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 Contents vii

Nut Breads, Coffee Cakes, and Fried Quick Breads 265

Biscuits 266
Scones 267

Chapter 17 ■ Yeast Breads 269

Characteristics of Yeast Breads 269
Ingredients 270
Mixing and Handling 274
Fermentation and Proofing 276
Baking Bread 279
Rolls 281
Whole-Grain and Variety Breads 281
Staling of Bread 283

Chapter 18 ■ Cakes and Cookies 287

Shortened Cakes 287
Foam Cakes 294
Cookies 297

Chapter 19 ■ Pastry 303

Characteristics of Plain Pastry 304
Ingredients in Plain Pastry 304
Techniques of Mixing 305
Rolling Pastry 307
Baking 308
Other Types of Pastry and Crusts 308

FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND SALADS

Chapter 20 ■ Vegetables and Vegetable Preparation 311
Consumption Trends and Nutrition 311
Nutrition 311
Kinds of Vegetables 313
Purchasing 321
Storage 325
Preliminary Vegetable Preparation 326
Preparation and Quality Considerations 329
Specific Methods of Cooking Vegetables 335
Plant Proteins and Vegetarian Diets 338
viii Contents

Chapter 21 ■ Fruits and Fruit Preparation 345

Fruit Classifications 345
Fruit Consumption, Composition, and Nutritive Value 345
Color 347
Flavor 348
Changes During Ripening 350
Selection of Fresh Fruits 351
Storage of Fresh Fruits 358
Fruit Juices 360
Dried Fruits 361
Canned Fruits 362
Frozen Fruits 362
Preparation 362

Chapter 22 ■ Salads and Gelatin Salads 367

Salad Use in Meals 367
Nutrition 368
Salad Preparation and Ingredients 368
Gelatin and Gels 375
Gelatin Hydration, Swelling, and Dispersion 377
Gelation 378
Gelatin Salads and Desserts 379

DAIRY PRODUCTS AND EGGS

Chapter 23 ■ Milk and Milk Products 382
Consumption Trends and Nutrition 382
Composition and Properties of Milk 384
Sanitation, Grading, and Processing 387
Types of Milk Products 390
Food Preparation with Milk and Cream 395
Cheese 399

Chapter 24 ■ Eggs and Egg Cookery 409

Composition and Nutritive Value 409
Structure 411
Egg Quality and Sizing 412
Food Safety of Eggs 416
 Contents ix

Preservation and Processing 418

Coagulation of Eggs and Egg Foams in Food Preparation 420
Specific Methods of Egg Preparation 424

MEAT, POULTRY, AND SEAFOOD

Chapter 25 ■ Meat and Meat Cookery 433
Consumption Trends and Nutrition 433
Composition and Structure 434
Classification 437
Meat Production and Marketing 440
Purchasing Meat 446
Tenderness and Flavor 455
Cured Meats 458
Safe Storage and Preparation of Meats 460
Methods of Preparing and Cooking Meat 462
Stock, Broth, Consommé, Gravy, and Sauces 470
Carving Meat 472

Chapter 26 ■ Poultry 477

Consumption 477
Composition and Nutritive Value 477
Classification and Market Forms 478
Poultry Production and Processing 478
Government Regulations 479
Buying Poultry 482
Safe Storage and Preparation 484
Cooking Poultry 487

Chapter 27 ■ Seafood 492

Consumption 493
Composition and Nutritive Value 493
Classification 494
Seafood Harvest and Aquaculture 498
Government Regulation 499
Buying Fish and Shellfish 499
Safe Storage and Handling 503
Preparation 503
x Contents

BEVERAGES
Chapter 28 ■ Beverages 509
Consumption Trends and Nutrition 509
Water 509
Carbonated Beverages 511
Functional Beverages 511
Noncarbonated Fruit or Vegetable Beverages 512
Alcoholic Beverages 512
Coffee 513
Tea 520
Cocoa and Chocolate 522

FOOD PRESERVATION
Chapter 29 ■ Food Preservation and Packaging 528
Causes of Food Spoilage 528
General Methods of Food Preservation 529
Packaging of Food 533

Chapter 30 ■ Food Preservation by Freezing and Canning 541

Freezing 541
Canning 546

Appendix A ■ Weights and Measures 557

Abbreviations for Measurements 557
Equivalents 557
Some Ingredient Substitutions 558
Standard Can Sizes 558
Metric Conversions 559
Common Measurements Used in Food Preparation 559
Approximate Number of Cups in a Pound of Some Common Foods 559
Weights and Measures for Some Food Ingredients 559
 Contents xi

Appendix B ■ Temperature Control 560

Oven Temperatures 560
Thermometers for Other Uses 560
Converting Fahrenheit and Celsius Temperatures 560

Appendix C ■ Nutritive Value of Foods 562

References 563
Glossary 598
Index 609
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T
he fourteenth edition of Introductory Foods has
been written and revised to introduce begin-
ning college students to the basic fundamental
principles of food preparation and to alert them to many
innovations and emerging trends in food science and
technology. The scientific basis for ingredients and tech-
niques used in food preparation are provided throughout.
This text is designed to be one of the first courses in food
preparation for students studying nutrition and dietetics,
hospitality management, family and consumer science
education, and culinary arts.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
The book was revised throughout with over 300 new
sources added to the already extensive references pro-
vided for each chapter. Several new feature boxes, tables,
and photographs were added to this edition. Some of the
updated or new topics in the book include the following:
j The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans and
the USDA Choose My Plate
j Food deserts, food swamps, and the impact of
geography on food costs
j Factors that influence food selection such as local
foods, farmer’s markets, cage-free and other egg
production practices, and fair trade were added
to complement content on organic and natural
foods
j Environmental issues such as mercury in the
environment, the important role of honey bees in
pollination, and fishing catch limits
j Incorporation of nutrition topics in connection
with the new Dietary Guidelines for Americans
and foods such as sugar, whole grains, fats and
oils, seafood, and others
ORGANIZATION
The chapters in this book are independent, so that
instructors may present them in any order that best
fits the structure and objectives of the course. Cross-
references to other chapters are indicated periodically in
the text.
Chapters 1 through 4 contain introductory material
about food choices, sensory analysis, economics, food
safety, and regulations. Foundational principles of cook-
ing are given in Chapters 5 through 8. The discussion
PREFACE
of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in Chapter 9 may
be used as a review for students who have had chemis-
try courses or as an introduction for those who have not
studied chemistry. The remaining chapters are divided
into eight sections: “Fats, Frying, and Emulsions,”
“Sweeteners, Crystallization, Starch, and Cereal
Grains,” “Bakery Products,” “Fruits, Vegetables, and
Salads,” “Dairy Products and Eggs,” “Meat, Poultry, and
Seafood,” “Beverages,” and “Food Preservation.”
FEATURES
j Tables and charts present concepts in a concise,
student-friendly format.
j Definitions of key words are provided in a glos-
sary to assist students in learning new terms.
j Chapter summaries and study questions aid in
the review and understanding of the material.
j Feature boxes provide in-depth coverage of
specialized topics including Focus on Science,
Multicultural Cuisine, Healthy Eating, Hot
Topics, Keep It Safe, and Thinking Green.
j Extensive reference lists contain over 300
updated sources.
j For instructors, PowerPoint slides and an
instructor’s manual are available.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To my husband Doug and sons Colin and Nathan, thank
you for your understanding, patience, and encourage-
ment throughout the revision of this text. Doug and
Nathan are also thanked for their assistance in taking
some of the photographs in the book. My parents, Ema-
line and Lamoine Einspahr, are recognized for the value
they always placed on the quest for knowledge and a qual-
ity education. Appreciation also is extended to my col-
leagues and students at Kent State University for their
support and encouragement.
Marion Bennion’s ongoing influence, as the author of
this text for so many years, is gratefully recognized. Frank
Conforti, PhD, associate professor of human nutrition,
foods, and exercise at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, is appreciated for his contributions to many
of the Focus on Science features found in every chapter.
Our editor Vern Anthony and Project Manager Kris
Roach are recognized for all of their efforts in successfully
xiii
xiv Preface
navigating this revision from a draft manuscript to a book
in print. Appreciation is extended to all of the reviewers
of this edition for their insightful and constructive com-
ments: Tracey Brigman, University of Georgia; Joseph
Huges, California State University, San Bernardino;
Mark Kent, University of Akron; Kimberly Lukhard, East
Carolina University; Edye Cameron McMillen, Delta
State University; Eric Milholland, Colorado State Uni-
versity; Martha O’Gorman, Northern Illinois University;
and Sherri Stastny, North Dakota State University.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
To access supplementary materials online, instructors
need to request an instructor access code. Go to www
.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an
instructor access code. Within 48 hours after registering,
you will receive a confirming e-mail, including an instruc-
tor access code. Once you have received your code, go to
the site and log on for full instructions on downloading
the materials you wish to use.
 Food Choices and Sensory
Characteristics
T
he food choices that we make and the develop-
ment of our behavior and habits concerning
food are influenced by many interacting fac-
tors, including availability, income, culture, concerns
about health, social values, religion, and even genetics
[21, 56]. Yet, for most persons and in ordinary circum-
stances, foods must be palatable or have appetite appeal
if they are to be eaten. A palatable food is one that is both
acceptable to an individual and agreeable to his or her
taste. Various sensory impressions or sensations, includ-
ing odor, appearance, taste, and mouthfeel or touch, are
involved in our judgment of palatability and food quality.
Learning to prepare foods with great appetite appeal
includes learning to discriminate and evaluate the quality
of food through the intensity of the sensations received
when food is sampled. Individuals vary in their capacities
to experience flavors and odors, but sensitivities to pleas-
urable encounters with food may be heightened as they
learn more about food characteristics and quality.
A taste or liking for a variety of foods may be
acquired. Learning to like new foods will provide ample
rewards from increased enjoyment and enhanced aes-
thetic experiences. Eating a wide variety of foods also is
an excellent practice from a nutritional perspective. You
are encouraged to develop a discriminating taste as you
begin to learn basic reasons why foods behave as they do
during preparation and/or processing.
In this chapter, the following topics will be discussed:
j Factors affecting food selection and consumption
j Sensory characteristics of food
j Objective evaluation of food
Factors Affecting
Patterns of Eating
Humans, as biological beings, require food to sustain life.
Humans eat to satisfy hunger and to meet a basic drive for
food. The decision of what and when to eat is not solely
1
driven by biological needs, however. Food consumption
patterns are influenced by family and friends, cultural
traditions, religious beliefs, health and nutrition factors,
economic concerns, technological developments, psy-
chological influences, and sensory quality.
Family and Social
The family structure and interactions among family
members are important influences on the development of
our food habits. Children learn that food provides com-
fort when they are hungry and is a pleasurable dimension
of family activities, celebrations, and time with friends
(Figure 1-1). Several studies have shown an association
between children’s food preferences, the food practices
of their parents, and parenting styles [1, 6, 20]. Peers,
schools, day care providers, and the media also influence
eating patterns of children and adolescents [1, 20, 23].
Adults share meals with friends, family, and coworkers as
part of their social interactions.
The food patterns of families in the twenty-first cen-
tury are being influenced by time restraints. Nearly 77
percent of women with children under 18 are working
outside the home [56]. However, mothers are preparing
91 percent of meals with an average preparation time of
34 minutes [5]. Food preparation time is further limited
by a variety of extracurricular family activities. Families
are coping with time challenges by purchasing takeout
foods as home meal replacements and using conveni-
ence foods [5, 52]. Drive-through food from a quick-
service restaurant, or “desktop” brown bag or microwave
meals when at work are additional timesaving strategies
[49]. Meals purchased outside the home accounted for 47
percent of total food expenditures in 2012 [38].
Regular, shared meals have been declining under
the pressures of modern society. Nevertheless, the fam-
ily meal plays an important role in human communica-
tion—communicating love, values, and information. It
can be especially effective in increasing the well-being of
children. Even in our changing society, ideals about the
1
2 Chapter One
Figure 1-1 Two children enjoy each others’ company while
enjoying a healthy snack. (Photo by Keith Weller, Courtesy of U.S.
Department of Agriculture)
importance of family meals have persisted [6]. Five nights
out of seven, Americans prepare dinner at home [52].
Cultural
Cultural forces shape our food behaviors. The culture in
which we develop determines, to a large extent, our food
patterns or habits. Foods are eaten in combination with
other foods in ways that are determined and perpetuated
Multicultural Cuisine
Ethnic Foods in America—So What Is the Typical Meal?
N ine out of 10 Americans regularly eat ethnic foods at
home or in restaurants [50]. Italian, Mexican, and Chi-
nese foods are the foods most frequently prepared. Medi-
terranean cuisines, including Spanish and Greek foods,
are gaining in popularity. Among Asian cuisines, Thai and
Japanese are most preferred. Flavors and ingredients featur-
ing teriyaki, ginger, wasabi, and ponzu are gaining in impor-
tance. The consumption of Indian foods is also on the rise
with 10 percent of Americans preparing Indian food at home
and another 7 percent selecting Indian food when dining out.
The growth of the U.S. Hispanic population in the dec-
ade ahead is likely to fuel a continued interest and demand
by our culture. Food patterns differ mark-
edly from one culture to another. Not eve-
ryone in a cultural group eats exactly alike,
however because of individual and family
preferences.
The influence of ethnic groups is also
seen in geographical areas in which indi-
viduals from these cultures represent a
large percentage of the population. Food
habits learned in other areas of the world
tend to continue, when possible, as indi-
viduals or groups move to new locations.
In the United States, some regional food
preferences can be traced to the influx
of immigrants into the region. Each cul-
ture passes on its unique food habits and
patterns to their children [17, 26]. In
the United States, cultural food habits
are modified as acculturation with the
“American” diet occurs [4, 68, 69].
The study of foods should help you understand and
appreciate the food patterns of other cultures or eth-
nic groups as well as different taste preferences among
various regions of the United States [34]. America is
becoming increasingly more global in its tastes for food,
resulting from a more diverse population, increased
travel, and rapid communication [59]. Each ethnic group
has developed a cuisine with its distinctive combina-
tion of flavorings for basic foodstuffs. When eating out,
many people choose a culinary experience involving dif-
ferent and sometimes exotic foods. The food industry
is accepting the challenges presented by demographic
changes with new menu items featuring Japanese, Thai,
for Latin foods [47]. The flavors and ingredients from South
American and Caribbean cuisines characterize Latin food.
Pico de gallo, chipotle sauce, mole, and flan are appearing
on more menus. Latin food can be hot because of the use of
chilies or refreshing with citrus fruits and assorted vinegars.
Look for empanadas (a beef dish), Peruvian blue potatoes,
postones (fried plantain), mango fruits, dulce de leche ice
cream (based on a South American sweet caramel-like milk
product), and many other Latin-inspired dishes j
Source: References 45, 46.

Vietnamese, Korean, Indian, Middle Eastern, Caribbean,
Jamaican, and Mediterranean foods [47, 50]. With this,
great variety of food choices are available. Fascinating
experiences await the adventurer who learns to enjoy, and
prepare, the foods of many different cultures.
Religious Beliefs
Food has significance in relation to many religious beliefs.
Food laws within religious life may set strict guidelines
dictating the types of food to be consumed, the proce-
dures for processing and preparing foods, the complete
omission of certain foods, and the frequency of eating
other foods. To take advantage of the large markets avail-
able in religious communities, the food industry must
serve the needs of these various groups.
Christian. The foods consumed (or not consumed)
vary by the church denomination, although few dietary
restrictions are common in most Christian denomina-
tions. Some churches, such as Catholic, may encourage
members to avoid meat consumption during specific days
in Lent.
Judaism. The kosher dietary laws, kashruth, are
observed to varying degrees by members of the Jewish
faith [34, 43]. These laws include a prohibition against
eating blood and thus dictate rules concerning the slaugh-
ter of animals and their further processing [32]. Milk
products and meat products must be kept separate. Only
certain species of animals are considered to be suitable for
consumption. Pork and shellfish, among others, are pro-
hibited. Kosher laws also extend to ingredients that are
used in food processing. Even many non-Jewish individu-
als choose kosher products because they are regarded as
clean, high-quality foods.
Islam. Islam also prescribes a set of food laws [14, 34].
Foods that are lawful for Muslims to consume are called
halal [34]. As a general principle, most foods are permit-
ted; however, some prohibitions are specified. Prohibited
foods include swine and all their by-products, intoxicants
of all types, birds of prey, land animals without ears such
as snakes, flowing or congealed blood, and animals killed
in a manner that prevents their blood from being fully
drained from their bodies. Thus, there are strict require-
ments for the slaughtering of animals. Food products may
be certified by the Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of
America.
Hinduism. Hindu dietary practices emphasize the
avoidance of foods that may interfere with the develop-
ment of the body or mind [34]. Although not required,
many Hindus are vegetarian. The consumption of cows
is prohibited because cows are considered sacred. Pork
is also frequently avoided by Hindus. Fish or meat must
first be sanctified before it is consumed.
Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics 3
Vegetarianism and Religious Belief. Several reli-
gions advocate vegetarianism, although vegetarianism
may be chosen for ecological, health, or other reasons as
well. Chinese Buddhists advocate vegetarianism because
they believe in compassion [29]. A vegetarian diet is rec-
ommended by the Seventh-Day Adventist Church but is
not required for membership [9]. In the United States,
approximately 4 percent of the population, or 9 million
adults, are vegetarians [57]. The majority of vegetar-
ians consume dairy and eggs and are classified as lacto-
ovo vegetarians. About 1 percent are strict vegetarians
or vegans and do not consume any animal products or
honey. Forty-seven percent of Americans consume at
least one vegetarian meal each week [57].
Nutrition and Health
An interest in healthful lifestyles, including recognition of
nutrition as an important part of the health improvement
process, is flourishing among Americans. At the same
time, obesity rates for adults and children have increased
dramatically since 1990 (Figure 1-2) [61]. Seventy-two
percent of men, 64 percent of women, and 32 percent of
children are overweight or obese [65]. National nutrition
objectives are included in the U.S. Public Health Ser-
vice’s broad-based initiative Healthy People 2010: National
Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives [66] and
are supported through the U.S. Dietary Guidelines, My
Plate, and Nutrition Facts labeling on food products. How
Americans respond to government health and dietary
recommendations by adjusting their dietary habits will
become more apparent in the years ahead (Figure 1-3).
An increased interest in healthy choices is evident in some
segments of the food marketplace [13, 48, 51].
Dietary Guidelines. Dietary Guidelines for Ameri-
cans, first published in 1980 by the U.S. Departments of
Agriculture (USDA) and the Department of Health and
Human Services, is now in the seventh edition [18]. The
2010 Dietary Guidelines, like previous editions, provides
recommendations for healthy Americans age 2 and older.
The 2010 guidelines differs from previous guidelines by
also including recommendations for Americans who have
an increased risk of chronic disease. Two overarching
concepts, “maintain calorie balance over time to achieve
and sustain a healthy weight” and “focus on consuming
nutrient-dense foods and beverages,” are emphasized
in the 23 key recommendations found in the guidelines
[65]. As in the past, the goal of the guidelines is to pro-
mote health and reduce the risk for major chronic dis-
eases by providing recommendations for healthy eating.
Four focus areas and key recommendations are provided
within the Dietary Guidelines (Table 1-1) [65].
Choose My Plate. In 2011, the Food Guide Pyramid
was replaced by My Plate, also called Choose My Plate.
The My Plate was designed to simplify the message to
the public to encourage Americans to make half of their
4 Chapter One

Obesity Trends* Among U.S. Adults

BRFSS, 1990, 2000, 2010
(*BMI 30, or about 30 lbs. overweight for 5’ 4” person)

1990 2000

2010

No Data <10% <10-14% <15-19% <20-24% <25-29% ≥30&

Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC.

Figure 1-2 Obesity trends among U.S. adults. (Courtesy of U.S. Centers for Disease Control)

plate fruits and vegetables (Figure 1-4). Individualized
dietary recommendations and a “SuperTracker” tool
to monitor your nutrition intake may be found at www
.choosemyplate.gov. The original Food Guide Pyramid
was introduced by the USDA in 1992 and revised in 2005
to illustrate the dietary guidelines graphically [18, 62].
Food Labeling. In 1990, the Nutrition Labeling and
Education Act resulted in the provision of standard-
ized nutrition labels on nearly all processed foods. The
Nutrition Facts labels are used by consumers seeking to
make informed choices about the foods purchased [18,
39]. Nutrition labeling is discussed further in Chapter 4.
Economic and Marketplace Factors
Food Availability. Geography of an area and varia-
tions in climate influence the types of food that can be—
and usually are—grown. Historically, this fact has had a
profound influence on the availability of particular foods
and, in turn, on the eating patterns of people in the area.

Usual intake as a percent of goal or limit

Eat more of these:

GOAL
Whole grains 15%
Vegetables 59%
Fruits 42%
Dairy 52%
Seafood 44%
Oils 61%
Fiber 40%
Potassium 56%
Vitamin D 28%
Calcium 75%

Eat less of these: LIMIT

Calories from SoFAS* 280%
Refined grains 200%
Sodium 149%
Saturated fat 110%

0% 50% 100% 150% 200% 250% 300%

* SoFAS = solid fats and added sugars Percent of goal or limit

Figure 1-3 How do typical American diets compare to recommended intake levels or limits?
(Courtesy of U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture)
 Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics 5

Table 1-1 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans: Summary Key Recommendations
Focus Areas Key Recommendations

Balancing Calories to Manage Weight
Food and Food Components to Reduce
Food and Nutrients to Increase
Building Healthy Eating Patterns
Prevent and/or reduce overweight and obesity through improved eating and physical activity
behaviors.
Control total calorie intake to manage body weight. For people who are overweight or obese, this
will mean consuming fewer calories from foods and beverages.
Increase physical activity and reduce time spent in sedentary behaviors.
Maintain appropriate calorie balance during each stage of life—childhood, adolescence, adult-
hood, pregnancy and breast feeding, and older age.
Reduce daily sodium intake to less than 2,300 milligrams (mg) and further reduce intake to
1,500 mg among persons who are 51 and older and those of any age who are African American
or have hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease. The 1,500 mg recommendation
applies to about half of the U.S. population, including children, and the majority of adults.
Consume less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fatty acids by replacing them with
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Consume less than 300 mg per day of dietary cholesterol.
Keep trans-fatty acid consumption as low as possible by limiting foods that contain synthetic
sources of trans fats, such as partially hydrogenated oils, and by limiting other solid fats.
Reduce the intake of calories from solid fats* and added sugars.**
Limit the consumption of foods that contain refined grains, especially refined grain foods that
contain solid fats, added sugars, and sodium.
If alcohol is consumed, it should be consumed in moderation—up to one drink per day for
women and two drinks per day for men—and only by adults of legal drinking age.
Increase vegetable and fruit intake.
Eat a variety of vegetables, especially dark green and red and orange vegetables and beans and
peas.
Consume at least half of all grains as whole grains. Increase whole-grain intake by replacing
refined grains with whole grains.
Increase intake of fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products, such as milk, yogurt, cheese, or
fortified soy beverages.
Choose a variety of protein foods, which include seafood, lean meat and poultry, eggs, beans
and peas, soy products, and unsalted nuts and seeds.
Increase the amount and variety of seafood consumed by choosing seafood in place of some
meat and poultry.
Replace protein foods that are higher in solid fats with choices that are lower in solid fats and
calories and/or are sources of oils.
Use oils to replace solid fats where possible.
Choose foods that provide more potassium, dietary fiber, calcium, and vitamin D, which are
nutrients of concern in American diets. These foods include vegetables, fruits, whole grains,
and milk and milk products.
Select an eating pattern that meets nutrient needs over time at an appropriate calorie level.
Account for all foods and beverages consumed and assess how they fit within a total healthy
eating pattern.
Follow food safety recommendations when preparing and eating foods to reduce the risk of
foodborne illnesses.

*Solid fats are those fats typically solid at room temperature and containing highly saturated fats. Examples include butter, shortening,
margarine, animal fats, cheese (full fat), and foods such as pizza, desserts, chips, and entrees containing these fats. Coconut oil, palm
kernel oil, and palm oil also contain a high percentage of saturated fats and therefore, like solid fats, should be limited in the diet.
**Added sugar includes white sugar, brown sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, corn syrup solids, raw sugar, malt syrup, maple syrup, pan-
cake syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, honey, molasses, anhydrous dextrose, and crystal dextrose. These added sugars are found
in the diet of Americans in soda, sports drinks, desserts, sugar-sweetened fruit drinks, and candy.
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department Health and Human Services, Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 7th ed. (Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, December 2010), www.cnpp.usda.gov/DGAs2010-PolicyDocument.htm.
6 Chapter One
Figure 1-4 Choose My Plate. (Courtesy of USDA Center for
Nutrition Policy and Promotion)
Examples are the widespread use of pinto beans and chili
peppers in the southwestern United States and the exten-
sive use of seafood in coastal areas. With the development
of rapid transportation and modern food-handling facili-
ties, however, the influence of geography and climate on
our food habits has decreased greatly. For example, 40 per-
cent of the fresh fruit consumed by Americans is imported.
During the winter months especially, many imported
vegetables may be found in American grocery stores [42].
Supermarkets in the United States have, on a regular
basis, fresh fruits from tropical areas and live seafood, even
though most are located far from the tropics or the ocean.
Economics. Whether we consume the variety of foods
available in supermarkets and restaurants depends, to a
considerable extent, on our purchasing power. Economics
is a powerful factor in limiting or expanding our dietary
patterns, although these changes may be transitory in
some cases. When food budgets are restricted because of
financial problems, less expensive foods must make up a
larger share of the menus offered. When budgets are lib-
eral, more convenience items and snack foods are often
Healthy Eating
Does Where We Eat Make a Difference?
I n general, food prepared and consumed at home is lower
in calories, fat, and sodium and higher in fiber, iron, and
calcium than food eaten away from home. As Americans eat
a greater percentage of their meals outside the home, the
impact of these food choices on the total diet is significant.
One additional meal consumed outside of the home
each week adds 134 calories to the diet, which can translate
purchased, and “eating out” occurs more frequently.
These trends can be observed nationally when the country
is in recession or in a period of economic prosperity [15].
Income and household size are the most important
factors determining where and how Americans spend
their food dollars [8]. Low-income families who earn
$10,000 to $14,999 a year spend 25 percent of their
income on food as compared to average U.S. consumers
who spend only 9.8 percent of their disposal income on
food [15]. High-income households spend a larger share
of their food dollars on eating out.
Some households in America are unable to meet basic
food needs because of financial limitations and therefore
do not enjoy food security [2, 44, 66]. More than 14
percent of U.S. households were insecure at some point
during the year [2]. There are 15 nutrition assistance pro-
grams available to help families, such as the Supplemental
Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and the National
School Lunch Program. The USDA calculates costs for
four levels of food plans [64]. Understanding food prepa-
ration and food quality is an advantage whether working
with limited or generous household food budgets.
Technological Development
The food-processing industry is sharing in the many
ideas, innovations, and technological developments that
are bringing about major changes in our society. The
industry’s growth and continued development keep an
ever-increasing supply of new and convenient foods on
the market and affect the purchasing habits of the con-
sumer and the types of meals served both at home and in
food service establishments.
Processing. The development of technological exper-
tise in transportation, food preservation, and process-
ing extends the seasons of food availability. Irradiation,
which is the treatment of food with electron beams,
gamma rays, or X-rays, may be used to decrease bacte-
rial contamination on poultry and meat and increase the
into a weight gain of two pounds annually. Nutritious foods,
such as fruits, whole grains, dark green and orange vegeta-
bles, and dairy, are consumed at a lower frequency outside
of the home.
Source: References 19, 25, 36, 58.

shelf life of fresh fruits. Aseptic packaging decreases
processing time and results in more flavorful food prod-
ucts because the separate sterilization of the food and
the package requires less heat. High-pressure processing
reduces microorganisms without the application of heat
resulting in safe yet fresh-tasting foods [22].
Biotechnology. Conventional breeding and selection
of plants and animals over the centuries has been used
to improve food supplies. Now, with a group of genetic
tools that falls under the heading of biotechnology, the
variety, productivity, and efficiency of food production
can be targeted in less time and with greater predictabil-
ity and control than was possible with traditional meth-
ods [22, 27]. Genetic engineering may be used to increase
crop yields and disease resistance and to produce faster-
maturing, drought-resistant varieties. Biotechnology
could be used to improve the nutritional quality of the
food supply and reduce the use of chemicals [7]. How-
ever, in spite of the benefits, biotechnology has not been
without controversy [30]. Public education about bio-
technology is needed so that people will acquire a base
of knowledge with which to make judgments about these
new tools as they make choices in food purchasing [55].
Technology in the Home. Refrigeration and freeze
processing within the modern home allow patterns of
cooking and eating that cannot exist in developing coun-
tries where methods for keeping foods fresh are limited.
Different types of cooking equipment, including the
(a)
Figure 1-5 (a) A brother and sister can get to know each other over ice cream cones. (gemenacom/Fotolia)
(b) Eating spaghetti requires real concentration. (Val Thoermer/Fotolia)
Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics 7
microwave oven, have affected patterns of eating. Even
the social aspects of food may be influenced by devel-
opments in food technology as we need to rely less on
other family members to prepare the food we eat. Almost
anyone in the household can retrieve an entree from the
freezer and quickly heat it in the microwave oven.
Emotional and Psychological Effects
With all of today’s technological influences, it is impor-
tant that the meanings of food, other than the biologi-
cal and economic ones, be considered (Figure 1-5). Food
means security, hospitality, and even status. Infants learn
about security when mothers respond to their crying by
giving them food. Familiar foods bring back memories of
home and family and make one feel secure. Feeling full
and physically satisfied and knowing that there is more
food available for other meals bring security. Food is a
symbol of hospitality and is used to show that one cares
about others and is a friend. Gifts of food are given in
times of both happiness and sorrow.
Sensory Characteristics
of Food
Sensory characteristics are important factors in deter-
mining whether we will first taste, then eat, and enjoy
the food. Those involved in food preparation, both in the
home and in commercial establishments, must take into
careful account the appearance, flavor, and texture of the
dishes prepared. Humans assess their food using the five
(b)
8 Chapter One

senses: taste, smell, sight, touch, and hearing. For exam-
ple, consider how the sounds of crisp foods such as raw
carrots and the sizzle of fajitas when brought to the table
influence the total experience with these foods. Under-
standing these sensory characteristics is essential in the
study of food.
Appearance
Appearance often creates the first impression of food.
Such qualities as color, form, consistency, size, and
design or arrangement contribute to what may be called
“eye appeal” of foods. Without an attractive and appeal-
ing appearance, foods may be rejected without being
tasted. For the commercial vendor of prepared foods, the
appearance of the food is extremely important because
this is the first opportunity to impress the potential buyer
with the quality and desirability of the product.
Color is an especially important attribute. Try eating
a jelly bean and guessing the flavor without prior knowl-
edge of the color. Not only does color influence expecta-
tions of flavors, but it provides a perception of quality.
Olive-green broccoli or a fruit tray with slices of apples
and pears that have surfacing browning would not be
favorably received.
ice cream to hot chocolate, affects the apparent intensity
of some of the primary tastes. Sugar seems sweeter at
higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. Just the
reverse seems to be true of salt. Some substances, such as
menthol, feel cool because of the sensitization of recep-
tors in the mouth and throat, thereby exaggerating the
feeling of coolness. Conversely, some foods such as chili
peppers produce a hot or biting sensation by irritating the
mucous membranes lining the mouth. The compound
primarily responsible for the “hotness” of chili peppers
is capsaicin.
Odor
An odor may be pleasing or offensive. The term aroma
is usually applied to a pleasant odor. The smell of fresh
baked bread, hot apple cider, freshly cut cantaloupe, and
many other foods are considered appealing and, when
experienced, encourage tasting of the food. In contrast,
the odor resulting from burnt food is offensive. Some
foods, especially those that are cold, have a limited odor.
Ice cream is an example of this.

Taste
Although flavor and taste are used synonymously, in a strict
sense, taste is only one part of flavor. Taste involves the
sensations produced through stimulation of the taste buds
on the tongue. There are five primary taste sensations:
sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami, also called savory.
Sweet tastes are primarily associated with hydrocyl (-OH)
groups, whereas salty tastes occur due to the ions of salts.
Sour substances are generally the result of hydrogen ions
(H+) found in acids. A number of compounds taste bitter,
including, in part, caffeine and theobromine. Umami is a
taste associated with amino acid–based substances and is
often described as “savory,” “meaty,” or “brothy.” Mono-
sodium glutamate is one example of a substance providing
an umami taste. Other foods contributing umami include
tomatoes, eggs, seafoods, cheese, and soy sauce.

Taste Buds. Taste buds are found in small elevations,

called papillae, on the surface of the tongue (Figure 1-6).
Taste sensations are produced when bitter, salty, sweet,
or acid substances in a solution contact taste receptors
in the taste pore leading to the taste bud. Sensation of
bitter tastes is generally delayed rather than immediate.
Figure 1-6 shows a diagram of a taste bud. A message is
sent to the brain from the taste cells via nerve fibers with
endings in the taste cells. The brain interprets and identi-
Figure 1-6 Drawing of the tongue, showing papillae on the
fies the specific taste.
surface. Taste buds are located on the sides and at the base
of many of the papillae. Diagram of an individual taste bud
Influence of Temperature. Temperature may affect containing tiny taste receptors that come in contact with the
the blending of primary tastes and other factors contribut- substance being tasted, taste cells, and nerve fibers that carry
ing to flavor. The temperature of foods when eaten, from the message from the taste bud to the brain for interpretation.
 Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics 9

The olfactory center is found at the top of the nasal

cavity, as shown in Figure 1-7. To stimulate the olfactory
center, substances must be in gaseous form. The gaseous
molecules enter the nose as food is placed in the mouth
and are drawn toward the olfactory center, where they
stimulate nerve endings. Nerve impulses are thus sent
to the brain to be interpreted. The sense of smell is esti-
mated to be about 10,000 times as sensitive as the sense of
taste in detecting minute concentrations, and it can differ-
entiate hundreds or possibly thousands of distinct odors.

Flavor
Flavor is a blending of taste and odor. Millions of fla-
vor sensations are experienced in a lifetime. For most, the
perceived pleasantness of the flavor will determine if the
food will be consumed. Flavor perceptions change over
time, and foods not liked when one is young may become
favorites later in life. Older adults may have less sensitiv-
ity to some flavors and therefore are inclined to add more FIGURE 1-7 Gaseous molecules enter the nose and stimulate the
sugar, salt, or other flavoring substances to enhance eat- olfactory center, from which nerve fibers send messages to the
ing enjoyment [41]. brain concerning the odor of food.
Perceived flavor results from an integrated response
to a complex mixture of stimuli or sensations from the Analysis of Flavor. Countless numbers of molecules
olfactory center in the nasal cavity, the taste buds on the contribute to our perception of odor or aroma and taste.
tongue, tactile receptors in the mouth, and the percep- One single flavor may be produced from the interaction
tion of pungency, heat, cooling, and so on when a food of many different chemical molecules. Did you know, for
is placed in the mouth [31]. The flavor of food can be example, that more than 200 different compounds are
affected by every step in the production process, from used to make artificial banana flavor? Many of the odor-
selection of ingredients to processing to packaging and ous substances in foods occur in such vanishingly small
storage of the final product [35]. concentrations that it is difficult to show that they are

A person could detect 10,000 odors, but how one could be

detected from the other is still unknown. Scientists think that
FOCUS ON SCIENCE a person has many different receptors that “light up” in various
combinations in response to different scents.
Scientists also have found a strong link between smell and
memory. Consider how a dinner experience could be enhanced
Sensory Characteristics of Food if guests could enjoy the food with a smell associated with a
Flavor pleasant experience.

F lavor is a complex mixture of taste, smell, texture, and tem-

perature. The nose and mouth work together to deliver sig-
nals that the brain translates into the flavor of food. Some other
facts about taste:
j Salt can hide bitter flavors.
j The heat of chili peppers is actually not a flavor but a
response of pain receptors on the tongue.
j Aging tends to cause a loss of taste buds and sensitiv-
ity to food decreases—food tastes more bland to older
people.
“The nose knows.” How does the nose partici-
pate in tasting food?
Most of what is called “flavor” actually comes from odors that
reach nerves via nasal passages at the back of the throat.
Umami—What is it?
Umami is a Japanese word meaning “savory” or “meaty” and
thus applies to the sensation of savoriness—specifically to the
detection of glutamates which are especially common in meats,
cheese (Parmesan, Roquefort), soy sauce, fish sauce, walnuts,
grapes, broccoli, tomatoes, and mushrooms. The action of
umami receptors explains why foods treated with monosodium
glutamate (MSG) often taste fuller or better.
The glutamate taste sensation is most intense in combi-
nation with sodium. This is one reason why tomatoes exhibit
a strong taste after adding salt. Sauces with savory and salty
tastes are very popular for cooking, such as tomato sauces and
ketchup for Western cuisines, and soy sauce and fish sauce for
East Asian and southern Asian cuisines.
10 Chapter One
even present. With the development of analytical tools
such as the gas chromatograph, tracings from which are
shown in Figure 1-8, the chemist has been able to sepa-
rate, isolate, and identify many of the molecules that are
responsible for aroma and taste in such foods as onions,
strawberries, and beef.
Analytical tools used to great advantage by the flavor
researcher are high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), the electronic nose, and the electronic tongue
[33, 37, 59]. HPLC is especially useful for studying non-
volatile and/or labile (unstable) flavor components (see
Figure 1-9). Among other things, it can be used to test for
adulteration of flavoring materials from natural sources.
The electronic nose is a chemical sensing system that
offers the advantage of the rapid detection of volatiles.
Impact of Heat on Flavor Development. The flavors
of some foods are readily perceivable in the raw “natu-
ral” state, whereas cooking other foods produces flavors
from nonflavor substances called flavor precursors. The
method of cooking also has an impact on flavor devel-
opment. For example, flavors produced when meat is
cooked in water are different from those produced when
it is roasted in an oven surrounded by dry heat. The tan-
talizing odors that develop during the baking of bread
are additional examples of flavor substances produced by
heating. Many of the volatile substances that waft from
the oven where bread is baking are initially the products
of yeast fermentation. The browning of the bread crust
in a hot oven contributes to a pleasant flavor as well as an
attractive appearance.
Natural Flavors. Flavors also may be produced during
processing by enzymatic reactions, such as cheese fla-
vors, or by microbial fermentation, such as butter flavors.
Flavor substances that occur naturally or that are gener-
ated during heating, processing, or fermentation are con-
sidered to be “natural” flavors [31].
Artificial or Synthetic Flavors. Biotechnology can be
used to generate natural flavor substances from enzymatic
or microbial reactions. Natural flavors are simulated as
closely as possible through the production of synthetic
compounds. Synthetic compounds added to foods either
individually or as part of a mixture are considered in the
United States to be “artificial” or “synthetic” flavors.
Both natural and artificial flavorings are combined in
many foods.
Flavor Researchers. Knowledge of flavor chemistry
and ways of simulating natural flavors is especially impor-
tant as the world population increases and global markets
expand. Foods must be flavored so that they are accepted
by consumers in their unique cultural environment. To
apply the science of flavor successfully to the develop-
ment of new products and the improvement of old ones,
the flavor researcher must first identify the substances
that are responsible for the acceptable flavor and the
mechanism by which people eating the food experience
flavor. New food-flavor ingredients can then be devel-
oped, and foods can be processed in a manner that results
in the most desirable flavors [28, 35].
Texture
The physical properties of foods, including texture, con-
sistency, and shape, involve the sense of touch or feel-
ing, also called the tactile sense. When food is contacted,
pressure and movement receptors on the skin and mus-
cles of the mouth and tongue are stimulated. Sensations
of smoothness, stickiness, graininess, brittleness, fibrous
qualities, or lumpy characteristics may be detected [53].
The tingling feeling that comes from drinking a carbon-
ated beverage is an attribute of texture. Terms describ-
ing extremes of texture and consistency may include dry
or moist, solid or fluid, thick or thin, rough or smooth,
coarse or fine, tough or tender, hard or soft, and compact
or porous.
Texture includes those qualities that can be felt with
the fingers, the tongue, the palate, or the teeth. Textural
characteristics of food influence consumer preferences
both positively and negatively [54]. Those textures that
are universally liked are crisp, crunchy, tender, juicy, and
firm. Those generally disliked are tough, soggy, crumbly,
lumpy, watery, and slimy. Texturizing agents are often
used by the food processor to impart body, to improve
consistency or texture of a food, or to stabilize an emul-
sion [40]. Such agents, of which there are many, optimize
the quality of a food product so that consumers will find
it acceptable.
Sound
The sound made when a food is eaten is also part of pal-
atability and the enjoyment of eating. We often evaluate
crispness by the sound it makes and by its tactile sen-
sations in the mouth. Try to imagine how crisp carrot
and celery sticks would “taste” without the accompany-
ing sound of crunching. When microwave popcorn was
introduced, one of the significant sensory concerns was
the squeaky rather than crunchy sound audible when
eating.
Sensory Evaluation of Food
When the quality of a food is judged or evaluated by the
senses (taste, smell, sight, touch, and hearing), it is said
to be a sensory evaluation. Because food is prepared for
the primary purpose of being eaten and enjoyed through
the senses, sensory evaluation is most appropriate. No
machine has yet been devised that can totally substitute
for the human senses in evaluating the quality of human
food. However, the human instrument used in sensory
evaluation is complex, and many issues need to be man-
aged when collecting and analyzing data.
Flavor perceptions are difficult to characterize ver-
bally. For example, think about how a strawberry tastes,
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 This island did not tempt us to stay long, so we steered for
Cagayan Sulu, which is a gem in the ocean; it has three peaks,
wooded, but varied by grassy glades, groves of cocoa-nuts and fruit-
trees, partly concealing and partly revealing scattered houses and
villages. It is, indeed, a picturesque island from every view. Our first
intercourse appeared likely to be unfriendly. Steering round to the
south-west side, we landed at a place where we saw some houses
close to the beach, and as we pulled ashore, we could see the
inhabitants gathering in armed groups; however, we were received
with great civility, and explained the object of our visit, which was to
inquire what fresh provisions could be procured there. We did not
stay long, as they promised to bring us down next day a good
supply.
When we landed on the following morning, we found a very large
party assembled with several fine bullocks for sale; while the
bargaining was going on I wandered inland with a companion to
have a look at the country. Wherever we went we found plantations
of cocoa-nuts and plantains, and round the houses were small
vegetable gardens, while between the dwellings were occasionally
extensive tracks of long coarse grass, on which were herds of
bullocks feeding.
At length we came to a spot which tempted us to rest. It was a
rock overhanging a tiny bay, thrown into deep shade by the tall
graceful palms which bent over it; while looking inland across the
gently sloping fields of long high grass interspersed with groves, we
could see parties of natives marching in Indian file, with their bright
spear-heads flashing in the sun, winding their way down to the
extemporized market. We sat under the shade of some areca palms;
which, though young, and not twenty feet in height, were yet covered
with fruit and freshly expanded blossoms, which shed a delicious
perfume through the whole grove.
Our bargaining prospered, as fine cattle were secured at thirty
shillings a piece, ducks for two wine bottles, fine cocks and hens for
one; as well as a couple of pretty ponies, cocoa-nut oil and nuts,
plantains, limes, ginger, onions, and fruits. This island, though
formerly a dependency of Sulu, is now independent, and is governed
by some of those half-bred Arabs who corrupt and weigh heavily on
these countries. It is finely situated in the Sulu seas, and it is both
healthy and fertile. The inhabitants appear much the same as those I
had seen about Maludu Bay, and, with the exception of some
strangers, were civil. The latter were traders who had visited
Samboañgan, Manilla, and other Spanish ports, and were there
corrupted, by intercourse with the low Europeans and dissipated
classes who usually frequent such places; and at one time these
men were so insolent that I thought their conduct would become
unbearable, till they were quieted by my shooting down a cocoa-nut,
as mentioned in my Limbang journal.
The most singular spot in this island is near the old crater-looking
harbour, mentioned by Sir Edward Belcher, which we entered over a
reef. It is almost circular, and is surrounded by lofty rocks clothed
with trees, bushes, and hanging creepers, presenting a magnificent
wall of evergreen. Rowing to the west side of the bay, and climbing
to the top of a lofty bank, we had a splendid view of a remarkable
almost circular, lake. The place where we stood was a gap between
the lofty cliffs that rose on either hand, and appeared to have been
formed by the inner waters bursting their boundary, and overthrowing
the upper defences of this natural dam. The wooded cliff’s continue
all round, forming a perfect barrier, now rising to a great height, then
sinking to some fifty or sixty feet. The waters, elevated more than
forty feet above the sea, lay in undisturbed repose, and presented
for upwards of half a mile a clear mirror, reflecting back the rays of
the sun and the deep shadow of the tall trees.
I mounted with some difficulty the top of the left-hand cliff, and had
an extensive view through the tangled bushes. On one side were the
waters of the crater, on the other the serene lake with the sea
appearing beyond. We heard from the natives that alligators swarm
in this secluded water, so that fish must be plentiful also, as few pigs
could descend here. In the interior they say there is another more
extensive lake of the same formation; this one was found to be eight
fathoms deep at the edges, and forty in the centre.
Started from Cagayan Sulu, and after encountering rougher
weather than we expected to find in this usually calm sea, lay to, as
we thought we were not far from the island we were intending to
visit.
At daylight the two peaks of Sulu were visible; and as we
approached, the summits of the other hills appeared, while all the
rest of the island lay enveloped in mist; but the sun soon dispelled
this, and showed us the west coast of the lovely island of Sulu. The
slopes of the hills presented alternate patches of cleared grassy
land, with clumps of trees scattered over its face, reminding one of a
noble English park; while a long dense line of cocoa-nut palms
skirted the beach, among which were seen many houses and groups
of inhabitants, who were no doubt watching our approach with much
anxiety, as they had already suffered from the attacks of the Dutch
and Spaniards; but the sight of the English flag no doubt restored
their confidence.
Anchored off Sugh, the capital of Sulu, which is situated at the
bottom of a bay, and appears small; but among the existing
dwellings we could distinguish blackened piles, the remains of
portions of the city burnt by the Dutch. On the right of the town is a
high hill, curiously peaked and well wooded. Farther off to the left,
and at the back, are many high mountains, some peaked, others
rounded; but, as a whole, forming a beautiful view. A white flag, with
a castle represented on it, waved over the fort, and a pilot jack
marked the residence of Mr. Wyndham, an Englishman, settled here
for the purposes of trade.
Very few natives came off, until at length a messenger arrived
from the sultan to know who we were; we returned a suitable and, no
doubt, a satisfactory reply, as the Sulus were in a state of great
excitement, having suffered considerably from the recent shots of
the Dutch ships. Having communicated with Mr. Wyndham, we went
to see the watering-place about a mile to the west of the town,
situated near the great tree to which I have alluded in my second
account of Kina Balu, where we found the water bursting out of the
sand, clear as crystal, and pleasant to the taste.
The tree is very fine, being at least thirteen feet in diameter, with a
very sinewy stem. Mr. Wyndham walked with us a little way into the
country, and showed us some of the houses, having much the same
appearance as those of the Malays. These people are better-looking
than most other inhabitants of the archipelago; but appeared to be
suspicious, watching us at every point; in fact, we afterwards heard
the fugitives from Balignini were scattered among them, and they
had had no time to forget what they had suffered from the well-
deserved attacks of the Spaniards. We then pulled to Mr.
Wyndham’s house, a mere rough building, raised near the site of his
former one, burnt by the Dutch—why or wherefore is inconceivable.
The whole night after our arrival the country was in an uproar,
reports spreading of the advent of innumerable ships, which made
the inhabitants hurry their women, children, and goods up to the
mountain. In the evening we took a friendly letter to the sultan.
28th.—Went with the watering-party, but were unable to penetrate
far, on account of heavy rain and the incivility of the natives, who
waved us back. No answer, as yet, from the sultan.
30th.—Landed at the watering-place, where the mountaineers
were assembled at a sort of market, bartering, buying, and selling.
We walked about a little, and then returned to the beach, where we
were surrounded by some scores of men, women, and children from
the mountains and neighbourhood; the former are said to be of a
different race, but we saw little signs of it. The women, on the whole,
are better-looking than the Malays, and some of the little girls were
quite pretty; they are civil enough, but anxious to know our business.
In the afternoon we went to an audience with the sultan. Having
landed at Mr. Wyndham’s, who led us by a long shaky platform to the
shore, where we found numbers of armed natives assembled, an
officer from the sultan led the way along a broad rough road with a
high stockade on the left, and houses on the right. We passed in,
through ever-increasing crowds, to a market-place, where the
women were selling fowls, fish, and vegetables, till we came to a
creek, over which a rude bridge took us to the palace. Before
crossing, we observed a large brass 24-pounder showing through an
embrasure. The stockade continued on the left, until we passed a
large gate, where on a green were assembled some hundreds of
men, armed with muskets, spears, heavy Lanun swords, and krises,
and defended by shields, and some brass armour, and old Spanish-
looking helmets.
The audience hall was on the right, and the house of prayer on
the left. The crowd opening, we mounted some steps, and crossing a
verandah thronged with armed men, found ourselves in the presence
of the sultan. The audience hall is large, but perfectly bare of
ornament, as all their valuable silks and hangings were packed up,
and mostly sent to the hills, on account of an absurd report spread
by the mate of the Spanish brig we found anchored near, which,
when we came in sight, began to get under weigh, and stand out to
sea.
On being questioned by the Chinese passengers, he said that we
had given him notice to get out of the way, as we were about to
bombard the town. The rumour having spread, the natives packed
up their valuables, and spent the night in carrying their goods off to
the hills, and in removing their women and children. This caused the
suspicious behaviour of the people, and what tends to keep up their
apprehensions a little is that the Spanish brig has not yet returned to
her proper anchorage.
But to return to the hall. In the centre stood a round table; on the
opposite side sat the sultan surrounded by his datus, and around
were a number of empty chairs, on which we took our seats. After
shaking hands, a few questions were asked, as, “What was the
news? Was France quiet?” The sultan was very like the picture in Sir
Edward Belcher’s book, and was dressed in light-flowered silk, with a
very broad gold belt round his waist, a handsome kris, and gold
bracelets, sparkling with jewels. Some of the datus were splendidly
dressed in silks, gold brocades, handsome turbans and head-
dresses, like golden tiaras; the young men were, as usual, the most
gaudily decorated, while the old were in plain white jackets, and
crowds of the better class sat behind and around us.
Observing that Sir James Brooke, who had lately suffered much
from fever, looked hot and tired, the sultan politely broke up the
audience, and we returned by the same path we came, and after
sitting a short time with Mr. Wyndham, went on board to dine with
Captain Keppel, where our Sulu acquaintance amused us with
stories about the natives.
Went on shore to Mr. Wyndham’s to meet datu Daniel; very little
conversation passed. He appears to be a quiet, good-natured man;
his brothers are very fine fellows, and very fair; with them we went to
see the race-course. Passing through a portion of the town, we came
to an open grassy field, where a few men were trying their horses by
trotting them over the sward. None of the chiefs being present, there
were no trials of speed.
2nd.—On shore early with our guide, but the people not appearing
to like our penetrating into the country, we returned to Mr.
Wyndham’s house, and as we passed the stockades, the Sulus
laughingly pointed to some indentations in the wood where the shot
from the Dutch ships had struck, but had done little damage.
3rd.—Weighed anchor and stood along the coast for Tulyan Bay;
but wind and tide being against us, we let go our anchor; sailing
again at three, we found ourselves towards seven in Tulyan Bay,
much to the discomfort of the villagers, whose shouts and screams
could be distinctly heard on board. At last a couple of men came off
and returned on shore after a few reassuring words from Mr.
Wyndham, which appeared sufficient to pacify the inhabitants, as the
noises ceased. Tulyan Bay is rather deep, and appears to be well
protected, and takes its name from a pretty-looking island in the
offing, which was ceded to the English in Dalrymple’s time—in fact,
the inhabitants thought we were come to take possession.
4th.—I must now endeavour to give the little information I
collected concerning Sulu. The government is carried on by a sultan,
with his council of datus; at the present time the principal power is
held by datu Molok, an elder but illegitimate brother of the sultan—a
shrewd-looking man with quick, inquiring eyes. The sultan is said to
be well-intentioned; but, being weak in character, is totally unable to
subdue the turbulent aristocracy by whom he is surrounded. In
despair he is reported to give way to his fondness for opium-
smoking.
 The laws are but little respected, and ancient customs are fast
falling into disuse, particularly one resembling a voluntary poor-rate.
Every Sulu trader used to present five per cent. of his yearly profits
to a fund, which was divided among the poor of the island. The
mountaineers acknowledge the supremacy of the sultan, but refuse
to pay tribute, and a government which cannot enforce that is not
likely to be able to suppress feuds, or effectually to put down
disturbances. Mr. Wyndham pointed out a man who was notorious
as a murderer, and one instance he had himself witnessed of his
bloodthirstiness.
Again, two mountaineers, bargaining for a slice of fish, quarrelled;
they mutually seized each other’s weapons; one held the handle of
his opponent’s kris, the other his spear shaft; they struggled, a fight
ensued, the crowd collected, some took one side, some the other,
and in a few minutes seven men lay gasping on the ground. It is not
to be expected that the dependencies of the island will obey, when
all is in such confusion. The sultan’s power is very limited, though
the datus still send parties to raise contributions from the
neighbouring towns, villages, and islands. In all decaying states we
find religion neglected, and here, I imagine, it is held but in slight
respect; their houses of prayer being like a tumble-down barn, and
the inhabitants indulging in the use of wine, and occasionally pork.
Mr. Wyndham told us an amusing story of an old datu, who, going
on business to a Chinese trader, began to find a delicious odour
insinuatingly creeping over his senses.
“Ah,” said he, “what is this? some cooking, what is it?”
“Pork.”
“Pork?” said he; “ah!”
“Would you like to taste some?”
“Why,” he answered in a low voice, but cautiously surveying the
room to see if he were watched, “yes, bring me a little.”
On tasting it, and finding it very good, he began to eat some more.
Mr. Wyndham living next door, and hearing the old fellow’s noise,
had removed some of the partition, and was watching him. He now
coughed.
“Oh, I am ruined,” cried the datu; “who lives in the next house?”
“Signor Wyndham.”
“Then he has me in his power.”
Our informant then went in, and, laughing, shook the Mahomedan
chief by the hand, and congratulated him on his freedom from
prejudice. He ever after had much influence with the old man, who
feared being exposed. The inland inhabitants call themselves
Islamites, but are very lax and ignorant.
The Sulu language is soft; it contains, I believe, many Malay
words and expressions, but it is essentially different; though the
upper classes understand Malay, and also many of the lower, there
being here numerous slaves from Borneo. The population, they say,
is 200,000; it is probably 100,000; not less, from the numerous towns
and villages along the coast, and the number of houses detached in
twos and threes. On an extraordinary occasion, they say they could
bring some 15,000 or 20,000 men into the field; but, in general,
5,000 would be as many as they could assemble. In fact, when the
day of trouble came, they had not, perhaps, 2,000 to defend the
town; and this may be readily accounted for, as a large proportion of
the population is in servitude, which is, however, generally an easy
state of existence.
The slaves are collected from all parts of the archipelago, from
Acheen Head to New Guinea, and from the south of Siam to the
most northern parts of the Philippines: it is a regular slave market.
The Sulus themselves are a better-looking people than any I have
yet seen; they are daring and independent, and the mountaineers,
particularly, are a wild but polite people. Their young women and
little girls are dark-eyed and good-featured, with easy figures; free,
though not obtrusive, in their ways.
Bold and daring as the datus appear, they have much politeness
in their manners, particularly datu Daniel and his brother; and on
proper occasions their carriage is dignified and commanding. The
lower orders are outwardly rough, violent, and fierce, yet have an
inherent politeness, which, when inclined to show confidence, they
display to much advantage. On state occasions the young men
appear in splendid dresses, while the elder content themselves with
plain clothes. The dress is the same as the rest of the archipelago—
a jacket, trousers, sarong, and occasionally a shirt or under-vest.
They all wear krises, and most of them also carry either muskets or
spears.
The Balignini near the watering-places were the worst we met—
insolent and inclined to pilfer; indeed, there was nearly a quarrel
about some of the seamen’s clothes they tried to appropriate. To
show their dislike, they planted sharp fish-bones round the watering-
place, in the hope that our men, landing in the dark, might cut their
feet. The Dutch burnt about two hundred houses, but did little injury
to the stockades, which are, however, sadly out of repair. In proper
order, well mounted with guns, they could make a good defence, as
the walls facing the sea are about fifteen feet thick of mud and stone,
encased with teak stockades. The rampart around the sultan’s
palace is in the best repair, but not so thick as the others; and datu
Daniel’s is by no means contemptible. The men, too, would fight
bravely, as they did against the Dutch; but their guns, except the
brass ones, are mostly dismounted, and they have no carriages
ready; the iron ones are said to be those taken at Balambañgan,
when they surprised and captured our settlement.
The appearance of the country from the sea is very beautiful,
many of the hills rising to a peak some 2,000 feet above the level of
the sea; while others are lower and wooded, and form an agreeable
contrast. Several of these eminences are forest-covered to the
summit, while many present alternate patches of rice cultivation,
pasture land, groves of cocoa-nut, palms, gardens, and detached
clumps of forest trees. It is by far the most beautiful island I have
seen. Sulu, in good hands, might be made to produce every tropical
production, and become the centre of the commerce in these seas.
Ships, by staying a little time, may obtain bullocks, fowls, ducks,
vegetables, fruits, cocoa-nuts, and very fine water at a very good
watering-place. The duties on goods are high; nevertheless, Mr.
Wyndham and the Spaniards carry on a profitable commerce.
Tulyan is rather a small island, with hills to the north, but low land
on the south: the former with a few trees and some bananas, with
cocoa-nut palms at the foot; the latter a little woody. Dalrymple gives
some account of it. In his time the Spaniards had driven the natives
away, burnt their houses, and cut down their fruit-trees; but there is
now a large village along the beach, with many cocoa-nut groves.
The inhabitants are pearl fishers.
Next day anchored off two woody islets; the captain, as usual,
shelling and dredging. Islands are to be seen in the distance all
around us.
6th.—Anchored off Basilan. High hills and lowlands covered with
woods, showing but few clearings. We counted eighteen islands at
one time; among which were the late pirate haunts of Balignini and
Tonquil. Beat about, and anchored off Samboañgan after dark.
We remained seven days at Samboañgan, walking and exploring
in every direction, and enjoyed our stay there very much.
Magindanau, as far as we have seen it, is very hilly and woody, with
the exception of the neighbourhood of the Spanish settlement of
Samboañgan, which has been cleared for some miles; though, for an
old colony, not so much as might have been expected.
The town is situated on the west point of Lanun Bay, and from the
sea appears much smaller than it is in reality. It presents no very
striking features; the long, low, dark fort and whitewashed houses,
intermixed with a few groves of cocoa-nuts, with forest on either
side, and the hills, some cleared and some wooded, rising about
seven miles inland, suggest a rough idea of this pleasant little town.
The plain around is very well cultivated; as you walk along the roads
—very much like English country ones—you have a continual series
of large rice fields, cocoa-nut groves, now swelling into extensive
plantations, then a few round a detached cottage, and intermixed
with these are great quantities of bananas. Many small streams
intersect the plain, adding much to its fertility, and are spanned by
covered bridges.
 The fort is to the right of the town, and has rather low walls,
mounted with a good many guns; against a native force it must be
impregnable, but a little shelling would soon subdue it. It is
garrisoned by about two hundred and fifty native soldiers. Leaving its
gate, you cross a large green, beyond which lies the principal portion
of the town, laid out in a rectangular shape, with streets intersecting
each other at equal distances. The houses are in general mere
native ones; others a little superior; and perhaps a couple of dozen
of a better class, in which reside the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor,
Commandant, and other officers. Almost every other house has a
shop, in which cigars, spirits, chocolate, sugar, and various other
articles are sold. The most respectable class keep retail shops, as
well as the little traders.
Beyond this portion of the town is a little green, with the church—a
long barn-like building. Seen within by the imperfect light of evening,
it appeared destitute of ornaments, except round the altar, and
beyond this are some more streets. The houses I entered had very
little furniture; a small table, some chairs, a bedstead, and a kind of
drawers, with a few shelves, complete the whole.
The people themselves are well worthy of notice. They are a
mixture of Spaniards and natives; a few of pure blood, in the
Government offices; the rest half-castes, mestiches, and natives.
The men exhibit no remarkable features, except the Governor,
Colonel Cayelano de Feguaroa, who was an agreeable man, and
spoke French. We were much pleased with his liberal ideas and
gentlemanly manners, and the other officers were equally polite and
attentive. The generality of the native men are kind and civil, but with
fat, unmeaning faces. The women are much better. The Lieutenant-
Governor’s wife, the only pure Castilian in the place, was a very
pretty woman, with fine eyes and regular features. The mestiches
have in general good eyes and dark hair; but, with the exception of a
few, their faces are too broad.
There was a famous corner shop opposite the church, which
contained good specimens of the race:—Gabriella, likewise called
Romantica, one of the handsomest women in the town, with pleasing
features, and her sister, with the usual flat face. Every one visiting
Samboañgan made that shop their place of call, as the staid old
mother and the girls were very civil and hospitable.
In the country one could always obtain cocoa-nuts, and many of
us were invited in to eat fruit and drink chocolate and gin by the
obliging residents, whose pretty houses, embowered in fruit-trees,
were an ornament to the road side.
The officers of the Meander gave a ball. The quarter-deck was
cleared of guns and surrounded with flags on all sides, and
ornamented with green boughs. All the Spanish officers came, and
about fifty of the townswomen, some young, others old. We danced
quadrilles, waltzes, and polkas: the first caused much confusion, the
second was well danced, while the third was quite new to most of
them. The commandant gave one in return, which was kept up with
greater spirit. Many of the girls were fairer and better-looking than
those we saw on board, and a few were in European costumes, with
shoes and stockings, while the rest had Malay petticoats, and little
jackets with scarfs. Dancing the polka with them was found to be
very difficult, as, few having chemises on, the hand constantly
coming in contact with the skin, it was impossible to obtain a hold;
and their little slippers were flying in every direction.
Their own band played waltzes very well by ear; but nothing else.
Indeed, it is almost the only dance they care for, as the girls find it
difficult to try any other, on account of their wearing slippers without
heels, some of which are very prettily ornamented with gold and
silver embroidery.
Supplies were scarce, though I saw a great many oxen and cows,
some goats, fowls, and ducks; but its being a penal settlement, trade
is obstructed and carefully watched to prevent the escape of
convicts, and none could come to the ship without a pass. The
ponies are very good, except the hacks; the water buffaloes are
large, and employed to draw a peculiar sledge along the smooth
roads. The chief amusement of the men on Sundays is cock-fighting:
crowds assemble to witness this cruel sport; and then they show
some money, which at other times appears so scarce that few shops
could give change for a dollar. We observed that the rice was
trodden out by the buffaloes, on hard beaten ground. Washing was
dear, being eleven dollars a hundred.
16th.—Started on our return voyage. Lay-to off a sand-bank not
marked in the chart. A grave was found there with four bamboos
stuck round, one at each corner, in the midst of thousands of birds,
with immense numbers of eggs, some of which were brought off, and
proved good eating. I will omit the ground we went over on our
return, and give an account of a second visit we paid this
archipelago.
 CHAPTER IX.
THE SULU ISLANDS.

SECOND VISIT.

Reach Sugh—Mr. Wyndham comes on board—His News—

Commercial Rivalry—The Stockades—Visit the Audience Hall—
Appearance of the Sultan—Visit Datu Daniel’s Stockaded House
—Guns—Datu Daniel—Appearance of the principal Chamber—
The Bed—Boxes—Property—General look of Discomfort—
Spittoons—Dismounted Iron Guns—Taken from the English—
Excitement in the Town—Hereditary Hatred of the Sulus to the
Spaniards—Their Treaty with Spain—Sandakan Bay—Supplies—
Variegated Wood—Salute—English popular—An Exception—
Death of a Sulu Lady from Grief—The Rumah Bechara—A Ship
taken—Interview with the Sultan—Hope—Character of Datus—
The Balignini—Capture an English Ship—Captives brought to
Sulu—Result of the Action of the Nemesis—The Lanuns—At
Magindanau and Cape Unsang—A narrow Escape—Mate to Lord
Cochrane—Capture of the Maria Frederica—Cold-blooded
Murder of the Captain—Jilolo Prahus—Their Rencontre with Sir
Edward Belcher—Pirates off the Arru Group—Sulu Justice—
Appearance of the People—Attack on the Spanish Gunboats—
Public Audience with the Sultan—Private Visit to the House of his
Bride—The Women—Opium-smoking—Invitation to revisit Sulu—
The Spanish Gunboats—Samboañgan—The Corner Shop—
Sunday’s Amusements—Appearance of the Neighbourhood—A
Breakfast in the Country—Long Walks—People comfortable—
Story of the Loss and Re-capture of the Dolphin—The Dolphin
sails for Maludu Bay—Quarrels—Surprised—Death of Mr. Burns
and the Captain—Murder of a Woman—Injury to Trade—Datu
Badrudin’s Monopolies—The Tungku Pirates—Visit the chief
Town of Maludu—Sherif Husin’s Account of the Surprise of the
Dolphin—The Re-capture of the Vessel by Sherif Yasin—Arrival
at Benggaya—Dolphin delivered up—Visit the Village of Sherif
Yasin—His Appearance—His Account of the Re-capture—His
Position—Smoking over Powder—Delivery of the Cargo—Return
to the Ship—Argus Pheasants—Meet with Baju Boats—Pearl
Fishers—Retaliation—Fishing for Pearls—Mr. Edwardes’s Pearl
 —Story of the Datu, and his great good Fortune—The Mermaid
Pearl—Present State of Piracy on the North-West Coast—Cruise
of the Balignini in 1861—Ransom of Inchi Ngah—Names of
present Haunts of the Balignini—A Mangrove Swamp—Present
System of Balignini—Escape of a Native—The Lanuns—A
Dayak’s Experience—A Slave Mart—Spanish Attack on Sugh—
Severe Fight—Bravery of the Sulus—Capture of the Town—The
Sulu Government retire to the Hills, and refuse to submit—A Teak
Forest burnt—No Teak in Borneo—Elephants extinct in Sulu.
Started from Labuan in the steamer Nemesis; and passing over
our old ground soon found ourselves in the Sulu seas. It is difficult
navigation, but we passed safely among the shoals, steering south
of Cagayan Sulu, and between the islands of Ubian and Peñgaturan,
where there is a deep channel. The latter is a long and low island, of
great extent, with a few small villages, palm groves, and near it we
observed many fishermen’s canoes. The sea is studded with shoals
and little islands, and I counted eleven at one time from the deck. It
was misty weather when the island first appeared; but as we
approached Sugh the weather cleared, and by the time we had
anchored it was tolerably fine. Since our last visit many houses have
been built, and the town is gradually assuming its ancient
appearance.
A quarter of an hour after our arrival Mr. Wyndham, whom we had
met on our previous visit, came on board, and brought us the little
news he possessed, that Sulu was perfectly tranquil, and that the
Dutch, with two small vessels, were gradually extending their claims
along the east coasts of Borneo, that the Governor of Manilla had
protested against the Dutch interference in Sulu, and that the pirates
of Balignini were utterly rooted out of their old haunts on the islands
of Tonquil and Balignini. But it was a mistake to imagine that the
Spaniards had killed or taken prisoners the whole number, for very
many escaped and retired to Sulu. Mr. Wyndham was startled on
hearing of the expected arrival of an European enemy, and uttered
many exclamations as to the injustice and barbarity of attacking an
inoffensive people, and asked many questions as to the profit of
making this aggression, though he was scarcely surprised, as he
had known they had long desired the eastern coast of Borneo, and
that they are endeavouring to obtain a show of right for its seizure,
as by them our ancient claim is no longer remembered.
At four, we left the Nemesis with Mr. Wyndham, to visit datu
Molok, the prime minister. We pulled in for the little creek in the
centre of the town, passing many new houses lately built by the
Chinese. Mr. Wyndham told us that he found them very troublesome
competitors; as, spreading themselves over all the neighbouring
islands, they offered apparently higher prices for produce than he
could possibly do; so he obtained from the sultan an order for their
recall to the capital. I say apparently higher prices, for by means of
false weights and the tricks usually practised by the Chinese, they
were enabled to outbid the honest European. Yet I fear that in this
there is much commercial jealousy, and that the injury done to the
general trade by the restriction is much greater than the profit to the
individual.
As we passed before the fort I could see numerous guns
displaying their adamantine lips through the embrasures; and I
learned from our companion that the Sulus possess about 150 brass
guns, besides innumerable iron ones. In the market-place, crowds of
armed men were assembled, looking eagerly and anxiously at us.
We landed at the little bridge, and learning that Molok was at the
sultan’s palace, we proceeded thither, escorted by about half a
dozen men armed with long spears, and followed by a crowd of men,
women, and children. We soon arrived at the fort, and then entering
the old audience hall, found it in much the same condition as before,
quite as bare of ornament, with the old round table and white cloth,
and the chairs arranged around. Datu Molok was present, with a few
others; and we had nearly arranged about the salute when the sultan
entered, and it was settled that it should be given the next day.
The news of the Dutch having taken Bali made them all look at
each other with marks of great disquietude, and when they heard of
the amount of the Dutch force which was expected to visit Sulu, their
uneasiness was clearly to be seen under their assumed quietude.
The sultan appeared in better health, but the heaviness of the lower
part of his face gives him a stupid look, and his long jacket of white
silk did not suit his pale appearance. Having taken our leave, we
retired, and returned to the ship; but Sir James Brooke, being
anxious to see some of the datus that evening, sent us on shore
again to arrange a meeting with Mr. Wyndham: but Molok, being
then with the sultan, smoking opium, we went to datu Daniel’s.
For a couple of hundred yards from the shore the water was so
shallow, that we were compelled to be dragged along over the sand
in Mr. Wyndham’s flat-bottomed boat. Walking a few hundred yards
inland to the left of the town, on the road to the race-course, we
came to the house. It is surrounded by a stockade some thirty feet
high; there were two long iron eighteen-pounder guns to defend the
approaches, but only one was mounted, though there were two
brass ones ready for service in his verandah. A wretched-looking
pony, and a man with a chain round his neck pounding rice, were the
most remarkable features of the place.
Having mounted some high steps, we entered the house, where
we found datu Daniel lying down on his bed, suffering from an attack
of intermittent fever. He sat up, however, and talked a little,
expressed his regret that he was unable to come on board and see
the Rajah, but sent one of his people to Molok to arrange a meeting.
The room we entered was large, some fifty feet long by twenty
broad, with a raised recess on one side fifteen feet square. A native
bed, thirty feet long and twelve broad, occupied the greater portion of
the room; it was divided in two by a curtain, and resembled more a
large raised room than a bed. At the end were long shelves filled
with packets of goods, small boxes, and innumerable articles which I
could not distinguish, while around were hung the datu’s handsome
jackets, sarongs, trousers, krises, and other finery for state
occasions. Four gun-cases were piled at the side of the bed, while in
the recess above mentioned, and about the room, were forty or fifty
boxes, containing his valuable property; there was a ladder, also,
which led to the loft.
Chairs were provided for us; but, with the exception of the bed
covered with beautiful mats and the handsomely-ornamented
pillows, the whole place had an air of discomfort, a sort of musty
look. The bed itself is no doubt the datu’s chief residence; we could
only just see the head of the farther half, as a blue curtain was drawn
across, concealing its beauties and its treasures. Around the room
were arranged several dozen brass spittoons, as if the chief were
accustomed to give large parties. Some of the women and young
girls came to the doors to look at us; a few were tolerably good-
looking, with their dark eyes and black hair, but the generality were
like the Malays.
Returning, we were, as usual, very much stared at, but little
followed. We walked behind some of the stockades, but saw that
nothing had been done either to repair them, or to mount the guns,
which lay grass-covered in every direction. As they were those
captured from the English when Balambañgan was taken, it is
probable they were too honeycombed to be of any use. We
remained at Mr. Wyndham’s house waiting for Molok’s answer, which
came at length, mentioning nine as the hour.
The news of the intended visit of their last European enemy must
have spread very rapidly; boats were plying to and fro from the
palace and outside houses, bringing all the valuables on shore. As
Molok sent a message that he could not come, we had a long talk
with Mr. Wyndham, who frankly confessed he was a Spaniard in
heart, as he thought they were more likely to settle the affairs of
these countries than the English, but added, for some reason he
could not fathom, there was an unconquerable prejudice among the
Sulus against the Spaniards. It is no doubt an hereditary feeling, for
these islanders and the Castilians have been constantly at war for
the last three hundred years; the latter endeavouring to subject
them, and the former supporting their independence with great
determination.
By the treaty of September 23rd, 1836, the Spaniards offered their
protection and the assistance of their army and navy to support the
sultan and repel any enemies who might attack him, and the sultan
of Sulu accepted their friendship and protection. This article the
Sulus considered the Spaniards had failed to carry into effect, as the
spirit and letter of the treaty bound Spain and Sulu to consider their
respective enemies as perpetual foes, except that the Sulus were
not required to support Spain in an European war.
 Mr. Wyndham said that Sandakan Bay is exceedingly unhealthy,
and that the whole eastern coast bears the same character during
the south-west monsoon; but nearly every tropical place is
insalubrious until cleared and drained. Sandakan is reported to be
one of the noblest harbours in the world, perfectly sheltered, with
eight fathoms of water. Innumerable boats came around the steamer
with vegetables, cocoa-nuts, eggs, fowls, fruit, krises, Sulu knives,
Dutch 32-pounder shot, cattle, and excellent fish, particularly the red
mullet; eggs on the whole very good; mangoes and plantains; but
krises of indifferent quality; the Sulu knives, of very peculiar shape,
are mostly made in China for this market; a tolerable one, with a
sheath of clouded wood, and a handle with an Arabic inscription, I
tried to buy, but they asked too much for it. The upper portion of the
sheath was of the Kayu Kamuning, a beautiful wood from the island
of Magindanau, which, if it could be obtained of large size, would be
invaluable for furniture; but the natives said it was only the knots of
the trees which were beautifully marked.
At one, we saluted the sultan with twenty-one guns. The echo
seemed to commence at the first hill, and gradually, now with a
deeper, then with a lighter sound, rolled round over the whole circle
of hills and valleys. The sultan returned the salute from his various
stockades.
The English appear very popular in Sulu, their only enemy being
datu Boyak, the rajah Mudu, who was away. He felt aggrieved with
the English on account of Sir Thomas Cochrane’s attack on Maludu
Bay. His sister had married sherif Usman, its chief, who, during the
fight, was shot in the stomach with grape, as he, being one of those
whom they deem invulnerable, exposed himself to every fire, and
fought to the last. His wife was inconsolable for his loss, refused to
return to Sulu, retired into the country, fell ill, and died. Her brother
keeps this as a sort of canker in his bosom. The way these men
prepare themselves to be invulnerable is different from that practised
in Sarawak: here they rub their whole bodies with some preparation
of mercury.
I asked Mr. Wyndham about the Rumah Bechara, or House of
Discussion, mentioned by the American navigator Wilkes, but he