

10
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 17. (a) SEM image and (b) IPF of fatigue crack propagation path of WAAM 308 L SS with the strain amplitude of 0.6%. DD refers to the deposition direction.
crack propagation dominates the large portion of the total fatigue life­
time, while for smaller strain ranges or longer fatigue life, crack initia­
tion dominates [58,59]. Therefore, it can be assumed that the fatigue life
of WAAM 308 L is longer than hot-rolled 308 L SS under the strain
amplitude larger than 0.8% due to its improved crack propagation
resistance. On the contrary, the fatigue life of WAAM 308 L is shorter
under lower strain amplitudes owing to its worse resistance to crack
initiation. It is reasonable to infer that in HCF regime, WAAM 308 L will
exhibit worse fatigue behavior than hot rolled counterpart since the
crack initiation stage is dominant. The comparison of the fatigue be­
haviors in this study confirms that differences induced by the
manufacturing processes can lead to substantial differences in the
microstructure, resulting in different failure mechanisms and subse­
quently different fatigue performance.
It is worthwhile to notice that the mechanical properties of WAAM
samples are dependent on the sampling direction owing to its columnar
grains which grew along the deposition direction. Lower yield strength
and ultimate tensile strength were reported in WAAM 316 L and 308 L
SS for vertical orientated samples compared with horizontal counter­
parts, with similar elongation [11,29]. But there are few studies on the
study on the anisotropy of fatigue behavior of WAAM built austenitic SS.
In the present paper, this aspect could not be considered and only the
vertically orientated samples have been investigated. Further studies
will be focused on a deeper understanding of the tensile and fatigue
anisotropy.
4. Conclusions
Detailed microstructure characterization and mechanical tests were
performed on hot-rolled and WAAM 308 L SS with the same solution
annealing process to clarify the relationship among the processing
technique, microstructure and fatigue properties. Several conclusions
can be drawn:
(1) Both hot-rolled 308 L SS and WAAM 308 L SS are composed of
austenite and ferrite. Compared with the hot-rolled 308 L SS with
randomly textured small equiaxial austenitic grains, the WAAM
308 L SS exhibits highly anisotropic microstructure with
< 001 > textured large columnar austenitic grains (developed
along the building direction) containing relatively large disloca­
tion density.
(2) Compared with hot-rolled 308 L SS, WAAM 308 L SS has a 15%
lower Young’s modulus due to strong < 001 > texture, a 15%
higher yield stress attributed to relatively large dislocation den­
sity, a 4% lower ultimate tensile strength and a 17% lower total
elongation.
11
Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688
(3) WAAM 308 L SS presents a two-stage behavior of cyclic hard­
ening and cyclic softening under all the studied strain amplitudes,
while hot-rolled 308 L SS exhibits a two-stage behavior only
under small strain amplitudes and a three-stage behavior with an
additional cyclic saturation stage under high strain amplitudes.
(4) WAAM 308 L SS has a slightly longer fatigue life at relatively high
strain amplitudes, but shorter fatigue life at low strain amplitudes
in comparison with hot-rolled 308 L, which is attributed to the
different failure mechanisms including crack initiation and
propagation mechanisms.
(5) WAAM 308 L SS has worse crack initiation resistance owing to
three different types of potential fatigue crack initiation sites,
including slip bands, austenite grain boundary and ferrite.
Conversely, only one type of initiation site, along slip bands, is
found in hot-rolled 308 L SS. WAAM 308 L SS exhibits better
crack propagation resistance, as suggested by its more tortuous
crack growth path owing to larger grain size. Consequently, the
worse crack initiation resistance and better crack propagation
resistance of WAAM 308 L SS contribute to the longer fatigue life
at high strain amplitudes but shorter fatigue life at low strain
amplitudes. These findings could be used as a guideline for the
engineering applications of WAAM austenitic SS.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yajing Li: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Data
curation, Conceptualization. Danrong Song: Project administration.
Sichao Fu: Writing – review & editing. Dexin Wang: Validation.
Yutong Yuan: Validation. Xu Chen: Writing – review & editing, Su­
pervision, Funding acquisition. Maurizio Vedani: Supervision, Writing
– review & editing.
Declaration of Competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The work was supported by Science and Technology on Reactor
System Design Technology Laboratory, Nuclear Power Institute of China
(HT-KFKT-14-2018003), National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No.12011540001), and China Scholarship Council (202006250074).
Y. Li et al. Additive Manufacturing 52 (2022) 102688

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