Introduction to Alternator

Protection
EEE 4241
Power System Protection

1
Introduction to Alternator Protection
Major faults and abnormal conditions in case of generators Protective schemes employed for generator protection

2
Introduction to Alternator Protection

3
Classes of Alternator Protection

4
Classes of Alternator Protection Cont.

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Differential Protection for Alternator (Against Stator Insulation Failure)
Causes of Stator Insulation Failure:
• Overvoltage and Overheating
• Overloads, unbalanced currents, ventilation troubles or failure of the cooling system
• Damage to the insulation by conductor movement due to forces exerted by short circuits or out-of step conditions

Consequences of Stator Insulation Failure

• Short Circuit Fault between conductors (repaired by re-taping or replacing the conductor)
• Short Circuit Fault between the conductor and the iron core.(necessitate rebuilding the core)
**** For the protection of generators above 10 MW rating, differential protection is used

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Differential Protection for Alternator: Requirements & Remedial Measures
Requirements:
• CTs need to be connected with correct polarity
• Operate sensitively for internal faults and it remain stable against external faults
• CTs should have identical saturation characteristics
• The relay coil should be connected to equipotential point.
• If the connections are not at equipotential points then the burdens on the two CTs are unequal that leads to the saturation
of the highly burdened CT.

Remedy:
• Adjustable extra resistances connected in series with pilot wires to connect the relay to the equipotential points
• Biased differential relay to solve the problem of non-identical CTs.
• Stabilizing Resistor to solve both problems

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Differential Protection for Alternator: Stabilizing Resistor Value Calculation

• The value of the stabilizing resistance is calculated by considering the worst

case; i.e., absolute saturation of one of the CTs while the other is working in its
linear range
• For the worst condition assumed, 𝑳𝒎𝟏 is infinite and 𝑳𝒎𝟐 is zero.
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑋𝑅 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑅 ≫ 𝐿𝑅 ; 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝐿
(𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑖𝑓
𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝑅 can be limited by connecting the stabilizing resistance 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 in series with the
relay coil.
(𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑖𝑓
(𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 )
The desired value of the stabilizing resistance
(𝑹𝑪𝑻 + 𝑹𝑳 )
𝑹𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃 = 𝒊𝒇 − 𝑹𝑹
𝑰𝑺
Where, 𝐼𝑆 = pick up setting of the relay.
• 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 need can be about one-third of this value
• This additional resistance reduces sensitivity of the relay for in-zone faults and
create dangerously high voltage across the CT during heavy external faults
• The loss of sensitivity can be reduced by putting much of this extra resistance in
extra turns of the relay
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Differential Protection for Alternator: Protective Scheme
• SD divert the high-frequency transient surges so that no
unwanted tripping occurs because of short-duration
transient spikes
• The internal fault has to be cleared without any time
delay

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Differential Protection for Alternator: Problems in Stator Earth Fault Detection

• If the ground fault current is large then it leads to destruction of the core
• For large generators, the ground fault current is limited to a very low value by
an impedance placed in the neutral circuit
• To avoid the harmfully high transient overvoltage for ferro resonance, the
𝟏𝟎𝟔
resistance should not be higher than 𝑹𝒏 = 𝜴
𝟔𝝅𝒇𝑪
• For a large generator having a value of C equal to 0.25 microfarads, the
required neutral resistor will be of 4246 ohms
• For a 15.75-kV generator, the ground fault current for the fault at the
terminal of the generator will be 2.14 A
• The voltage of neutral of the generator will be 9086.44 volts (4246 × 2.14).
• Non-effective grounding of the neutral of a generator
The peak value for this rms calculation will be 12.85 kV
is a necessity to reduce the ground fault current and
• The modern practice is to use a resistance (or reactor) loaded distribution
its destructive effects
transformer
• In case of earth-fault on one of the three phases, the
𝑵𝟐𝟐
• The ohmic value of the resistor will be reduced to 4246× potential of two other healthy phases with respect to
𝑵𝟐𝟏
• For a 15.75 kV generator, the primary (HV) rating of the NGT will be 15.75 the earth rises to 𝑽𝒑𝒉−𝒏 + 𝑰𝒇 𝒁𝒏
kV , the secondary rating can be 240 V. • The insulation between the stator conductor and core
• This will reduce the value of the neutral grounding resistor (or reactor) to has to be designed to withstand this value
0.985 ohm. • The larger the neutral impedance, more will be the
• The resistor (or reactor) has to be rated for 240 V only portion of the winding unprotected in case of earth-
𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑽𝑮 𝑽𝑻 fault, or more will be the sensitivity required of the
• kVA rating of the NGT should be at least 𝑲𝑽𝑨 = current-based earth-fault relay.
𝟑𝑵𝟐 𝑹
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Differential Protection for Alternator: Problems in Stator Earth Fault Detection Cont.
• For small generators and in case where the neutral of the
generator stator windings is earthed through small
impedance, a restricted earth-fault protection can be
employed.

• The fault current 𝑰𝒇 , for the earth-fault in the generator

𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑽𝒈 𝑷
winding, 𝑰𝒇 = 𝟑𝒁𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
;
• P = Location of fault expressed as a percentage of the
winding from the neutral end
• Let Q be the relay pick-up expressed as a percentage of the
𝑸𝑷𝑪𝑻
CT rating and 𝑷𝑪𝑻 be the CT primary rating. Then 𝑰𝒑𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
• The relation between P and Q can be established by
𝑸𝑷𝑪𝑻 𝟑𝒁𝒏
equating equations 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑽𝒈
• Thus the limitation of current-based earth-fault protection is
either an increased value of the earth-fault current or an
increased portion of unprotected winding of the generator

• Calculate the winding to be protected, if the relay pick-up is 5% of the CT rating, the CT ratio is 50/5 A and if the machine
is rated at 11 kV with 𝑍𝑛 = 200 ohms ???????????????????????????????????????
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Differential Protection for Alternator: Modified Version

• It is a usual practice to protect only 85% of

the winding
• The two phase elements (PC and PA) and
balancing resistance (BR) are connected in
star and the earth relay (ER) is connected
between this star point and the fourth wire
of circulating current pilot-circuit.
• If an earth-fault occurs on any one phase,
only ER will operate
• If a fault occurs between two phases, zero
current will pass through the earth relay
ER. And, only the phase-fault relays will
operate.

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Differential Protection for Alternator: Relay Setting
Category Rating
210 MW, 247 MVA, 15.75 kV, 9050 A. Through fault
Generator withstand 10 pu, 𝑋𝑑′ = 30.5%, 𝑋𝑑′′ = 21.4%, 𝑋2 = 26.1%, • Let the pick up setting of the differential relay is 10%
𝑋0 = 10%, 𝑋𝑠 = 225%. that is 0.5 A.
• The neutral grounding impedance 𝒁𝒏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟗𝜴
10000/5 A, KPV > 350 V, 𝑅𝐶𝑇 <1.5 W
CTs (KPV = Knee Point Voltage; 𝑅𝐶𝑇 = CT secondary • The fault current 𝑰𝒇 , for the earth-fault at the terminal
resistance) of the generator will be, 2.24 A= 0.025% of generator
rating
Lead
resistance
0.4 Ω • The fault current for the L-L fault at the terminal of the
generator will be 330% of the CT rating
Rated current : 5 A, Setting range : 5-20% of 5 amp, • The value of 330% of CT rating suggests that the relay
Relay
Burden : 0.9 VA-1.0 VA setting of 10% is sensitive enough
• Stabilizing Resistance calculated value is 168.35 𝜴 , so
Neutral one-third of this value 56 𝜴 is connected
50 kVA, 15.75 kV/240 V
Grounding
Single phase, 50 Hz • KPV of the CT should not be less than 2 times of the CT
Transformer
voltage during fault, that is 172 V.
Earthing Air core, Air cooled
Reactor 3 mH, 50 Hz, 145 A, 240 V
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Stator Earth Fault Protection: Modified Version for 100% Stator
Earth Fault Detection
• For large generators, the earth-fault
current even at the terminals of the
generator is of the order of 0.025%
of the generator rating
• The normal practice is to provide
voltage-operated relays for stator
earth-fault protection
• The zero sequence voltage that is
developed during earth-faults is
made use of in the protection
scheme
• The most effective way to cover
100% winding for earth-fault
protection, is to make use of a third
harmonic (zero sequence) line-to-
neutral voltage developed by most
machines in normal conditions

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Stator Earth Fault Protection: Modified Version for 100% Stator
Earth Fault Detection Cont.
• The generators develop a third harmonic voltage of 1% to 3% even under
healthy condition
• The relay 2 has a blocking filter which makes it rather insensitive to
fundamental frequency voltage
• This relay 2 has a very sensitive third harmonic voltage setting. It is set to
0.3 to 0.6 V (neutral PT secondary voltage is 110 V)
• Hence, under normal service, the relay 2 is picked-up and its contact is
open
• Relay 3 is sensitive to fundamental frequency voltage and is set to
operate for rated generator voltage. Hence, under healthy conditions, the
relay 3 remains energized and its contact is closed
• If a fault occurs near the generator neutral, the third harmonic voltage Vn
becomes very small (Vn = 0, for the fault at the neutral), hence the relay 2
will de-energize and its contact will get closed. Leads to alarm or tripping
• 95% relay 1 with a blocking filter (blocking the fundamental frequency
voltage) is set to a higher value of the third harmonic voltage than that
produced by a machine running under normal conditions.
• Hence, under normal service condition, the relay 1 remains de-energized.
• If the fault occur at any location within 95% of winding from the terminal,
the relay 1 operates, closes its contacts and the circuit breaker is tripped.
• When starting the machine under no fault condition, the relay 2 must
always operate before the relay 3.
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Differential Protection: INTER-TURN FAULT PROTECTION

• The failure of insulation between two turns of the same

phase causes an inter-turn fault
• Such faults are associated with very high local currents, which
can cause damage to the generator core.
• The inter-turn fault itself is not so dangerous but it leads to
an earth-fault.
• The differential protection scheme cannot take care of inter-
turn faults, as during such a fault on a phase winding, the
currents at the two ends would be equal
• With generators having parallel windings, separately brought
out to terminals the arrangement can be used
• For small generators not having parallel stator windings, the
inter-turn fault is detected by using a voltage operated watt-
hour meter type relay.

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Rotor Earth Fault Protection
• If the rotor winding is ungrounded, a fault to earth has no
effect,
• But a second fault to earth will increase the current in part
of the winding
• This will cause distortion to the air-gap fluxes so that there
will be serious vibrations which may lead to serious damage

• The field circuit superimposed by a dc voltage

• If a ground fault occurs, current will pass through a very
sensitive DC relay which can initiate alarm or a class A trip
as required
• In unattended stations, the relay trips the main and field
breakers of the generator when the first ground fault occurs

• In attended stations, the usual practice is to sound an alarm at the occurrence of the rotor first earth-fault. Should the second earth-fault
occur, the main and field breakers of the generator must be instantaneously tripped.
• However, this practice involves a little risk because the vibration caused by a second earth-fault cannot be stopped instantly and also the
two ground faults may occur together or in quick succession 17
Negative Sequence Protection (Unbalance Load Protection)
The system conditions that cause the harmful unbalanced conditions
• Open-circuiting of the phase or failure of one contact of circuit
breaker
• An unsymmetrical fault near the power station which is not promptly
cleared or a fault in the stator winding

• The negative sequence component of unbalanced stator currents (-Ns

rotation speed) induces double frequency currents in the rotor
• Both eddy current and hysteresis current loss increases significantly
• If the degree of unbalance is large, severe overheating can be caused
in the structural parts of the rotor

• The time for which the rotor can withstand this conditions is
represented by, 𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝒕 = 𝐤, where K varies from 7 for a large steam
turbo-alternator to about 60 for a salient pole hydro machine
• Protective relay should have a time-current characteristic, 𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝒕 =
𝐤 ,which closely matches with that of the machine
• It is important to disconnect the generator if K is exceeded, it is more
necessary not to take it off from the system unnecessarily.
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Filed Failure Protection (Loss of Excitation)

Possible causes for loss of excitation

• Loss of field to main exciter
• Accidental tripping of the field breaker
• Short circuit in the field winding
• Poor brush contact in the exciter
• Field circuit breaker latch failure
• Loss of ac supply to excitation system

• If generator loses its field, the speed of the generator will increase and will act as an induction generator.
• Current induced in rotor (depends on the rate of slip) will overheat the rotor core.
• As the machine over-speeds, it takes a higher share of the load, the stator current increases overheating the stator and its windings.
• It draws reactive power from the system. Hence the total reactive power load on the system will be nearly double the reactive power
supplied by the generator earlier.
• If the system is unable to feed this large reactive power requirement, the power system will be unstable resulting in collapse of voltage
• If the system is capable of supplying additional reactive power to the generator, there is no risk of system instability. Only the overheating
of stator and rotor core occurs.
• If steps are taken to shed the load automatically to approximately half-load, this condition can be tolerated for several minutes.
• Hence field failure protection is a Class B protection 19
Filed Failure Protection (Loss of Excitation) Cont.
• An under-current relay across a shunt in the
field circuit can detect loss of excitation
• The current through the relay decays very
slowly and the presence of the slip frequency
current making the protective scheme too
sluggish
• Thus it is not used in practice

• The quantity which changes most during

generator loses field excitation is the impedance
measured at the stator terminals.
• On loss of excitation, the terminal voltage
begins to decrease and the current begins to
increase, resulting in a decrease of impedance
and also a change of power factor.

• During normal steady-state operation, the apparent impedance lies in quadrant I, of the R-X plane
• After the loss of excitation, the apparent impedance enters quadrant IV
• If the initial power output was high then the locus is traced out quickly. However, if the initial power output was low then
the locus is traced out rather slowly (taking up to a few seconds).
• A mho type distance relay with offset characteristic may be used for protection against loss of excitation
• The offset is by an amount equal to X'd/2. The impedance setting of the relay is IXdl at an angle of (-90 degree) 20
Loss of Prime Mover/Reverse Power Protection

• In case of loss of prime mover, i.e. loss of

mechanical input, the machine continues to
remain synchronized with the grid, running as a
synchronous motor.
• The machine draws a small amount of active
power (compared to its rating) from the grid in
order to drive the turbine and meet the losses
taking place in the machine.
• At the same time, the machine supplies reactive
power to the grid since its excitation is intact.
• Running in this mode is not harmful to the
generator, but is definitely harmful to a prime
mover like a steam turbine.
• There is a churning of trapped steam in the
turbine causing objectionable temperature rise
and damage to the blades
• Reverse power protection is a Class A protection

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Loss of Prime Mover/Reverse Power Protection Cont.
A time-delayed relay reverse power relay is used, cause:
• Overheating of the turbine blades does not occur
instantaneously , so instantaneous tripping is not required.
• In case of an internal fault in the generator, differential
protection will act instantaneously. The reverse power
relay has to operate only due to failure of the prime-
mover.
• To prevent undesired operation on transient power
reversals occurring during synchronizing or system
disturbances.

• The generator draws real power which is just enough to

meet the losses and the load put on it by the turbine.
• This small stator current undergoes 180° phase shift.
• If a directional relay with an MTA of 180° is used then it
would detect the loss of prime mover
• Since the reverse current magnitude is small the,
directional relay needs to have a high degree of
sensitivity
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Overload and Overvoltage Protection
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
• When the generator is overloaded, the winding
insulation will get overheated to the same
proportion as the overload.
• If the permissible temperature limit of the insulation
is exceeded, the insulation will puncture
• If a generator is loaded beyond its rated capacity,
usually an alarm is sounded so that the operator can
throttle the steam control valve of the turbine to
relieve the generator from overload.
• A definite time overcurrent relay can be used for
the protection against overload.
• A single-phase relay fed from CT on any one of the
phases is sufficient for the purpose. The relay can
be set to operate at 105–110% of the rated current
of the generator.
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
• Generator overvoltage created by overspeed or by a defective
voltage regulator.
• On modern steam-driven generators, the voltage regulators act
sufficiently fast to prevent serious overvoltage from occurring
• The most suitable overvoltage relay will have two units; an
instantaneous unit tripping on 25% (steam) or 40% (hydro)
overvoltage, and an inverse time unit starting at 10%
overvoltage
• The operation of an overvoltage relay, initially causes the alarm
to be sounded and thus warns the operator.
• If the automatic voltage regulator can not restore the voltage to
normal within pre-set time, the machine has to be tripped
completely as the overvoltage can deteriorate the generator
insulation.
• Thus overvoltage protection is a Class A protection.
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Pole Slipping Protection & Under Frequency Protection
POLE-SLIPPING PROTECTION
• Loss of synchronism/pole-slipping is caused by excessive load,
faults in the power system or insufficient field excitation.
• Either due to excessive load or fault, the generator slows down
and if the generator working within its transient stability limit,
the rotor of the generator will regain synchronism at a new
load angle.
• But if the poles of the generator have slipped with respect to
the synchronous speed beyond the transient limit, the
generator will continue to slow down and stability is lost.
• If such a generator is not isolated from the infinite bus, a
cascade tripping of many or all the generators of the system
may occur.
• Moreover, the generator cannot regain synchronism and hence
it is required to be tripped completely.
• It is a Class A protection.
• The pole slipping relay is a two-input relay fed from CT and PT
both.
UNDER-FREQUENCY PROTECTION
• Isolated areas of the system may become
deficient in generation and the frequency of the
same may drop considerably.
• If the frequency goes down, the speed of the
turbine gets reduced. Hence the steam may get
condensed on the turbine blades damaging
them.
• The steam-turbine sets will be damaged badly if
the frequency goes down to 46 Hz in the 50 Hz
system.
• Power station auxiliaries will be overloaded
• Automatic load-shedding if the frequency goes
down.
• The under-frequency relays are also used in
modern generator set
• If the frequency drops drastically, the tripping
can be effected.
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