what is the relationship between information system and database with

example

An Information System (IS) and a Database are closely related, often

working together to manage and process data in an organization123.

An Information System is a combination of hardware, software, data,

people, and procedures that work together to produce quality
information1. It helps in decision-making, coordination, control, analysis,
and visualization in an organization1.

A Database, on the other hand, is a structured set of data1. It’s a

collection of related data that is stored in an organized manner and can be
accessed in various ways13. The most popular form of database today is
the relational database, with examples including Microsoft Access,
MySQL, and Oracle3.

The relationship between an Information System and a Database is that

the database serves as the data storage component of the information
system14. The information system uses the database to create, read,
update, and delete data14. This data can then be processed and
transformed into information that can be used for decision making12.

For example, consider a record store with an information system. The

database might have a table for albums, another for song titles, and
another for artists4. The information system could use these tables to
answer queries like “What albums has this artist released?” or "What
songs are on this album?"4. This is a simple example of how an
information system can use a database to provide useful information.

In summary, while a database is used for storing and organizing data, an

information system is used for processing that data into useful
information12. The two are closely linked, with the database serving as a
crucial component of the information system14.

database system development life cycle with example

The Database System Development Life Cycle (DBLC) is a process of

designing, implementing, and maintaining a database system12. It
consists of six phases1:

1.
Database Planning: This involves defining the aims and objectives
of the database projects2.

2.
1. Example: Creating mission statements and objectives for a
new customer management database2.
3.

System Identification: This involves describing major user views,

defining the scope and boundary of the database system2.

4.

1. Example: Defining the scope and boundaries for a sales

database that will be used by the sales and marketing
teams2.

5.

Requirements Collection and Analysis: This involves gathering and

analyzing the requirements of user views and system
specifications2.

6.

1. Example: Collecting requirements for a hospital database

system, including patient records, appointment schedules,
and billing information2.

7.

Database Design: This involves designing the logical and physical

structure of the database12.

8.

1. Example: Designing a database schema for a university that

includes tables for students, courses, and enrollments2.

9.

Implementation and Loading: This involves creating the database

tables and loading the data12.

10.
 1. Example: Implementing the university database using a
DBMS like MySQL or Oracle, and loading it with data
about students, courses, and enrollments2.

11.

Testing, Operation, Maintenance, and Evolution: This involves

testing the database, putting it into operation, maintaining it, and
evolving it as requirements change1.

12.

1. Example: Testing the university database with different

queries, maintaining it by regularly updating the data, and
evolving it by adding new features as needed2.

Each phase has its own set of activities and outcomes, and the results of
one phase serve as the input for the next12. The DBLC ensures that
databases are designed and implemented in a structured and systematic
manner

DATABASE DESIGN PROCESS

CONCEPTUAL DATABASE DESIGN

WHAT IS Conceptual Database Design

WITH EXAmple?

Conceptual Database Design is the process of constructing a model of the

data used in an enterprise, independent of all physical considerations. It
involves creating high-level data models that define what the system
contains, This model contains less detail and is easier for non-technical
stakeholders to understand.

Here’s an example of a conceptual design for a library system1:

 Entities: Book, Library, Borrower1.

 Relationships: A library has books, a borrower borrows books
In this example, ‘Book’, ‘Library’, and ‘Borrower’ are the entities1. The
relationships are defined as ‘a library has books’ and 'a borrower borrows
books’1. This is a simplified view of the system, focusing on the major
entities and their relationships

WHAT DOES MEAN BY INDEPENDENT OF ANY PHYSICAL

CONSIDERATION , WITH EXAMPLE?

When we say “independent of any physical consideration” in the context

of database design, we mean that the design does not take into account
any physical constraints or specifics of the hardware or software that will
be used to implement the database

For example, during the conceptual design phase of a database, you might
decide that you need entities for “Customers”, “Orders”, and “Products”,
and define relationships between them. At this stage, you’re not
concerned with how these entities will be stored on disk, what indexes
will be used for efficient access, how the data will be partitioned across
multiple servers, or what specific database management system (DBMS)
will be used. These are all physical considerations, and they are dealt with
later in the physical design phase.

The advantage of this approach is that it allows you to focus on

understanding and modeling the data requirements of the business
without getting distracted by implementation details12. It also makes the
conceptual design more flexible and adaptable to changes in physical
technology12.

DEVELOPING CONCEPTUAL DATABASE DESIGN

Developing an Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram involves several

steps1234:

1.Understand the Goals and Objectives: Gather all necessary

information about the system or database you are working with

2.Identify Entities: These can represent real-world objects, concepts, or

people. For example, in a university database, entities might include
“Student”, “Course”, and “Department”
3.Identify Attributes: Attributes are properties or characteristics of
entities12. For example, a “Student” entity might have attributes like
“StudentID”, “Name”, and “Major”

4.Determine Relationships: Define how entities are related to each

other124. For example, a “Student” might be related to a “Course”
through a “EnrollsIn” relationship.

what is simple and composite attribute with example

A Simple Attribute is an attribute that cannot be further subdivided into

components12. It is atomic and contains a single value12. For example,
the roll number of a student or the id number of an employee12.

A Composite Attribute is an attribute that can be split into multiple

components1234. Each component is a simple attribute1234. For
example, an address can be a composite attribute that can be further split
into house number, street number, city, state, country, and pin code1234.
Similarly, a name can also be a composite attribute that can be split into
first name, middle name, and last name1234.

In summary, a simple attribute is atomic and cannot be divided further,

while a composite attribute can be divided into multiple simple attributes

what is single valued and multi-valued attribute with example

A Single-Valued Attribute is an attribute that holds only one value for a
given entity instance12. For example, the age of a student or the roll
number of a student12. Each student has only one age and one roll
number12.

A Multi-Valued Attribute is an attribute that can hold more than one

value for a given entity instance13. For example, the phone number of a
student13. A student may have multiple phone numbers, such as a
landline and a mobile number13.

In summary, a single-valued attribute holds only one value for each entity
instance, while a multi-valued attribute can hold multiple values for each
entity instance132.

what is derived attribute and stored attribute with example

A Stored Attribute is an attribute that is physically stored in the

database12. The value of a stored attribute cannot be derived from other
attributes12. For example, the date of birth (DOB) of a person is a stored
attribute because it is stored in the database and cannot be derived from
other attributes12.

A Derived Attribute is an attribute whose values are calculated from other

attributes123. For example, the age of a person can be a derived attribute
because it can be calculated from the person’s date of birth123.

In summary, a stored attribute is an attribute that is physically stored in

the database and cannot be derived from other attributes, while a derived
attribute is an attribute that is not physically stored in the database but can
be calculated from other attributes123.

5. Specify Cardinalities: Cardinalities define the numerical

attributes of the relationship between two entities. For example,
one “Student” can enroll in multiple “Courses”.

6.Normalize the Data: This step involves organizing the data to

minimize redundancy and dependency3.

Here’s an example of an ER diagram for a university database:

 Entities: Student, Course, Department

 Attributes:
 o Student: StudentID, Name, Major
o Course: CourseID, CourseName, Department
o Department: DepartmentName, DepartmentHead

 Relationships:
o A Student “EnrollsIn” a Course
o A Department “Offers” a Course
o A Student “BelongsTo” a Department

In this example, each entity is represented by a rectangle, each attribute

by an oval, and each relationship by a diamond12. The lines connecting
these symbols represent the associations between them12.

CONCEPTS IN ER DIAGRAM

ENTITY TYPE

RELATIONSHIP TYPE

ATRIBUTE

CONSTRAOINT

WHAT IS ENTITY TYPE AND ENTITY OCCURENCE WITH SImple

example

An Entity Type is a category or class of entities that share the same

attributes12. For example, in a university database, “Student” could be an
entity type, with each student having attributes like “StudentID”,
“Name”, and “Major”.

An Entity Occurrence or Entity Instance is a specific instance or

occurrence of an entity type134. Each entity instance has a unique
identity12. For example, a particular student “John Doe” with
“StudentID” 12345 studying “Computer Science” would be an instance
of the “Student” entity type.

So, in summary, an entity type is a general category of entities, and an

entity occurrence or instance is a specific example within that category

what is relationship type and relatitonship occurrence with example

A Relationship Type is a category of relationships that share the same
characteristics1. It defines how entities are related to each other in an
Entity-Relationship (ER) model1. For example, in a university database,
“EnrollsIn” could be a relationship type, indicating that a “Student” entity
enrolls in a “Course” entity1.

A Relationship Occurrence or Relationship Instance is a specific instance

of a relationship type2. It represents a unique combination of instances
from the related entities2. For example, if a particular student “John Doe”
enrolls in a specific course “Database Systems”, that would be an
instance of the “EnrollsIn” relationship type2.

So, in summary, a relationship type is a general category of relationships,

and a relationship occurrence or instance is a specific example within that
category12.

how and why recursive relationship occurre with simple example

A Recursive Relationship occurs when an entity type is related to itself.

This means the same entity type participates more than once in a
relationship type, but with a different role for each instance

Recursive relationships are often used to represent hierarchies or

networks, where an entity can be connected to other entities of the same
type12345. They are particularly useful in modeling hierarchical data
structures and networks

For example, consider an organizational chart in a company. Here, an

“Employee” can have a relationship with other “Employees” who are also
in a managerial position. In this case, the “Employee” entity has a
recursive relationship with itself, where one instance of “Employee” (the
manager) is related to other instances of “Employee” (the subordinates).

To represent a recursive relationship in an ER diagram, we use a self-join,

which is a join between a table and itself. In other words, we create a
relationship between the same entity type. The self-join involves creating
two instances of the same entity and connecting them with a relationship.
One instance is considered the parent, and the other instance is considered
the child.

Here’s a simple example of a recursive relationship:

 Entity: Employee
 Attributes: EmployeeID, Name, Position, ManagerID
  Relationship: “Supervises”

In this example, each “Employee” has a “ManagerID” attribute that refers

to the “EmployeeID” of another “Employee”. This creates a recursive
“Supervises” relationship where one “Employee” (the manager)
supervises other “Employees” (the subordinates)

Keys in ER diagram

In an Entity-Relationship (ER) diagram, a Key is an attribute or a set of

attributes that uniquely identifies an entity in an entity set 1234. Keys are
used to link various tables in a database to each other in the most efficient
way possible1234. Here are some types of keys used in ER diagrams:

1.

Primary Key: A primary key is an attribute or a set of attributes

that uniquely identifies each record in an entity set1234. For
example, in a student entity set, the roll number or registration
number can be a primary key because these are unique for each
student entity1234.

2.
3.

Foreign Key: A foreign key is an attribute or a set of attributes in

one table that refers to the primary key in another table1234. It is
used to establish and enforce a link between the data in two
tables1234.

4.
5.

Candidate Key: A candidate key is an attribute or a set of attributes

that can be a primary key1234. In other words, a candidate key is a
key that can uniquely identify each record in an entity set1234.

6.
7.
 Composite Key: A composite key is a key that consists of two or
more attributes that together uniquely identify an entity1234. Each
attribute by itself may not uniquely identify the entity1234.

8.
9.

Secondary Key: A secondary key is an attribute or a set of

attributes that can be used for data retrieval purposes1234. It is not
a primary key, but it can still be used to identify a subset of
entities1234.

10.

In ER diagrams, keys are represented by underlining the attribute

name1234. For example, if “StudentID” is a key attribute of the
“Student” entity, it would be represented as an oval labeled “StudentID”,
connected to a rectangle labeled “Student”, with the “StudentID” label
underlined1234.

what is strong and weak entity with example

A Strong Entity is an entity that can exist independently of other

entities123. It has a primary key, which uniquely identifies each instance
of the entity123. For example, in a university database, “Student” could
be a strong entity, with each student having a unique "StudentID"123.

A Weak Entity is an entity that depends on a strong entity for its

existence1234. It does not have a primary key of its own and uses a
foreign key, combined with some of its attributes, to uniquely identify its
instances1234. For example, consider a “Room” entity in a hotel
database14. A room does not have a unique identifier of its own and is
identified by its “RoomNumber” combined with the “HotelID” (which is
a foreign key referencing the “Hotel” entity)14.

In summary, a strong entity can exist on its own, while a weak entity
depends on another entity for its existence1234.

multiplicity in relationship with example

In UML, Multiplicity describes how many instances of one class can be
connected to an instance of another class through a given association1.
This relation is often expressed as a string showing the lower and upper
bounds at the endpoints of a connection1.

For example, consider a hypothetical banking system1. In this system,

each customer must have at least one account at our bank and should not
have more than five accounts in total1. We could model this with the
following UML association:

 Entities: Customer, BankAccount

 Relationship: “Owns”
 Multiplicity: 1 … 5

The text 1 .. 5 placed at the connection’s end defines the range of possible
accounts1. To interpret this diagram, we would start reading from left to
right: One customer must have between one and five bank accounts1.

We can also describe the relation between bank accounts and customers.
Let’s say that every account must belong to at least one customer, but for
joint accounts, it could also have two owners1. Here we had to place the
lower and upper bound on the other end, and consequently, we must now
read from right to left: One bank account must belong to one up to two
customers1.

Finally, we can combine both multiplicities into the same diagram to

express both directions1. The correct way to read it would be: One
customer has one to five bank accounts and one bank account belongs to
one or two customers1.

what is bussiness role with example

A Business Role refers to a specific position or function within an

organization that has certain sets of responsibilities1. Business roles are
integral to company operations, and they involve specific tasks that
contribute to a company’s success1. They can range from executive-level
titles such as Chief Executive Officer (CEO) to more operational roles
like an Administrative Assistant or Customer Service Representative 1.

For example, consider the role of a Project Manager in a company1. This

role is responsible for planning, executing, and overseeing projects to
ensure they are completed in a timely fashion and within budget1. This
might involve setting project goals, coordinating team activities,
managing risks and issues, and reporting on progress to stakeholders1.

In summary, a business role is a defined position within an organization

that carries specific responsibilities and tasks1. The exact nature of these
roles can vary widely depending on the industry and the nature of the
company1.

What is complex relationship

A Complex Relationship in an Entity-Relationship (ER) model is a

relationship that involves more than two entities12. It’s also known as a
ternary or n-ary relationship12.

For example, consider a university database with entities “Student”,

“Course”, and "Instructor"12. A complex relationship could be
“Enrollment”, where a “Student” is enrolled in a “Course” taught by an
"Instructor"12. This relationship involves three entities and cannot be
accurately represented using only binary relationships12.

In summary, a complex relationship is a relationship that involves more

than two entities12. It’s used when a relationship cannot be accurately
represented using only binary relationships12.

what does mean by multiplicity is made up of two types of restrictions on

relationships : Carnality and participation with example

In the context of Entity-Relationship (ER) diagrams, Multiplicity is made

up of two types of restrictions on relationships: Cardinality and
Participation12.

Cardinality denotes the maximum number of possible relationship

occurrences in which a certain entity can participate12. In simple terms,
it’s the “at most” constraint12. For example, in a “Student”-“Course”
relationship, if a student can enroll in at most five courses, the cardinality
from “Student” to “Course” is five12.

Participation denotes if all or only some entity occurrences participate in

a relationship12. In simple terms, it’s the “at least” constraint12. For
example, in a “Student”-“Course” relationship, if every student must
enroll in at least one course, the participation from “Student” to “Course”
is one12.

So, Multiplicity = Cardinality + Participation12. It represents both the

minimum (participation) and maximum (cardinality) number of times an
entity can appear in a relationship12. This is often represented in ER
diagrams using a pair of numbers (m, n) that appear on the connecting
line between the entities and their relationships2. The minimum number
of times an entity can appear in a relation is represented by m, whereas
the maximum time it is available is denoted by n2.

what is connection traps with example

Connection traps, also known as structural traps, occur in an Entity-

Relationship (ER) model due to misinterpretation of the meaning of
certain relationships12. There are mainly two types of connection traps:
Fan traps and Chasm traps12.

1.

Fan Trap: A fan trap occurs when a model represents a relationship

between entity types, but the pathway between certain entity
occurrences is ambiguous1. It happens when two or more one-to-
many relationships fan out from the same entity set1. For example,
consider a bank that has multiple persons and operates multiple
counters1. In this scenario, it’s unclear which person takes cash at
which counter1. This kind of problem is known as a Fan Trap1.

2.
3.

Chasm Trap: A chasm trap occurs when a model suggests a

relationship between entity types, but a path between certain
occurrences does not exist2. This happens when a relationship set
with partial participation forms the way of connection between
entity sets2. For example, consider a branch that has multiple staff
members and oversees multiple properties for rent2. Because not
all staff oversee properties for rent, the path from branch to
property for rent may not exist2. This kind of problem is known as
a Chasm Trap2.

4.
These traps can be resolved by restructuring the ER model to represent
the correct associations12.

what is super class and subclass in EER diagram with example

In an Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) diagram, a Superclass is a

generalized entity type that has a relationship with one or more
subclasses12. For example, “Employee” could be a superclass, with
“Technician”, “Engineer”, and “Secretary” as its subclasses 12. Here,
“Employee” is a generalized entity class, while “Technician”,
“Engineer”, and “Secretary” are specialized classes12.

A Subclass is a specialized entity type that is a subset of a superclass 12.

Each entity in a subclass represents the same real-world entity as some
member of the superclass12. For example, “Secretary”, “Technician”, and
“Engineer” are subclasses of the “Employee” superclass12. Each entity in
these subclasses is also an entity in the “Employee” superclass 12.

In summary, a superclass is a general entity type, and a subclass is a

specific entity type that is a subset of the superclass12. The subclass
entities inherit all attributes and relationships of the superclass entities 12.

what do mean by superclass and subclass relationship in one to one with

example

In an Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) model, a Superclass is a

generalized entity type that has a relationship with one or more
subclasses12. A Subclass is a specialized entity type that is a subset of a
superclass12.

A One-to-One relationship between a superclass and a subclass means

that each instance of the superclass corresponds to exactly one instance of
the subclass, and vice versa12. This is often used when a subclass is a
special case of the superclass12.

For example, consider a university system where “Person” is a superclass

and “Student” and “Faculty” are subclasses12. If every person is either a
student or a faculty member (but not both), and every student and faculty
member is a person, then there is a one-to-one relationship between
“Person” and “Student”, and between “Person” and "Faculty"12.
In this case, the “Person” entity could have attributes like “Name” and
“DateOfBirth”, and the “Student” entity could have additional attributes
like “Major” and "GPA"12. Similarly, the “Faculty” entity could have
additional attributes like “Department” and "Rank"12. Each “Student” or
“Faculty” entity would also have all the attributes of the “Person”
entity12.

In summary, a one-to-one relationship between a superclass and a

subclass in an EER model means that each instance of the superclass
corresponds to exactly one instance of the subclass, and vice versa12.

what is attribute and relationship inheritance with example

In the context of Entity-Relationship (ER) models, Attribute Inheritance

and Relationship Inheritance are concepts that come into play when
dealing with superclasses and subclasses12.

Attribute Inheritance: When a subclass is defined, it inherits all the

attributes of the superclass12. For example, consider a superclass
“Person” with attributes “Name” and “DateOfBirth”, and a subclass
“Student” with an additional attribute "Major"12. Each “Student” entity
would have all the attributes of the “Person” entity (i.e., “Name” and
“DateOfBirth”), as well as its own attribute "Major"12.

Relationship Inheritance: Similarly, a subclass also inherits all the

relationships in which the superclass participates12. For example, if the
“Person” entity has a relationship “LivesIn” with another entity “City”,
then the “Student” entity would also have the “LivesIn” relationship with
the “City” entity12.

In summary, in an ER model, when a subclass is defined, it inherits all

the attributes and relationships of the superclass12. This is a fundamental
aspect of the concept of inheritance in ER models12.

what is specialization and generalization with example

Generalization and Specialization are concepts in the Enhanced Entity

Relationship diagram (EER-diagram) used in database design12.
Generalization is a bottom-up approach where two or more entities can be
generalized to a higher-level entity if they have some attributes in
common1. For example, STUDENT and FACULTY can be generalized
to a higher-level entity called PERSON. In this case, common attributes
like P_NAME, and P_ADD become part of the higher entity (PERSON),
and specialized attributes like S_FEE become part of the specialized
entity (STUDENT)1.

On the other hand, Specialization is a top-down approach where a higher-

level entity is specialized into two or more lower-level entities based on
its characteristics1. For example, an EMPLOYEE entity in an Employee
management system can be specialized into DEVELOPER, TESTER, etc.
In this case, common attributes like E_NAME, E_SAL, etc. become part
of the higher entity (EMPLOYEE), and specialized attributes like
TES_TYPE become part of the specialized entity (TESTER)1.

In both processes, there’s a concept of inheritance, where lower-level

entities inherit the attributes of higher-level entities and vice versa 1.

I hope this helps! Let me know if you have any other questions.

Constraints on specialization/generalization

Participation Constraint in a relationship specifies the presence of an

entity when it is related to another entity in a relationship type 1. It is also
known as the minimum cardinality constraint1. This constraint specifies
the number of instances of an entity that are participating in the
relationship type1.

For example, in a “Student takes Course” relationship, if every student

must take at least one course, then there is a participation constraint on
the Student entity in the “takes” relationship.

Disjoint Constraint applies when a superclass has more than one

subclass2. If the subclasses are disjoint, then an entity occurrence can be
a member of only one of the subclasses2. For instance, in a university
database, a person can be either a “Student” or a “Faculty”, but not both.
This is a disjoint constraint because a person cannot belong to both
subclasses at the same time2.

I hope this helps! Let me know if you have any other questions.