EDITED BY

PETER BRUNT AND NICHOLAS THOMAS

First published on the occasion of the exhibition
‘Oceania’
a r t i s t i c d i r e c t o r , r oya l a c a d e m y
Tim Marlow
Copyright © 2018 Royal Academy of Arts, London
Texts © the Authors
editorial note
Measurements are given in centimetres/metres,
Foreword 12 Catalogue Plates 82
height before width (before depth). Partners‘ Statements 15 w it h int ro d uct io ns
Royal Academy of Arts, London p r e s i d e n t, m u s é e d u q u a i b r a n ly – Page 25: extract from ‘Inside Us the Dead’ © by p e t e r b runt a nd
29 September – 10 December 2018 jacques chirac Albert Wendt. By Arrangement with the Licensor, Contemporary artists’ iwi or tribal affiliations are Acknowledgements 16 nicho la s t ho m a s
Stéphane Martin Albert Wendt, c/- Curtis Brown (Aust) Pty Ltd listed after their country of birth.
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris Map 18
1 February – 1 May 2019 Any copy of this book issued by the publisher is Authorship of the catalogue entries on pages
e x h i b i t i o n c u r at o r s
Peter Brunt
sold subject to the condition that it shall not by
way of trade or otherwise be lent, re-sold, hired
280–311 is indicated by the following initials: I
Principal partner Nicholas Thomas out or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s JA Julie Adams Voyaging and Navigation 84
Adrian Locke prior consent in any form of binding or cover other MA/NTP Michaela Appel and Oceania Redux 20
assisted by Rebecca Bray than that in which it is published and without Ngaakitai Taria Pureariki
peter brunt and nicholas thomas
a similar condition including these words being LB Lissant Bolton
imposed on a subsequent purchaser. LC Lucie Carreau
II
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Alison Clark
Heather Donoghue 1 Making Place 144

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Lyonel Grant
Anita Herle Reimagining the Ocean 42
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Architecture, the Seasons and Rituals 56 IV
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Performance and Ceremony
the British Library
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4
With thanks to the Government of New Zealand,
Design: Isambard Thomas / c o rvo Page 261: detail of cat. 169
Catalogue Entries 280
including the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
Picture research: Sara Ayad
Colour origination: DawkinsColour Front cover:
Performance and the Body 72
Trade, Wellington and the New Zealand High
Necklace, before 1909 (cat. 108). Wuvulu, michael mel
Commission, London. Special thanks to all of
Printed in Italy by Graphicom Papua New Guinea. Museum Fünf Kontinente,
those in the Tikanga Reference Group who
Munich, 09.599
provided help. Endnotes 312
Back cover:
This exhibition has been made possible by the
Lisa Reihana, in Pursuit of Venus [infected],
Select Bibliography 314
provision of insurance through the Government
Indemnity Scheme. The Royal Academy of Arts
2015–17 (detail of cat. 153). Auckland Art Gallery Photographic Acknowledgements 320
Toi o Tāmaki, gift of the Patrons of the Auckland
would like to thank HM Government for providing
Government Indemnity and the Department
Art Gallery, 2014 Lenders to the Exhibition 320
for Culture, Media and Sport and Arts Council Index 321
England for arranging the indemnity.
FOREWORD
The Royal Academy of Arts was founded four months after Captain
James Cook left Plymouth in August 1768 on the first of his
three Pacific voyages, his mission to record the transit of Venus.
Connections between Cook and the Academy, however, go beyond
a shared 250th anniversary. William Hodges ra was the official
artist on Cook’s second voyage (1772–75), John Webber ra on the
third (1776–80). Sir Joshua Reynolds pra and William Parry ra both
painted Omai of Ra‘iātea, the second Pacific Islander to visit Europe,
when he stayed in England in 1774–76.
Despite these links, this exhibition deliberately avoids showing
Oceania through European eyes. The thousands of islands scattered
across the immensity of the Pacific were traversed and settled many
centuries before the coming of Europeans, creating the rich and
varied culture that still permeates a region that encompasses more
than a third of the world’s surface. ‘Oceania’ explores the art and
culture of this vast area by examining works ranging from the historic
to the contemporary – the first exhibition of its kind in London.
Curated by Professor Nicholas Thomas (University of Cambridge)
and Dr Peter Brunt (Victoria University of Wellington), with Dr Adrian
Locke, supported by Rebecca Bray, the exhibition draws on the rich
ethnographic collections of museums in Europe and New Zealand,
and is centred on three main themes: Voyaging, Place-making
and Encounter.
Five years in the making, ‘Oceania’ has been a true partnership
between the Royal Academy and the musée du quai Branly –
Jacques Chirac in Paris, and this first collaboration has been a source
of great satisfaction. Both institutions are deeply concerned with the
promotion of dialogue among people and cultures, and the ambitious
mission of ‘Oceania’ and the numerous items on display made it the
perfect opportunity for the two museums to get closer.
The significant logistical challenges of transporting these fragile
works and installing them have been expertly overseen by Flora
Fricker and Belén Lasheras Díaz in London, and by the team from
musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac in Paris.
Many individuals and institutional lenders have helped to make
the exhibition a reality. H.E. Sir Jerry Mateparae, High Commissioner
of New Zealand to the UK, and his predecessor, H.E. Sir Lockwood
Smith, have provided great support throughout. We are indebted to
the members of the Honorary Committee whose advice and guidance
throughout have been of immense help. Numerous institutions
have lent significant objects: we would particularly like to thank
the Museum der Kulturen Basel; the Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, Cambridge; the British Museum, London; the musée
du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris; and the Nationaal Museum
van Wereldculturen, specifically the Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam; and
Museum Volkenkunde, Leiden. We would also like to acknowledge
the support of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa;
Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki; and the Auckland War Memorial
Museum Tāmaki Paenga Hira. It is particularly pleasing to thank those
contemporary artists who have agreed to participate: Mark Adams,
Taloi Havini and Stuart Miller, Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner, Yuki Kihara, the
Mata Aho Collective, Fiona Pardington, Michael Parekowhai, John
Pule and Lisa Reihana. Their work speaks of the contemporary
experience in Oceania, addressing the challenges of identity and
environmental threat but also the great natural beauty and cultural
promise of this extraordinary region. We pay tribute to the pioneering
Māori art historian Jonathan Mane-Wheoki (1943–2014) and Dr
Christine Kron (1962–2017), director of the Museum Fünf Kontinente,
Munich, who died during the making of the exhibition.
Finally, we owe immense thanks to our exhibition partners:
New Zealand, Kingdom of Tonga, Papua New Guinea, Creative New
Zealand and The Ruddock Foundation for the Arts. Without their
support this exhibition could not have been realised and for that we
are extremely grateful.
Christopher Le Brun pra
President, Royal Academy of Arts
Stéphane Martin
President, musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac
12
PARTNERS’
STATEMENTS
The diverse peoples of the Pacific are resilient
and creative. But we are now facing challenges
unprecedented in the thousands of years since settling
this vast ocean. 'Oceania' will showcase history from
the Pacific and focus international attention on this
unique part of the world.
Themes of the exhibition include journeying,
place-making and encounters. These themes are
not confined to history but are directly relevant to
contemporary challenges such as climate change,
regional security and sustainable development.
A deeper international understanding of the Pacific
– of its history and its future – is vital to these
challenges being met.
New Zealand – as a country that is part of
the Pacific region – is pleased to support the Royal
Academy’s ‘Oceania’ exhibition. Alongside this
exhibition, we will share stories from the Pacific,
showcase Pacific cultures and emphasise our
common threads of history and society.
Rt Hon Winston Peters
New Zealand Minister of Foreign Affairs
This exhibition shows the way in which a three-
thousand-year-old dynasty can rise up to challenge
the unsustainable status quo, crafting global
leadership in sustainable and resilient development
for the third millennium and beyond.
The art shown in ‘Oceania’ depicts the
immovable faith of the people of Tonga that God
created them as a nation of fearless navigators
to guard the treasures of the oceans.
The Kingdom of Tonga is proud to sponsor this
exhibition, which is a testimony to our commitment
to spreading knowledge of our cultural heritage
through art. We believe that the sustainable future
we are designing now will allow us all to flourish.
Emeline Tuita, Founder HMKT6GSI
Uili Lousi Studio
The Kingdom of Tonga
15
Papua New Guinea is the most culturally diverse
country in the world, with over 1,000 tribes and more
than 850 languages. As you view the works in this
exhibition, bear in mind that explorers were only able
to first access the vast interior of Papua New Guinea
as recently as the 1930s. The country is rich in its
cultural heritage; its artworks are designed to mark
status and beauty, to depict long-gone ancestors or
to ward off evil spirits.
'Oceania' provides an insight into the rich tapestry
of artworks that are, due to Papua New Guinea’s
diversity, different from region to region and from tribe
to tribe. 'Oceania' presents a unique opportunity to
enjoy the huge variety of traditional artworks within
Papua New Guinea and to experience its differences
and similarities with other Pacific countries, and we
hope that you will learn something new and come to
appreciate these artworks from other cultures.
Her Excellency Ms Winnie A Kiap
High Commissioner for Papua New Guinea
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Honorary Committee
Maile Andrade, Hawai’i
Arapata Hakiwai, New Zealand
Noelle M. K. Y. Kahanu, Hawai’i
Emmanuel Kasarhérou, New Caledonia
Sean Mallon, New Zealand
Jonathan Mane-Wheoki, New Zealand †
Michael Mel, Papua New Guinea
Ralph Regenvanu, Vanuatu
Faustina Rehuher-Marugg, Palau
Megan Tamati-Quennell, New Zealand
The Royal Academy of Arts and the curators of ‘Oceania’ would like to
thank the following individuals for their invaluable assistance during
the making of this exhibition and its catalogue:
Julie Adams, Wiebke Ahrndt, Michaela Appel, David Ashman,
Andrew Baker, Chris Ballard, Victoria Barlow, Samantha Beath,
Lissant Bolton, Naomi Boult, Ron Brownson, Leonie Brunt, Puawai
Cairns, Vincent Campredon, Catherine Cardiff, Lucie Carreau, Alastair
Carruthers, Inés de Castro, Jude Chambers, Ali Clark, Chanel Clarke,
Eleanor Congreve, Lynda Corey Claassen, Amy Cosgrove, Elizabeth
Cotton, Inge Damm, Charlotte Davy, Rhana Devenport, Tony Eccles,
Rick Ellis, Robert Eruera, Gaëlle Etesse, Hartwig Fischer, William
Frame, David Gaimster, Jenny Gibbs, Peter Gordon, John Gow,
Dick Grant, Lyonel Grant, Camilla Hampshire, Rachel Hand, Gil
Hanly, Jenny Harper, Samantha Harris, Anita Herle, Steven Hooper,
Matthew Hooton, Candice Hopkins, Samantha Jenkins, Esther
Jessop, Elikya Kandot, Roly Keating, Jeanette Kokott, Tāmati Kruger,
Luamanuvao Winnie Laban, Yves Le Fur, Robert Leonard, Henrietta
Lidchi, Erna Lilje, Oliver Lueb, Jill Maggs, Anne-Mette Marchen
Andersen, Geraint Martin, Judith Mayhew Jonas, Marion Melk-Koch,
Ulrich Menter, Wayne Modest, Sadat Muaiava, Garry Nicholas,
Julia Nicholson, Maia Nuku, Keone Nunes, Barbara O’Connor,
Louise Parnell, Philippe Peltier, James Pinker, Haami Piripi, Barbara
Plankensteiner, Rosalind Plimmer, Carla Purdue, Rolly Read, Gordon
Rintoul, Katie Robson, Hanahiva Rose, Florence Roth, Paul Ruddock,
Anne Salmond, Lynn Scarff, Anna Schmid, Klaus Schneider, Stijn
Schoonderwoerd, James Schuster, Ana Sciascia, Claire Sedgwick,
Mark Simmons, Chantelle Smith, Nanette Snoep, Matthew Spriggs,
Kathleen Soriano, Masahiro Sugano, Christian Sune Pedersen,
Gordon Sze, Tessa Te Mata, Tamahou Temara, Hilke Thode-Arora,
Floortje Timmerman, Anthony Turua, Laura Van Broekhoven, Wonu
Veys, Beatrice Voirol, Stephen Wainwright, Stephanie Walda-Mandel,
Michael Walling, Esme Ward, Ben Wate, Uta Werlich, Ute Werner,
Martin Wikaira, Rane Willerslev, Matariki Williams, and Anida Yoeu Ali
16
 H AWA I‘I ME X IC O
H O N O L UL U
KON A C O A S T
K E A L A K E K UA B AY
NORTH PACIFIC
M A RI A N A
ISL A NDS

M GUA M

I
YA P C M A RSH A LL ISL A NDS
R O N
PA L AU
NUK U O R O
C A ROLINE ISL A NDS
E S
I
A
T OB I I S L A ND LINE ISL A NDS

EQUATOR K IRIB AT I EQUATOR

WA I G E O I S L A ND M E L
W U V UL U
A S I A
HUMB OL D T A DMIR A LT Y I S L A ND S
W E S T PA PUA B AY
LAKE
K A IR IRU
I S L A ND
M A NU S N E
BISMARCK
S E N TA NI
RIVER SEPIK
A R C HIP E L A G O
NE W IRE L A ND
B UK A
E
A S M AT M O UN T H A G E N
K R A NK E T
I S L A ND NE W B O U G A IN V IL L E
SOLOMON ISL A NDS
N
PA PUA NE W GUINE A
B RI TA IN
S IMB O
S A N TA I S A B E L I S L A ND
S
PACIFIC OCEAN
DIB IR I I S L A ND UK I M A RQUE S A S
T R OB R I A ND NE W G E O R G I A
ARAFURA SEA
ISL A NDS
G UA DA L C A N A L
I T U VA LU

Y
S A IB A I I S L A ND S
S A N TA C RU Z
N A G IR ME R
(RE E F I S L A ND S)
TORRE S S T R A I T ISL A NDS M A K IR A
L O UI S I A DE A R C HIP E L A G O (S A N C R I S T OB A L )
A S A MOA

L
VA NUAT U UP OL U
A MB A E SOCIE T Y ISL A NDS
M A L A K UL A
FIJI T UA MOT U A RCHIPEL AGO
M O ’ORE A TA HI T I
A I T U TA K I
MOAL A

O
CORAL SEA NIUE
M AT UK U C OOK ISL A NDS
H O U A ÏL O U R A R O T ONG A
G R A NDE T E RRE NE W C A LEDONI A TONG A
AUS T R A L ISL A NDS G A MBIER ISL A NDS
RURU T U

P
M A NG A R E VA
R A‘I VAVA E
PI TC A IRN ISL A NDS

R A PA NUI
AUS T R A L I A

S Y DNE Y
B O TA N Y B AY
K A I TA I A SOUTH PACIFIC

N O R T H I S L A ND

NE W ZE A L A ND / AOT E A ROA P O V E R T Y B AY
TASMAN SEA
CAPE
N
T E R AW HI T I
W E L L ING T ON
TA S M A NI A

kilometres 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

S O U T H I S L A ND
0
miles 1,000 2,000 3,000
DU S K Y S O UND
 The nature of these encounters was, of course, fraught These globalising voyages brought the concept of ‘Oceania’

OCEANIA and volatile, and ran the gamut of scenarios: from native
refusals to engage, to extraordinary rituals of welcome and
into existence by virtue of the panoptic and synchronic views
they made possible of the region as a whole. Pacific peoples were

REDUX gifting, to eruptions of violence and killing. Some forty-five

Islanders died at the hands of Cook’s men in the course of his
three voyages and many more died from introduced diseases.
More than a dozen of his crewmen died. And Cook himself was
killed at Kealakekua Bay in Hawai‘i in 17792 – deaths that make
peter brunt and us consider the significance of those encounters from many,
nicholas thomas often incommensurable, points of view. But setting those black
holes of human death aside, the scale and ambition of Cook’s
voyages indeed brought about an unprecedented rupture in the
geographical and temporal consciousness of the world. They
‘Redux: brought back, revived’ were quickly followed by additional British and French, as well as
Oxford English Dictionary Spanish, Dutch, Russian and American, voyages. Together these
extended the territorial reach of the Western world so much that
‘Have we forgotten so much that we will not by the early nineteenth century much of Oceania (and eventually
easily find our way back to the ocean?’1
all of it) had become irreversibly entangled in commercial,
Epeli Hau‘ofa
religious, political and social relations with the peoples and
civilisations of the modern West, ‘breaking the silence of the seas
once and for all’.
3
thrust into the present of the late eighteenth century. They were
described and illustrated together between the covers of voyage
publications. Their arts and material culture were collected
and grouped as artefacts ‘from Oceania’. Pacific Islanders were
represented in theatrical spectacles and pictorial fantasies such
as the pantomime Omai, A Voyage Round the World, performed
at Covent Garden in 1785 (which included as its finale a costume
parade of the Pacific peoples encountered during Cook’s voyages,
unified in a theatrical phantasmagoria of Pax Britannica) and the
1804–05 wallpaper designed by Jean-Gabriel Charvet for Joseph
Dufour et Cie entitled Les Sauvages de la Mer Pacifique (The
Savages of the Pacific Ocean) (fig. 2).
In the early nineteenth century, the voyages of the French
explorer Jules Sébastien César Dumont d’Urville mapped
‘Oceania’ as such for the first time and divided it into regional
sub-groupings that d’Urville named ‘Melanesia’, ‘Polynesia’ and
‘Micronesia’. In his voyages D’Urville repeated and extended
the geographical scope and scientific ambition of his English

hen Captain James Cook encountered Oceanic thousands, of years. (How long exactly was an enigma at the

W peoples in the course of his three voyages to the

Pacific between 1768 and 1780, he was astonished by
their diversity and the extent of their dispersal across the Pacific
Ocean – more than one third of the earth’s surface. And he was
even more astonished by their evident links and commonalities
– similar languages, ceremonial spaces, maritime technologies,
religious practices and trading networks – for they pointed to
a history of voyaging and discovery, of human expansion and
settlement, as epic and ambitious as his own. The important
difference, of course, is that Cook ‘discovered’ territories that had
already been discovered, layered with histories and traditions of
human habitation for many generations.
Here was an Oceanic ‘civilisation’, we might say, that
had existed in parallel with, but been virtually unknown to, the
civilisations of the continental world for hundreds, perhaps
time.) Previous encounters with Pacific Islanders had been
few and fleeting, and were considered incidental to the main
objectives of Western explorers, who sought continental
landmasses like their own. In fact, ironically, it was only after
Cook finally abandoned his quest for the ‘Great Southern
Continent’ in the course of his second voyage that the full
panoply of Oceanic peoples came into view. For during that
expedition, having already met Tahitians, Māori and Aboriginal
Australians on his first voyage, Cook added the discovery of South
Island Māori as well as encounters with peoples in the Tongan
archipelago, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), the Marquesas, Fiji, Niue,
the Cook Islands, New Caledonia and Vanuatu (fig. 1). On his third
voyage he met Tasmanian Aborigines, revisited communities in
the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Tonga and New Zealand, and was the
first European to encounter Hawaiians in 1778.

Fig. 1
William Hodges ra, The
Landing at Tanna, one of the
New Hebrides, c. 1775–76.
Oil on panel, 24.1 × 45.7 cm.
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich,
London; Acc. no. BHC1905

20 21

predecessor, filling in cartographical gaps in the map of the
world, exploring the Antarctic, and visiting Island peoples
across the three main regions of Oceania. Accompanied by the
phrenologist Pierre-Marie Alexandre Dumoutier, the voyage
gathered empirical information about Islanders in the form of
dozens of head-casts of representative individuals, made on the
spot for phrenological analysis based on racial hypotheses about
their different phylogenetic origins.4 Oceania thus became, in
part, the problem of its history: where did Pacific peoples come
from; when did they settle the Pacific islands; what histories
lay behind their multiple localities and situations as Europeans
encountered them; and how were their histories to be related to
ideas about the unfolding history of Europe as it expanded into
the rest of the world? Christian missions to the ‘South Seas’ and
to ‘Melanesia’ further galvanised the coherence of Oceania in a
narrative of conversions to a universal faith. Colonisation brought
the region inexorably under European imperial rule, which,
though divided by its different territorial spheres, was united by
a common sense of its superiority and civilising mission. Under
empire, Oceania was made even more visible and known through
photographic media, print culture, museum collections, tourist
excursions, universal expositions (which brought the colonies to
imperial centres) and the migrations of Europeans into the region
by the hundreds of thousands.
What came to be categorised as ‘the arts of Oceania’ are
an important subset of this European construction of the concept.
Some 2,000 plus objects were brought to Britain by Cook’s
voyages and uncountable numbers were to follow.5 Objects
were collected in such volume, for so many different purposes,
by so many people and in such particular circumstances that
it is treacherous to generalise about this phenomenon. The
generalisations that have been made are familiar enough. They
were collected as ‘information’, as ‘travel souvenirs’, as ‘marvels’
and ‘artificial curiosities’ for private aristocratic museums. Objects
were collected as ‘idols’ and ‘savage implements’ for display in
churches and congregational museums to advertise the success
of Christian missions. They were collected as ethnographic
specimens for scientific enquiry into questions about social
evolution and cultural diffusion. In the early twentieth century
they were collected as examples of ‘primitive art’ in the non-
pejorative sense meant by cultural anthropologists and art
historians who saw art-making as universal to humanity but
conditioned by particular cultural, environmental and historical
circumstances. Oceanic art was also famously admired and
22
Fig. 2
Jean-Gabriel Charvet for
Joseph Dufour et Cie, Les
Sauvages de la Mer Pacifique
(The Savages of the Pacific
Ocean), 1804–05 (detail).
Woodblock, stencil and
hand-brushed wallpaper,
2.5 × 10.5 m.
National Gallery of Australia, Canberra
collected by European and American modernists, who used
the inspiration of its forms or (in the case of the Surrealists) its
strange otherness to make works of modern art that shattered
the dominance of the Western naturalistic tradition. In fact,
both the cultural specificity of the anthropology of art and the
acultural aestheticism of modernism contributed to this outcome
– permanently ending the notion of art as the exclusive preserve
of the civilisation of the West and opening the institutions and
discourses of art to the arts of the rest of the world.6 However,
they also left a problematic legacy in the structural division
between the ethnographic museum and the art gallery, in which
the modern history of art was a Western story, displayed in art
galleries, while the arts of Oceania (like those of Africa and the
Native Americas) were ‘primitive’, pre-modern or not-modern. If
Oceanic art was displayed in art galleries, in exhibitions such as
‘Arts of the South Seas’ at the Museum of Modern Art in New
York in 1946 and ‘The Art of the Pacific Islands’ at the National
Gallery in Washington D.C. in 1979, it was as ‘primitive art’.
Thus the avatars of both modernism and the anthropology of art
generally failed to recognise or value the modernity of Oceania’s
artistic cultures, even though this entire history of European
7
collecting, knowing and display had been about nothing but
Islander modernities.
This point is worth emphasising because it is easily
overlooked. Most of the objects in British and European
museums reflect the complex modernities of Indigenous
peoples’ encounters with the West. The objects exist in the
present – and for the present – because they were traded,
gifted, sold, surrendered, taken or otherwise transferred to
European possession over the course of the last 250 years. Those
transactions were not extraneous to the objects’ ‘real meaning’,
to be found in an idealised or strictly historicised notion of
their authentic context, before or apart from their supposedly
ruinous contact with the West; those transactions were part of
their real meaning. In many cases, they transformed Islander
realities in ways that implied, anticipated or actively embraced
relations with Europeans and European worlds – of trade, wealth,
politics, technology, literacy, religion, knowledge and art. When
the Hawaiian high chief Kalani‘ōpu‘u gave feather effigies of
23
Hawaiian deities and the feather cloak from his shoulders to
Captain Cook in 1779 (fig. 3), it was a transaction between chiefs
that aimed to formalise a future relationship between their two
polities, however that relationship was imagined from their
radically different cultural perspectives. When Liholiho, or King
Kamehameha II, took feather cloaks as gifts on a diplomatic
mission to England to meet with King George IV in 1824, he
did so to signal his participation as the head of a modern
Hawaiian state in the global politics of empire, to seek the
support of the British monarchy, and to reiterate the intent of
Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s original gifts.8 When Au‘ura, a chief from Rurutu
in central Polynesia, gave the carved figure of the ancestral
deity known as A‘a to the missionary John Williams at Ra‘iatea
in 1821, it was a sign of his people’s conversion to Christianity
and collective investment in the promises of salvation, peace,
health, literacy and the technologies of writing and the printed
word.9 Most Polynesian objects sent to Britain and Europe
in the early nineteenth century were the salvaged residue of
a revolutionary transformation across Polynesia as Islanders
converted to Christianity – a revolution led less by missionaries
than by powerful Polynesian chiefs for Polynesian purposes and
in Polynesian ways.10 When the British scientist Alfred Haddon
collected the double-faced crocodile mask (cat. 111) from the
island of Nagir in the Torres Strait in 1888, made by a man named
Gizu, it marked the beginning of a long association between
European scholars, the Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology (where Haddon worked) and Torres Strait Islanders
that continues to this day. Rather than objects salvaged from
dying cultures, the collections of anthropologists could better be
seen as the by-product of collaborations with Indigenous people
in the co-construction of cultural anthropology and modern
museology.11 When another British anthropologist, Anthony Forge,
collected and described the panel paintings and polychromatic
wood sculptures of Abelam ‘spirit houses’ in northeastern
New Guinea in the 1950s and 1960s, he was not describing the
continuation of an unbroken tradition of art forms related to
male initiation rituals, but a revival of that tradition in the face
of the interruptions of the Second World War (when Abelam
territory was occupied by Japanese soldiers), the distractions of
plantation labour and increasing encroachments of missionaries
and the Australian colonial administration – interruptions soon
to be followed by the challenges of independent nationhood.12
This is not the place to say more about such complex topics –
the simple point is that the arts of Oceania collected in museums
are, in most cases, documents of radical cultural modernities,
the histories of which continue to press the question of their
meaning today.
independent nation-states being established with the withdrawal These islands rising from wave’s edge –
blue myth brooding in orchid,
of imperial rule or the political arrangements of ‘limited
fern and banyan, fearful gods
autonomy’, ‘free association’, recognition or re-empowerment
awaiting birth from blood clot
that were otherwise re-making the ‘postcolonial’ Pacific. Wendt
into stone image and chant –
and Hau‘ofa invoked Oceania, rather, as a cosmopolitan entity, to bind their wounds, bury
animated by the social and multi-cultural energies of intra- their journey’s dead, as I
and extra-regional interactions, travel and migration, and the watched from shadow root, ready
urbanisation in its towns and cities, from Suva and Port Moresby for birth generations after….
Third, his great-grandfather, a German trader, ‘bearded with
luxuriant / dreams of copra fortune’ who ‘reaped a brood of “half-
castes” and then fled / for the last atoll and a whisky death’.
Next, his mixed-race grandfather, recalled in the
contemplation of a family photograph:
White-suited in a cane chair
the kaiser of whisky come-courting
the camera, in love with Bismarck

… to Papeete and Honolulu. Both championed the role of art and
In the decades of political decolonisation in the Pacific following
the Second World War, the concept of Oceania was reclaimed
for Pacific Islanders by a ferment of creative experimentation
across the region by Indigenous writers, artists and intellectuals.
Two landmark contributions to that discourse were a pair of
now-canonical essays: ‘Towards a New Oceania’, by the Samoan
novelist and poet Albert Wendt, published in the first issue of
Mana Review in 1976; and ‘The Ocean in Us’, by the Tongan
writer and educator Epeli Hau‘ofa, initially delivered as the
inaugural lecture of the Oceania Centre for Art and Culture at the
University of the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji, in 1997. Although
13
both addressed the region as a whole, the ‘new Oceania’
they imagined was something more or other than the new,
burdened with the failure of Europe,
The poem is structured in five sections, each an evocation of the heir to the cold crystal eye…
imagination in bringing the ‘new Oceania’ into being, and both
ancestors who have made him what he is.14 First, his ‘polynesian
called Islanders to remember their past in a very personal way: And then his mother ‘dead since [he] was twelve’, the memory of
fathers’, the first settlers of the Pacific Islands:
as ‘the ocean in us’, as Hau‘ofa put it, or ‘the dead inside us’, whom is the source of his poetic imagining, as if its images and
who escaped the sun’s wars, seeking
as Wendt put it. Such memory work pervades creative and insights were conjured or pulled from his senses and his body:
these islands by prophetic stars
historical practice in many settings across the Pacific today as the
Dead, she walks the miracle
implications of those two powerful metaphors are drawn out. emerged
of water-lily stars, more moonbeam
from the sea’s eye like turtles
For Wendt, the ‘new Oceania’ encapsulated the hope of than flesh, the sinnet of myth
scuttling to beach their eggs
a new subjectivity, liberated from the effects of colonial and I weave into my veins.
in fecund sand, smelling
neocolonial discourses that have oppressed Oceanic peoples in of the sea […] And finally, his brother, an engineer, full of promise and ambition,
the past, and continue to do so in the present. To that extent, it
Second, the missionaries ‘inside’ him: immersed in ‘a mathematical universe wired / to his computer
was a subjectivity challenged to reckon with the ways in which
fingertips’, killed in a car accident in another country:
it had been constituted and re-constituted in time – a reckoning the Sky-Piercers terrible as moonlight
car buckling in, like
Wendt undertakes in his autobiographical poem, ‘Inside Us the in black and winged ships burning
a cannibal flower, to womb
Dead’, a part of which is cited at the beginning of his essay: And with the missionaries and their ‘sermon of Light’, him in
the ineluctable supplanting of Polynesian gods. As death.
a consequence:
Throughout the poem is a sense of time as a harsh dialectic
My fathers’
between, on one hand, the visionary dreamings and ideological
gods, who had found voice
in wood, lizard, and bird nightmares from which many ‘new Oceanias’ have been made,
and, on the other, the limits of human embodiment, memory
slid
and mortality: the ‘prophetic stars’ that guided ancient Oceanic
into the dark like sleek eels
into sanctuary of bleeding cord mariners, and ‘eyes / bare of the original vision, burnt / out by
storm’; the ‘complacent fires’ and ‘the wild yam harvest safe in
but were exorcised
storehouses’ and the inevitable forgetting of ‘the reason why they
with Silver Cross harnessing
the Sun’s beauty, burning burning. pierced the muscle / of the hurricane into reef’s retina’ in the first
place; the ‘fearful gods’ of pre-colonial Polynesia that took form
And my father in the pulpit
in ‘stone image and chant’, and the ‘bloodclot’ of the bleeding
shadow bowed, slept
the new sleep, waking to men body from which they were born – as Wendt, the herald of the
of steel hide exuding ‘new Oceania’ himself was, ‘generations after they / dug the first
a phosphorescent fear, and learnt houseposts’. All these visions – the ‘sermon of Light’ that brought
to pray the litany of sin

Fig. 3
John Webber ra, Tereoboo
(Kalani‘ōpu‘u), King of
Owyhee Bringing Presents to
Captain Cook, January 1779.
Pen, wash and watercolour,
40 × 63 cm.
Bishop Museum, Honolulu

24 25

the promises of Christianity to Oceania, his great-grandfather’s
‘copra dreams’, his grandfather’s hope in the ‘Crystal ball’ of
Bismarck’s Europe and his brother’s faith in a ‘mathematical
universe wired / to his computer fingertips’ – founder on the
limits and mortality of the human body, just as they are generated
from its capacity to sense, dream and imagine.
For Hau‘ofa too, the concept of ‘the ocean in us’ has a
similar critical and creative significance. It was coined as the
title of a lecture given at the height of the Asia-Pacific economic
boom of the 1990s as a way to counter the perception of most
Pacific island states as tiny, poor and near-invisible by enlarging
their self-conception as part of a cosmopolitan region of social
and mobile peoples networked into migrant communities in many
parts of the world. Furthermore, Hau‘ofa invoked this mobility
and cosmopolitan sociality as something that has always been
characteristic of its cultures – what the French philosopher
Paul Ricoeur might have called its ‘creative nucleus’.15 In this
context, Hau‘ofa proposed the notion of an Oceanic identity
‘supplementary’ to the national, ethnic, tribal and cultural
identities that otherwise defined Pacific Islanders. It was not
proposed as a replacement for the latter: ‘Our diverse loyalties
are much too strong to be erased by a regional identity and our
diversity is necessary for the struggle against the homogenising
forces of the global juggernaut. It is even more necessary for
those of us who must focus on strengthening their ancestral
cultures against seemingly overwhelming forces, to regain their
lost sovereignty.’ However, something more was at stake in
16
Hau‘ofa’s ocean-centred identity than the politics of cooperative
regionalism or an identity ‘supplement’ for Pacific cosmopolitans.
It was a further call to the necessity of remembering Oceania’s
past – a remembering that is not a side issue to the territorial or
identity politics of decolonisation but addresses those politics in
a fundamentally different way. As Teresia Teaiwa, another Pacific
poet and intellectual, and a colleague of Hau‘ofa and Wendt,
put it:
[T]he claim of being native in an ocean is altogether
different from the claim of being native to an island.
Decolonisation projects aimed at defending territorial
borders, claiming national sovereignty and building
nation-states are not what Albert and Epeli were
envisioning or proposing … If we go to the water, the
ocean, the moana, what might decolonisation look like?17
…
Teaiwa’s question goes to the heart of the present exhibition,
which takes as its over-arching theme the ocean, the moana, the
water. Whether we are talking about lagoons, rivers, swamps,
rainforests, mountain lakes, seas or the open ocean; whether
we mean the metaphysical waterways of ancestral arrivals or
departures of the dead; or whether we are talking about the
watery underworld of Pulotu or the ‘Oceania’ invoked by Pacific
intellectuals and poets today as climate change and rising sea-
levels threaten the very existence of their island homes, there
Fig. 4
Chief’s house with roof
ornaments, Tobati, Humboldt
Bay, West Papua, 1921 or 1926.
Photograph by Paul Wirz.
Museum der Kulturen Basel
26
has always been a powerful interplay between the cultures
and artistic creations of Pacific Islanders and their lives on the
water. Water is the element that underlies the three global
epochs that have shaped Oceania’s history: the discovery and
settlement of the Pacific islands over many millennia, giving rise
to the Indigenous cultures that persist today; the encounter of
Oceanic civilisation with European civilisation, resulting in the
entanglements of empire and colonialism; and the unfinished
project of ‘decolonisation’, which defines and challenges our
present epoch.
The poetics of water have infused the ways that Islanders
have imagined and formed their places of dwelling and
belonging. The Māori name for the North Island of New Zealand
is Te Ika a Māui – the Great Fish of Māui, a pan-Polynesian
demi-god, who hauled it up from the sea. Speaking of the spirit
house (fig. 5) in his village of Kanganaman on the edge of the
Sepik River in Papua New Guinea, an unnamed Iatmul man
described its origins from the water: ‘This place “Wolimbei”,
this spirit house, it was not made by man, but came out of the
ocean. It carries the sign of the ocean. If you observe the sea, or
the pattern of the clouds, we say these are signs of the spirits.
This didn’t start in the time of my parents, or of their parents, but
Fig. 5
The dancing ground of Palimbai
village, middle Sepik River
region, Papua New Guinea, in
the flooded season, 1932. An
Iatmul men’s ceremonial house
(palambit) is visible in the
distance.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge,
P.16957.BAT
at the beginning of the world.’18 The spectacular men’s houses
on the edge of Lake Sentani and Humboldt Bay in northwestern
New Guinea, photographed by Paul Wirz in 1921 or 1926 (fig. 4),
were constructed on ornamented posts so as to appear to hover
above the lake itself, while their stepped roofs were pierced with
horizontal finials carved in the form of canoes, fast-moving sharks
and men riding emus, herons and crocodiles. The very idea of
the house as a place of identity was supplemented with images
of mobility and travel. Still visible on Grande Terre, the main
island of New Caledonia, are ancient irrigation fields some 3,000
years old that have carved the landscape into visually striking
terraces that channelled water to grow staple food crops of
taro and yam – structural symbols of Kanak society and identity
today.19 In Polynesia and Micronesia, marae spaces, temple sites
and ceremonial centres dedicated to ancestral deities are as
prevalent in the landscape as cathedrals and churches in Britain
and France – and as striking in their openness to sea and sky as
the latter are dark and enclosed. It is impossible to see the marae
complex of Taputapuātea on Ra‘iatea in the Society Islands or
the awe-inspiring ahu moai of Rapa Nui (fig. 7) or the great heiau
of the Hawaiian Islands without sensing in the horizontality of
their form, mirroring the sea, or their proximity to the ocean,
their intimate relationship not only to the particular places and
identities they defined in the landscape but to that body of water.
The arts of Oceania are equally concerned with living
on the water as the medium of relations with others: trading
partners, allies, enemies, deities, ancestors and strangers. The
main genre of this relational ethos is of course the canoe – a
ubiquitous art form throughout the Pacific adapted to different
environments and crafted to serve many different purposes, from
harvesting reefs (fig. 8) and rivers to warfare, archipelagic trade
and ocean exploration. The crew of the Dutch ship Eendracht
was stunned to encounter a large double-hulled Tongan
voyaging canoe called a tongiaki, unlike anything they had ever
seen before, plying the trade and tribute routes of western
Polynesia in 1616. The Ra‘iatean priest and navigator Tupaia,
who accompanied Cook on his first voyage from Tahiti southward
in search of the fabled ‘Great Southern Continent’, astonished
the Captain and Joseph Banks with his navigational knowledge
and mental map, transcribed into charts and drawings, of
an enormous geography of named islands stretching across
the central Pacific (fig. 19). Tupaia’s role on Cook’s voyage as
interpreter and cultural go-between, managing the protocols
of a momentous encounter with Māori in Tūranganui-a-Kiwa
or ‘Poverty Bay’ in 1769, some three or four hundred years after
eastern Polynesians had settled the area, and his willingness
to befriend the European strangers and sail with them on their
return to England, far beyond the ‘world’ he knew, attest to
the intellectual curiosity of Islanders and their conception of
the ocean as their medium of engagement with others. They
mastered, managed and acculturated the ocean, the water; made
it semiotically legible as an extension of their sense of place.
Marshall Islanders created weather charms (cats 25, 26) to aid
navigators at sea and made ‘stick charts’ as teaching aids and
mnemonic devices for remembering the patterns of sea currents
and ocean swells in relation to the location of islands within
an archipelago (fig. 6). Islanders’ maritime arts are replete with
images and narratives of natural and supernatural creatures, from
frigate birds to crocodiles, whose powers are harnessed to their
purposes. They populate the water – creeks, rivers, estuaries,
seas and oceans – with protective guardians and spirits, such as
the multiple stories of taniwha that underlie the contemporary
textile work entitled Kiko Moana (blue water), by the Māori
women’s collective Mata Aho (cat. 1).
However, the water is also a metaphor for and an element
of grief and loss. It is the graveyard of voyagers who never
returned, of navigators who lost their way. It is the element that
separated people from their homes or origins elsewhere, and a
metaphor for the inevitable forgetting of who they were in the
transformation of becoming who they are as a new people in a
new time and a new place. Thus the water is also a figure for the
ultimate contingency of being or identity in Oceania, translated
into mythical places of origin, return and completeness – like
Hawaiki among Polynesians or Safan among the Asmat. But the
water is also a metaphor for a more radical loss of place. When
the women of Ngati Hinganga, a Māori sub-tribe, were alienated
from their land, sold to the colonial government after the land
wars of the 1860s, they sang their laments by incanting its place
names (and the memories they no doubt carried) as if they were
being cast, one by one, into the sea –
Go my lands go to
the sea go
Taramarama
go Waiau go
Ruakituri go
Tukurangi go.20
– as if they were performing Māui’s foundational act in reverse.
The Marshall Islander Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner expresses the same
sense of existential threat today in her recorded poem ‘Tell Them’
(cat. 2). A descendant of navigators who settled her island home
in the central Pacific some two millennia ago, she describes the
sea surges that now splash across its roads and houses as a
consequence of rising sea levels and climate change – a plight
faced by dozens of Pacific Island communities today from the
archipelagos of Tuvalu and Fiji to the atolls of Kiribati and the
Marshall Islands, who are forced to contemplate and even plan
for their inevitable relocation. Jetñil-Kijiner’s message to the
powerful, industrialised nations of the continental world, whose
unchecked growth and culture of rampant consumption over the
last 250 years has been the primary cause of global warming,
is simple: ‘Tell them … we don’t want to leave.’ The pathos of
Jetñil-Kijiner’s poem and the Ngati Hinganga song of lament is
their echo of some of the patterns of migration and settlement
that brought Oceanic civilisation into existence.
Its making began, we might say, with the first water-
crossings made some 60,000 years ago when early humans,
exploring the limits of the continental world, traversed two
narrow sea passages on (probably) makeshift rafts. The first
passage separated the south Asian landmass known as Sunda
from another to the east known as Sahul, comprising Australia,
Tasmania and New Guinea before their separation at the end
of the last ice age. The second was the short distance that
separated Sahul from the island of New Britain to the north,
where evidence of human settlement dates to some 30,000
to 35,000 years ago. If Sahul gave rise to the desert-based
cultures of Australia and the primarily mountain-dwelling
cultures of New Guinea and New Britain at the time (fig. 9),
the making of specifically Oceanic cultures might be said to
have originated in the environmental changes brought about by
melting ice caps and rising sea levels about 10,000 years ago;
that is to say, in the deltas, swamplands, rivers, lakes and seas
that dramatically altered the geography of Sahul to produce
the coastlines and internal landscapes of present-day New
Guinea and its neighbouring archipelagos: New Britain, New
Ireland, the Admiralty Islands, the Torres Strait Islands and the
western Solomons – a region archaeologists call ‘near Oceania’
to distinguish it from the vast ocean of uninhabited islands to
the east.21

Fig. 6 Fig. 7
Diagram relating a navigation The sacred site of Ahu
stick chart (cat. 28) to Tongariki, Rapa Nui, 2006.
conventional cartography, by
Courtesy of the photographer
Augustin Krämer and Hans
Nevermann. The diagram
shows sailing instructions from
Djalit – dotted lines indicate
direction and strength of sea
swells. Ralik-Ratak, Marshall
Islands. From Results of the
South Sea Expedition,
1908–1910, Hamburg, 1938,
vol. 11., fig. 66.
University of Cambridge

28 29
 Then, beginning about 5,000 years ago, a second group
of seafaring people, who had developed sophisticated sailing
technologies and voyaging strategies, expanded in various
directions eastward from coastal China and Taiwan as well as
from Southeast Asia. Identified linguistically as Austronesian
language speakers, some groups ventured northeastward
towards Palau and the Marianas at the western end of the
Micronesian chain; others moved southward through the
Philippines and Indonesian islands; and others travelled eastward
from Southeast Asia. Eventually, by about 3,500 years ago,
they moved into New Guinea and its surrounding archipelagos,
settling in coastal areas and mixing with pre-existing populations.
But they did not stop there. In an unprecedented feat of
maritime exploration, they continued eastward beyond the
intervisible islands of ‘near Oceania’ into open ocean, discovering
and settling the archipelagos of Island Melanesia, western
Polynesia, and, from about 2,000 years ago, the multitude of
islands constituting central Polynesia, the rest of Micronesia,
and the outer reaches of the Polynesian triangle: the Hawaiian
archipelago in the north; Rapa Nui in the southeast; and the
islands of Aotearoa New Zealand in the southwest – the last
island group to be settled, some time between ad 1150 and
1450.22
In the longue durée of its making, Oceanic civilisation
developed as an extraordinary proliferation of differences, of
unique social imaginings and inventions – and reinventions –
of peoplehood over time. At the core of their making was the
experience of exodus, as voyagers and migrants, for whatever
reasons – food scarcity, war, overpopulation, social oppression,
or the spirit of adventure – left one island homeland for another
elsewhere. People moved within the complex environment
of a single island such as New Guinea or New Britain, made
sea-crossings in scattered archipelagos or even more ambitious
voyages to distant islands like Rapa Nui and Te Ika a Māui and Te
Wai Pounamu, the Māori names for the two main islands of New
Zealand. It was an era in which the ocean must have seemed
an almost endless horizon of possibility, of new islands and
archipelagos to discover and settle, until every habitable island
had been settled, at the threshold of Western expansion from
the north. In this era, the water was also time. It represented the
past, memory, places of origin and return. To cite the Iatmul man
again, referring to his ‘spirit house’ and village, ‘this didn’t start
in the time of my parents, or of their parents, but at the beginning
of the world’. The ocean was also the future. And this sense of
temporality was conceived locally, as a dimension of corporate
being expressed materially in a house or an ancestor figure,
meaning literally thousands of temporalities heterogeneous to
one another. The history of their encounters with the modernity
of the West was not a fatal collective clash but a multiplicity
of struggles to inhabit the ‘homogeneous empty time’ of 23
the modern world and remain rooted in their own particular
temporalities and identities.
… a storm, while its eyes are fixed on the past, which it sees as an
At the Edinburgh International Festival in 2010, the renowned
performance company known as MAU, founded by the Samoan
director and choreographer Lemi Ponifasio, staged a production
entitled Tempest: Without a Body. The tempest referred to was
Fig. 8
Shark fisherman’s canoe, Aua,
Bismarck Archipelago, Papua
New Guinea, 1921. Photograph
by George Lane Fox Pitt-Rivers.
Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford
not Shakespeare’s classic play but the storm invoked by Walter
Benjamin in his famous essay ‘Theses on the Philosophy of
History’, written during the ‘state of emergency’ that was fascist
Europe in 1940. Benjamin remembers the figure of an angel –
which he calls ‘the angel of history’ – from a painting by Paul
Klee. This angel is being blown backwards towards the future by
ever-growing pile of ‘wreckage upon wreckage’. The angel would
like to stay and reassemble the ruin, but the storm of history
makes this impossible.24
How then to stage an exhibition on Oceania, whose
‘cultural treasures’ from British, European and New Zealand
museums are indeed displaced fragments of a tumultuous,
revolutionary and often violent encounter between the
civilisations of the modern West and those of the Pacific Islands?
Perhaps the first requirement is simply to acknowledge the
‘storm’ of imperial expansion and colonial modernity that has
shaped that history and underlies the present exhibition as its
condition of possibility, and that continues in ‘post-colonial’
and ‘neo-colonial’ forms in the present. Previous exhibitions of
Oceanic art have typically been organised by regional divisions
of Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia, and further subdivided
Fig. 9
A village above a gorge in the
Wahgi Valley, Western
Highlands, Papua New Guinea,
early 1930s. Photograph by
Michael J. Leahy.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge,
P.2566.ACH1
into specific cultural areas or island groups with representative
works from each. Since the groundbreaking exhibition ‘Te Māori’
at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in 1984, many
exhibitions have focused on specific cultures, linking museum
collections to living groups, and expanding our appreciation and
understanding of them in richly contextualised and illuminating
ways. In ‘Oceania’, however, we have chosen to ‘go to the water’
and construct an exhibition organised around the resonances
of three overlapping themes: voyaging, making places and
encounter. We have chosen this framework not to ignore the
historicity or cultural specificity of particular works, but because
these themes convey the interconnections and relationships
between Pacific cultures, and reverberate with uncanny power
through their history. Rather than restore isolated fragments to
their authentic culture and context, an endeavour better served
by ethnographic and historical scholarship, we use them as an
aide-mémoire to evoke in the viewer another kind of historical
memory, one in fact closer to the anamnesis that works of
Oceanic art were designed to effect in the first place.
Works from the past reach into the present, like the carving
(cat. 4) discovered near Kaitaia in northern New Zealand in 1920,
which dates to the first settlement period of the region some six
hundred years ago (ad 1200–1400), and is now a sacred taonga
and symbol of Te Rarawa and Te Tai Tokerau; or the Samoan ‘ie
tōga or fine mat known as Le Ageagea o Tumua (cat. 101), in the
possession of the Tamasese family for several generations, whose
legendary story and values of forgiveness and reconciliation find
new relevance in formalising a post-colonial friendship between
two countries.
Conversely, contemporary art reaches into the past. Lisa
Reihana’s digital panorama in Pursuit of Venus [infected] (fig. 11,
cat. 153), based on Jean-Gabriel Charvet’s 1806 wallpaper design,
mines the archives of libraries and museums and employs living
Islanders to re-stage Charvet’s depiction of the epic encounter of
Cook’s voyages with the cultures of the Pacific, restoring history
to fiction and imagination to ethnography. If Charvet spatialised
the Pacific in the pictorial format of twenty wallpaper drops
joined side to side, Reihana uses the digitisation of the image
and the format of the screen as media capable of communicating
31
 an Indigenous revisioning of that encounter as the meeting
of two civilisations. Fiona Pardington’s portrait photographs
of Dumoutier’s cast heads of Islanders met during d’Urville’s
1837–40 expedition also pursue an ‘archival impulse’.25 Based
on plaster head casts in museum collections, her portraits
effectively redeem the humanity of their individual subjects
from the operations of a discredited science and through the
lens of a camera (cats 154–158). The title of the series is ‘The
Pressure of Sunlight Falling‘, an allusion to the sensitivity of each
individual to the sun on their skin before the mould had shut out
all light.26 Pardington’s empathetic portraits transform the cast
heads into ancestral presences in a way that resonates with
the deep humanity that underlies the many arts of memory and
memorialisation of the dead in Oceania. ‘Work for the dead’ is a
phrase, for example, used to describe the purpose of New Ireland
malangans – both a sculptural and funerary tradition in which
technological and iconographic feats of creation are employed to
make substitute figures to commemorate the recently deceased.
The sculptures are revealed for a brief time at the appropriate
ritual moment to be burned into the memory, after which they
are discarded or sold to Western collectors.27 Malangans, korwar
figures from the Cenderawasih Bay region of West Papua,
Asmat ‘soul canoes’, rambaramp effigies from south Malekula in
Vanuatu, Rapa Nui moai, Māori poupou and wharenui, among
other artistic traditions, were and are made in memory of real
people and indicate the deep veneration for ancestors that exists
in Oceanic cultures. Pardington’s photographs recover something
of that reverence. Indeed, based as they are on modern
encounters between Europeans and Islanders, they bring us face
to face with our ancestors as forebears of the global, scientific
and multi-cultural world that produced them. Echoes between
past and present also resound in John Pule’s painting Kehe tau
hauaga foou (To all new arrivals) (cat. 169), which represents
the ‘tempest’ of colonial and neo-colonial modernity across ten
metres of canvas. Populated with graphic vignettes of fragments
of god figures, mythological creatures and other ‘cultural
treasures’ in the process of being transported from one place
to another, the painting is an apocalyptic vision of the struggle
of migrants, refugees and exiles in the contemporary world. In
Fig. 10
Tame Iti in TEMPEST:
Without A Body by
Lemi Ponifasio, 2010.
MAU, Auckland
32
that respect it also recalls us to the water as the memory space
of broken fragments, part objects and half-remembered symbols
and signs from which the task of re-making places and identities
must begin.
Oceanic civilisation has been built over thousands of
years from the repetition of this primal task. The strength of its
resistance to colonisation and displacement comes from this
history. In TEMPEST: Without a Body, the Māori artist and activist
Tame Iti delivered a speech directly to the audience assembled
in the Edinburgh Playhouse (fig. 10). Addressed to the Queen of
England, spoken entirely in Māori, and punctuated with formal
gestures and faces, the speech was an assertion of Te Mana
Motuhake o Tūhoe – the right of Tūhoe, a tribal confederation in
the Urewera Mountains, to its ancestral land and culture.
Tūhoe gives me my sovereignty, the right to determine
my own destiny. I am standing before all, a descendant
of Tūhoe. Tūhoe is my dominion that keeps chaos at bay.
It is what connects me to myself.
Our great ancestors carried the desires and dreams of
Tūhoe, symbolising the Tūhoe presence. They held the
mauri, the internal drive, the courage to hold fast to their
dreams and their way of life. Te Urewera, our territory,
is our marae, and every person is responsible for his or
her marae. You situate yourself where your strength is,
beside your ancestral house. This is your genealogy, your
skeleton, and your backbone as you look across your
marae; your customs and traditions become the rules
of behaviour, the code of conduct within designated
grounds.28
Despite how it might appear, Iti’s speech was not the
simple expression of a primordial, timeless worldview in denial
of the changes wreaked upon his tribe by its encounter with
the modern world. On the contrary, the speech was born of
that encounter. Its affirmations are made from the experience
of Tūhoe’s profound engagement with modernity, which has
included such radical transformations as the adoption of Judeo-
Christianity (and biblical prophecy to explain its new situation in
the world, its multiple clashes and accommodations with empire
and colonial governments in the struggle to defend its land, its
33
acceptance of parliamentary democracy and the rule of law and
the reinvention of those ancestral houses, customs and traditions
he mentions. Comparable assertions have been made about the
distinctiveness of their own places and histories by ni-Vanuatu,
Hawaiians, Solomon Islanders, I-Kiribati, West Papuans and many
more.
The political leader Jean-Marie Tjibaou, for example, at
the height of Kanak independence struggles in the late 1970s,
explained to his friend James Clifford his deeply held belief ‘that
a continuous relation with place – its ancestors, history and
ecology – was necessary if Kanak people were to feel à l’aise, if
they were to find breathing room in the contemporary world’.29
As their conversation continued, it shifted to the immediate
landscape of Hienghène, Tjibaou’s home in the north of Grande
Terre, where ‘every cliff and stone hold[s] ancestral significance’,
and Clifford’s puzzlement at the apparent incongruity between
the setting of the villages in the valley ‘with symbolic trees,
palms, and special plants laid out in a very beautiful, orderly way,’
and the ‘concrete structures that seemed empty with perhaps a
few newspaper clippings stuck haphazardly on the walls’. They
discussed the matter, ‘agreeing that here, after all, people don’t
spend a lot of time indoors’.
Then suddenly my guide made a sweep with his hand
that took in the village, the valley, and the mountains:
‘Mais, c’est ca la maison.’ But that’s the house.
Reflecting on Tjibaou’s gesture more than two decades later,
Clifford acknowledged the deep sense it articulated of being
centred in a village or a valley, but wondered if it did not take in
‘even more’:
But didn’t he also embrace the Pacific sea of islands
– a wider world of cultural exchanges and alliances
that were always critical for Tjibaou’s thinking about
independence and interdependence? And neo-colonial
France – whose religion and civilisation for better or
worse, still contribute to the Kanak house? And … in a
new indigenous articulation, the world?30
Can the many ‘houses’ of Indigenous identity in the Pacific
‘breathe easy’ in localities beyond their specific tribal places?
Can they ‘embrace the Pacific sea of islands’, the ‘neo-colonial’
civilisations of the continental North and ‘the world’ – or were
Clifford and Tjibaou being naïvely optimistic? What would a
decolonisation making that possible look like? Can the ‘wider
world of cultural exchanges’ in what has been called the ‘global
cultural ecumene’31 include the strange rituals of exhibition-
making in places like the Royal Academy of Arts and the musée
du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac – the two venues of ‘Oceania’?
What kind of ‘houses’ are these? What forms of dwelling and
belonging do they enable? These questions might take us back
to Pule’s painting, whose apocalyptic vision of displaced cultural
treasures is not unlike the precarious freighting of works of art in
the week or two before, between and after the staging of major
exhibitions as, one by one, each cultural treasure is transported
by truck, aeroplane, train and cargo ship across roads, seas and
countries, carefully tended by teams of packers, conservators,
curators and art handlers in the midst of a world in a state of
social, political and ecological turmoil. This traffic does not
typically pass through the Ureweras or the valleys of Hienghène
or the atolls of Kiribati and the Marshall Islands, but between
what the Abelam once called ‘the spirit houses of the Whites’.32
Can those institutions, which are indeed caretakers in trust of the
cultural treasures they hold, decolonise themselves, and what
would that decolonisation look like? Can they go to the ocean,
the moana, the water?
Fig. 11
Lisa Reihana, in Pursuit of
Venus [infected], 2015–17
(details). Single-channel video,
UltraHD, colour, 7.1 sound,
64 minutes (cat. 153).
Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, gift of
the Patrons of the Auckland Art Gallery,
2014
34 35

MARK ADAMS
‘COOK’S SITES‘
In his photographic series ‘Cook’s Sites’, the New Zealand
photographer Mark Adams has recorded sites that are
intrinsically linked with Captain Cook’s voyages to Oceania in
the eighteenth century, and some of the first encounters
between Pacific Islanders and the West. Many of his
photographs allude to paintings by the artists of Cook’s
voyages, such as William Hodges’s views of Vaitepiha Bay in
Tahiti and John Webber’s portrayals of the death of Captain
Cook in Kealakekua Bay, Hawai’i. Some of Adams's
photographs are disarmingly ordinary, others hauntingly
beautiful, but all are charged with the freight of history.
Fig. 12 28.8.2003. Point Venus and Mo‘orea
from Matavai Bay, Tahiti
Cook’s first voyage set out to observe the transit of Venus
across the face of the Sun from Tahiti, recently ‘discovered’ in
1767. Simultaneous observations in other parts of the world,
carried out in a remarkable act of European cooperation, would
enable the calculation of the distance between the Earth and
the Sun, with significant implications for navigation. Cook
accomplished his task on 3 June 1769 at a place now known as
Point Venus. Adams’s two photographs are taken from a
vantage point in Matavai Bay. Point Venus is on the left and the
island of Mo‘orea on the right.
36
Fig. 13 18.8.2003. Kurnell, Botany Bay.
Cook’s landing site, Australia
The Endeavour made its first landfall in Australia at a place Cook
called Botany Bay, named for the amount of time spent there
documenting botanical specimens. The landing is commemorat-
ed with an obelisk in what is now a national park in the Sydney
suburb of Kurnell. The voyagers encountered Gweagal people
there but they were reluctant to engage, defensive when
approached, and unwilling even to take gifts.
Fig. 14 26.8.2003. After William Hodges’s A View Taken in the
Bay of Oaite Peha, Otaheite, 1776. Vaitepiha Bay, Tahiti-iti
During his second voyage, Cook visited Tahiti twice: in August
1773, where he first anchored in Vaitepiha Bay in Tahiti-iti (a
peninsula of Tahiti) and again in April 1774. The bay was the
subject of a famous painting by William Hodges depicting Tahitian
women bathing in an estuary against a backdrop of majestic
peaks, with a carved ti‘i figure in the foreground.
Fig. 15 8.4.2002. At Hikiau heiau. View towards Kaawaloa and
Cook Memorial. Kealakekua Bay, Hawai‘i
Adams’s diptych of Kealakekua Bay at dusk looks from Hikiau
heiau towards Kaawaloa on the bay’s far side where Captain Cook
was killed in a skirmish on February 14, 1779. The photographer’s
point of view puts us as viewers in Hawaiian cultural space, at the
heiau. On the far shore, a British obelisk memorialising Cook is just
visible, but reduced to a tiny, pale sliver. The diptych thus alludes
to the different cultural memories that surround the events at
Kealakekua Bay, but it also seems to attribute memory to the bay
itself, a witness of history.
Fig. 16 17.5.1995. After William Hodges’s A View in Pickersgill
Harbour, 1773. Tamatea-Dusky Sound, New Zealand
After three months in Antarctic waters searching for the ‘Great
Southern Continent’, the Resolution entered Dusky Sound at the
southwestern tip of New Zealand’s South Island in late March
1773. The ship anchored in Pickersgill Harbour, named after one of
the ship’s officers. Adams’s triptych pays homage to a painting by
Hodges that depicts an observation camp in a cleared section of
the forest, viewed from the side of the ship. In the course of their
sojourn in Dusky Sound, the voyagers encountered a Māori
‘family’ (although its precise nature as such was never clear) with
whom they established friendly relations before the ‘family’ moved
on. Māori call Dusky Sound 'Tamatea' and the South Island 'Te Wai
Pounamu'. The names of the ‘family’ are lost but their tribal
identity is Ngāti Māmoe. Several voyagers remarked on the
extraordinary beauty of the Sound, which Adams has captured as
well. In his triptych, however, it is suffused with the memory of
that fleeting but foundational encounter between Māori and
European.
38
overleaf
Fig. 17 11.4.2002. Cook Memorial at Kaawaloa from Hikiau heiau,
Kealakekua Bay, Hawai‘i
Two cultural monuments at Kealakekua Bay – a Hawaiian heiau
called Hikiau and an obelisk erected by Britishers in the 1870s on
its far shore – commemorate events that occurred there in
January and February 1779. On the day of his landing, Cook was
escorted onto the heiau by a Hawaiian priest and participated in
religious ceremonies associated with the god Lono. A few days
later, in an observatory tent adjacent to the heiau, the paramount
chief Kalaniōpu‘u exchanged names with Cook and gave him his
feather cloak and helmet as gifts of friendship. For almost three
39
weeks, Hikiau and the Resolution and Discovery anchored in the
bay were centres of interactions and exchanges between the
voyagers and Hawaiian priests and chiefs. When the voyagers
were forced to return after their departure, however (they needed
to repair a broken mast), the mood was different. After a cutter
was stolen, Cook attempted to take Kalaniōpu'u hostage to ensure
its return, but the plan erupted in violence on the beach at
Kaawaloa across the bay, resulting in the death of Cook and
several Hawaiians.
40 41
 Tupaia, the ‘arioi star navigator who joined the Endeavour different sets of islands of departure and arrival around Tahiti.3

1 in 1769, piloting Captain James Cook and his companions

through the Society Islands, had trained as a high priest at ‘Oro’s
headquarters in Ra‘iatea. Although Tupaia guided the ship to
When island navigators set sail from a particular island, they
knew the tides, currents and winds, the flight paths of birds,
and the bearings to different islands of arrival, along with the

REIMAGINING this great voyaging marae, Taputapuātea (figs 20, 21), hoping
that the Endeavour’s men would help him to free his home island
from enemy warriors (fig. 18), Cook had orders to search for Terra
sequences of stars (or ‘star paths’) that rose and set on the
horizon on those bearings. All of this was taught in the navigation
schools, along with the chants that summoned up various wind

THE OCEAN Australis Incognita (the Unknown Southern Continent), and

headed south instead.
During the journey to New Zealand, Tupaia dictated lists
of the islands around Tahiti to Cook and Robert Molyneux,
and drafted a remarkable chart of the Pacific, trying to explain
his oceanic world to his fellow navigators (fig. 19). They were
anne salmond at cross-purposes, however. While Cook, a leading European
hydrographer, used instrumental measurements to fix the islands
in Cartesian space, gridded by latitude and longitude, Tupaia
was placing the islands in Polynesian space-time, with star, wind
and human ancestors linked with particular people and places in
expansive, dynamic kin networks.
As Di Piazza and Pearthree and Schwarz and Eckstein
have shown, Tupaia’s ‘chart’ reveals a relational universe. It is
based on arrays of bearings (and sometimes distances) between
and star ancestors to guide them on their voyages.
Tupaia’s knowledge of the sea was based on his own
experience in ‘arioi expeditions, and the observations of his
voyaging forebears. The ancestors of Polynesians had invented
blue water sailing, crossing almost a third of the earth’s surface
from west to east to reach Hawai‘i, Easter Island and New
Zealand before the first Europeans arrived in the Pacific. As
Captain Cook noted, prefiguring contemporary findings about
Polynesian voyaging:
In these Pahees [voyaging canoes] as they call them…
these people sail in those seas from Island to Island for
several hundred Leagues, the Sun serving them for a
compass by day and the Moon and Stars by night. When
this comes to be prov’d we Shall no longer be at a loss
to know how the Islands lying in those Seas came to be

[They] advanced towards the land, with their streamers

n the Society Islands in ancestral times, the Pacific Ocean was

I a marae, a sacred space.1 Ruling families built their own marae

(ceremonial centres) beside the sea, near a point or where a
river ran through the reef. After a burial, childbirth or installing
a paramount chief, people plunged into the ocean to cleanse
themselves. At the opening of the fishing season, they sat and
fasted in silence, while a single canoe went out to sea. The
first catch was presented to the ancestors at the marae and the
second to the high chiefs, before the people were allowed to eat.
When the ’arioi, devotees of ’Oro, the god of fertility and
war, travelled around the islands, they decked themselves with
flowers and feathers. If they came to entertain the locals, the
flotilla was greeted with joy and laughter:
floating in the wind, their drums and flutes sounding, and
the Areois, attended by their chief, who acted as their
prompter, appeared on a stage erected for the purpose,
with their wild distortions of person, antic gestures,
painted bodies, and vociferated songs, mingling with the
sound of the drum and the flute, the dashing of the sea,
and the rolling and breaking of the surf … the whole …
presented a ludicrous imposing spectacle.2
When they gathered to honour ‘Oro, however, the
atmosphere was sombre and frightening. ‘Arioi canoes, paddled
by naked men, carried the priests and images of the gods. Sacred
drums and shell trumpets lay under the platforms in the bows,
and pairs of dead men and fish (with sharks and turtles) were
placed on the stages as offerings for the god.

Fig. 18 opposite Fig. 19 overleaf

William Hodges ra, Review of
the War Galleys at Tahiti
(‘The Fleet of Otaheite
assembled at Oparee‘), 1776.
Oil on panel, 24 × 46.5 cm.
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich,
London; Acc. no. BHC2395
After Tupaia, ‘Chart of the
Society Islands, with Otaheite
[Tahiti] in the centre‘, from
Charts and Maps made during
the Voyage of Discovery in the
South Pacific Ocean, by Captain
James Cook, commander of the
Endeavour, in 1769 and 1770,
July – August 1769.
British Library, London; Add. 21593

42 43

Fig. 20
Sydney Parkinson, A Marai
(Marae) with an Offering
to the Dead, July 1769,
watercolour, 23.8 × 37 cm.
This is probably the great
Taputapuātea marae at Opea,
on the southeast coast of
Ra‘iatea, Society Islands.
British Library, London
46
people’d, for if the inhabitants of Uleitea [Ra‘iatea] have
been at Islands laying 2 or 300 Leagues to the westward
of them it cannot be doubted but that the inhabitants of
those western Islands may have been at others as far to
westward of them and so we may trace them from Island
to Island quite to the East Indias.4
In the Pacific, European explorers like James Cook
described an array of fast, flexible vessels that often out-
sailed their own ships (fig. 22). However, while research into
Micronesian and Polynesian voyaging has focused on the
design and efficiency of hulls, outriggers and sails, and Islanders’
knowledge of astronomy, ocean currents, winds, and the
movements of birds and whales, this hides radical divergences
between European and Pacific ideas of the ocean.
At the beginning of the world, according to Tahitian
cosmological chants, the ancestors sailed their star canoes
across the heavens, discovering constellations of star islands.
The ocean on earth was mirrored by the sea in the sky. When the
land emerged, with mountains, capes and marae, the kings of the
chiefs of the earth and the kings of the skies were created, each
with their own star, whose names were given to their marae.
After the creator god Ta’aroa turned his own body into the
first canoe,6 his voyaging descendants – Māui, Rata, Hiro and
other ancestors – sailed across the sea, hauling up archipelagos
of islands.7 When a star navigator sailed his canoe at night, he
was following the sky voyages of his star ancestors. Beneath his
feet, Ta’aroa’s spine – the hull of the canoe – carved through
Fig. 21
The grand ahu (altar) of
Taputapuātea marae, Ra‘iatea,
Society Islands, 2006.
Courtesy of the photographer
the waves. The sea was Ta’aroa’s marae, inhabited by his
descendants – fish, whales, sharks, birds and people.8
Today, star navigators are still sailing their voyaging canoes
across the Pacific from Yap to Hawai‘i to Easter Island and New
Zealand, and many share this same sense of travelling with their
ancestors (fig. 24). Marianne George, an anthropologist who
sailed with Te Aliki Kaloso Kaveia, the leading navigator from
Taumako, one of the Polynesian outliers, for example, was told
that the sail on their canoe, Te La o Lata, embodied the ancestor
Lata (or Rata in Tahiti and New Zealand), his arms reaching up to
catch the wind, which was held in the belly of the sail.9 During a
journey Kaveia became his ancestor, drawing on Lata’s mana to
power the craft.
In the same way, when Tupaia accompanied Captain Cook
onboard the Endeavour, this became an ‘arioi expedition. When
they made landfall at Tūranga-nui-a-Kiwa (Gisborne) – the first
European ship to arrive in the North Island of New Zealand – the
local people thought that the Endeavour was a floating island,
driven by ancestral power, or a great bird that had arrived from
Hawaiki, the homeland. When he went ashore, Tupaia told the
5
local people that they had sailed from Ra‘iatea (also known as
Havai‘i), an ancestral homeland of Māori.
As they sailed out of ‘Poverty Bay’, as Cook called it, a
canoe chased the ship, inviting them to return. During this
encounter, a set of splendid carved paddles painted with scarlet
spirals was presented to the visitors (cats 16, 17). Further north
along the east coast, an imposing, heavily tattooed high chief
47
came out to meet them, curious to meet the high priest from
Taputapuātea and his strange companions, and guided the ship
to Uawa (Tolaga Bay).
At Uawa, Tupaia slept ashore in a cave and talked with the
priests from Te Rawheoro, a school of learning that specialised
in carving and canoe building, as well as in genealogies and
other ancestral knowledge. He sketched Joseph Banks, the
wealthy young leader of the Royal Society party of scientists and
artists, exchanging barkcloth for a large crayfish with a local man
(fig. 23), while Sydney Parkinson and Herman Spöring, the ship’s
artists, drew carved canoe prows and sternposts (fig. 25).
Over the next six months as the Endeavour sailed around
New Zealand, Tupaia talked with the crews of the canoes that
came out to challenge the strangers, gathering geographical
and other knowledge. In the eastern Bay of Plenty, where a
large canoe carrying sixty warriors confronted the ship, a priest
recited incantations as the crew performed a war dance. They
cried out, ‘Come to land and we will kill you,’ paddling at high
speed to attack the Endeavour and stopping only when a volley of
grapeshot was fired beside their canoe.
Off the tip of the Coromandel Peninsula, where warriors in
two large carved canoes threw stones at the side of the vessel,
Tupaia warned them to stop, or they would be killed. According to
Joseph Banks:

They answerd him in their usual cant ‘come ashore only

and we will kill you all.’ Well, said Tupia, but while we
are at sea you have no manner of Business with us, the
Sea is our property as much as yours.10

It must have been Joseph Banks, however – Tupaia’s

translator – and not Tupaia himself who introduced the idea of
the ocean as ‘property’ into these exchanges. As in New Zealand,
in Tahiti the sea was understood as a sacred site, a great marae,
and islands as fish drawn up out of the ocean. Some sacred
islands were thought to be capable of swimming from one place
to another, and there was no idea that human beings could ‘own’
the sea.11

Fig. 22
A boy standing on the bow
(avāro) of a double outrigger
canoe (mōtomōto) holding a
harpoon (wāpo), Mawatta,
Papua New Guinea, 1910–12.
Photograph possibly by Gunnar
Landtman.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge;
P.59636.ACH2
 At this time in Europe, on the other hand, it was held
that nation-states held imperium or sovereignty over territorial
waters three miles out from their coasts, and the right to grant
dominium or property rights within this zone, although this was
rarely exercised. The ‘high seas’, that part of the ocean which
fell outside territorial waters, was regarded as mare liberum, an
expanse free for the ships of all nations to navigate.12
In their charts, Cook and his men abstracted and gridded
the Pacific, transforming the sea into a mare nullius, a vast
empty space waiting to be ‘discovered’, explored and claimed
by European nations.13 From a vantage-point in Europe, on the
opposite side of the globe, the Pacific Ocean seemed remote and
empty, its islands small and insignificant. As the Tongan scholar
Epeli Hau‘ofa has pointed out, this shift in perspective was
profound:
It was continental men, Europeans and Americans, who
drew imaginary lines across the sea, making the colonial
boundaries that, for the first time, confined ocean people
to tiny spaces.14
If a naval vessel from a European state was the first to
‘discover’ an island in the Pacific, its commander (in this case,
James Cook) was entitled to go ashore and raise a flag to claim
it for his monarch – although according to some authorities
in international law, he had to gain the consent of the local
inhabitants before claiming sovereignty over the land. In this way,
European nations took it for granted that they had the right to
decide the law of the sea, rather than the Pacific Islanders who
had invented blue water sailing, and discovered, explored, and
inhabited this vast ocean for millennia.
In New Zealand, however, this assumption was strongly
contested from the outset. When the Endeavour arrived on the
coastline, warriors in canoes came out to challenge this strange
vessel, defending their sea territories. After the signing of the
Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, as the Crown increasingly assumed
title to the foreshore and seabed, Māori protests were fiery.15 In
their speeches and letters, Māori persistently spoke of the coastal
zone as land or a garden, asserting their mana over ancestral
waters. In 1885, for instance, Taiaho Ngātai said in a speech to
the Minister of Native Affairs:
Now, with regard to the land below high water mark
immediately in front of where I live, I consider that that
is part and parcel of my own land … part of my own
garden. From time immemorial I have had this land, and
had authority over all the food in the sea.
Te Maere was a fishing ground of mine. Onake, that is a
place from which I have from time immemorial obtained
pipis. Te Rona is another pipi bed. My mana over these
places has never been taken away, and no tribe is
allowed to come here and fish without my consent.
But now, in consequence of the word of the Europeans
that all land below the high water mark belongs to the
Queen, people have trampled upon our ancient Māori
customs and are constantly coming here whenever they
like to fish.
I ask that our Māori custom shall not be set aside
in this manner, and that our authority over these
fishing-grounds may be upheld … I am not making this
complaint out of any selfish desire to keep all the fishing
grounds for myself; I am only striving to regain the
authority which I inherited from my ancestors.16
As in Tahiti, the relationship between Māori and the
ocean was based on kinship. At the beginning of the world,
when their children forced Earth Mother and Sky Father apart,
Tawhiri, the wind god, attacked Tangaroa, the sea ancestor,
who fled into the ocean. In his absence, his offspring argued
among themselves. Ika-tere, the ancestor of fish, taunted his
brother Tū-te-wanawana, the ancestor of lizards, saying, ‘You
go inland, and be heaped up after fires in the fern!’ and Tū-te-
wanawana retorted, ‘You go to sea, and be hung up in baskets of
cooked food!’17 After this quarrel, Tangaroa’s children went their
separate ways.
During this cosmic battle, only Tū, the ancestor of people,
faced up to the wind ancestor. For his temerity, he earned for his
descendants the right to harvest the offspring of his brothers as
food – birds, root crops, forest foods and trees, fish, crayfish and
shellfish, although the ancestors concerned had to be propitiated
with offerings.
Fig. 23
Tupaia, A Māori Bartering a
Crayfish with an English Naval
Officer, 1769. Paper, pencil,
watercolour, 21 × 27 cm.
The British Library, London; Add. 15508,
f.11
50 51
 This intimate relationship between people and the ocean
features in many other origin stories. These include the feats
of the ancestor Māui, who set off with his older brothers from
Hawaiki, the homeland, on a fishing expedition. After telling them
to take their canoe out of sight of land, Māui dropped his line
into the sea, catching only small fish at first. When his brothers
mocked him, he took a hook carved from his grandmother’s
sacred jawbone, baited it with blood from his nose and hauled up
a great fish, Te Ika a Māui (Māui’s Fish), the North Island of New
Zealand.18
While Māui set off across the island to make an offering
to Tangaroa, his brothers began to cut up his great fish, so they
could eat it. As it writhed in agony, the new land convulsed,
throwing up steep mountains and valleys. According to the tribes
of the east coast, Māui’s canoe still lies at the top of Hikurangi,
their ancestral peak, and his feats are not forgotten.19 In 2000,
pou (ancestral carvings) were erected on the summit of Hikurangi
in honour of Māui and the star ancestors who guided him across
the ocean.
Other east coast stories about the sea include that of
Pou, whose son drowned in the Motu River. According to Timi
Waata Rimini, a Bay of Plenty elder, Pou searched for his son in
Hawaiki, the ancestral homeland. When he arrived at the home
of Tangaroa, a ‘fountain of fish’ seething with kahawai, and asked
the sea god whether he had taken his son, Tangaroa denied it.
In disbelief, Pou invited the sea god to attend his son’s tangi
(funeral). Upon his return to the Bay of Plenty, Pou told his people
to make a great net. When the net was ready, the people looked
out to sea and saw Tangaroa and his attendants, a huge shoal of
kahawai, approaching, swimming inside Whakaari (White Island)
to attend the tangi. As the shoal approached the mouth of the
Motu River, Pou ordered his people to cast the net. Thousands
of Tangaroa’s children were caught and fed to the crowds who
had come to farewell Pou’s son. As Rimini explained, when the
kahawai arrive at the mouth of the Motu River every year, the
story of Pou is re-enacted. In order to lift the tapu (ancestral
presence) of Tangaroa, a chiefly youngster was taken to catch
three kahawai, which were offered to Pou and the high chief of
the region.
These rituals guarded the fertility of the ocean, and echoed
its rhythms. In 1923 when a party from the Dominion Museum,
Wellington, travelled to the east coast to document maritime and
other tikanga (ancestral practices), they were accompanied by Te
Rangihiroa (Sir Peter Buck), a leading Māori anthropologist, and
my great-grandfather James McDonald, a photographer and film-
maker who illustrated the paper that Te Rangihiroa later wrote
about Māori fishing practices (figs 26, 27).
Among other sea lore, Te Rangihiroa described customs
relating to the kehe or granite trout, a sacred fish that lived in
rocky channels in the reefs, grazing on kohuwai, a particular type
of seaweed. Among the methods used to catch this fish, people
used stones to shape the channels in the reef, waiting until the

kohuwai grew back again, and then using a hoop net to scoop up
the kehe as they grazed on the seaweed, or using a pole to drive
them into the net.
When the chief’s wife at Omaio became pregnant, the
sacred prohibition on a famous kehe fishing ground called Te
Wharau was lifted, and as people gathered on the beach, men
with hoop nets were sent to stand on particular named rocks.
When the tohunga or expert called out ‘Rukuhia’, people dived
into the channels, swimming underwater and driving the kehe
into the hoop nets, in a joyous pandemonium. Afterwards, the
fish were cooked and presented to the chieftainness as
a delicacy.20
This link between the life and fertility of Māori kin groups
and that of the land and the seas off their coasts runs very
deep. The sea itself is alive and breathing. At its heart lies Te
Parata, a great taniwha (some say a gigantic whale); as he
breathes in, his mouth becomes a great whirlpool that swallows
canoes at sea.21 As he breathes out, the tide begins to flow, and
children are born. According to an early manuscript collected by
John White:

Fig. 24
The Hawaiian double-hulled
voyaging canoe Hōkūle‘a,
which has completed multiple
long-distance journeys using
traditional Polynesian methods
of navigation since 1976.
Photographed c. 1980.
Kamehameha Schools, Honolulu
Fig. 25
Sydney Parkinson, A New
Zealand War Canoe (with a
woman holding a preserved
head), March – April, 1770.
From album ‘A Collection of Drawings
made in the Countries visited by Captain
Cook in his First Voyage‘, The British
Library, London, Add. 23920, fo. 49

52 53
 flourishing, might provide a counterpoint to extractive practices Pacific Islanders. Their ancestors were at home on the ocean,
Te Parata is the reason for the flow of the tides
that are damaging many maritime ecosystems and putting following the star paths and sea paths, discovering and settling
He draws breath into his belly
when the tides flow, he is forcing breath human communities at risk. Such conceptions also have the new islands.
out of his belly. virtue of being resonant with marine ecology, with its emphasis Ancestral ideas about existential interlocks between
on symbiosis and complex living networks. people and the sea, in conjunction with contemporary science,
Te Parata is the most important atua of the ocean As for the wider Pacific, it is hard to see why the future of may hold greater promise for the ocean‘s future than modernist
He is also known as Tangaroa.
the world’s greatest ocean should be dominated by ideas and extractive and management practices. Recognising the rights of
There is a reason for this name. It relates
conventions born out of continental Europe, especially when the Pacific may help to ensure humanity’s own survival. This great
to the length of the breath (taanga manawa)
he draws breath twice each day and night these are failing to safeguard its future. As Epeli Hau‘ofa has ocean must be protected. With her whales, dolphins, birds and
This is the meaning of the name.22 insisted, for millennia before the first European ships ventured fish, and tides, currents and vortices, Hine-moana is our planet’s
into its waters, this vast sea was explored and inhabited by beating heart.
At death, a great rangatira (chief) might be farewelled with the
chant, ‘The eddy squall is gone, the storm is passed away, the big
fish has left its dwelling place.’23 The living rhythms of people and
the sea are calibrated.
In contemporary times, such ways of thinking are gaining
legal recognition in New Zealand. In 2014, for instance, the
Whanganui River was recognised as a legal person, with its
own rights and responsibilities. As an elder exclaimed during
the Treaty hearings over the Whanganui River, ‘I am the river,
and the river is me. If the river is dying, then so am I!’ When the
Whanganui River Act was passed, arrangements were put in
place to protect its mauri or life force.
Māori also speak of the sea itself as an ancestor,
Hine-moana, with her own rights to well-being. In a range
of initiatives, Māori kin groups, marine scientists and local
communities are now working together to protect and enhance
the mauri ora of fishing grounds, reefs, estuaries and harbours.
This holds promise for the future, because experiments
of this kind are urgently needed. While surfers, swimmers,
divers and fishers frequent our beaches and coasts, and
sailors still cross the Pacific, their activities are increasingly at
risk from water-borne pollution including gyres of plastic and
other rubbish, the warming and acidification of the ocean,
sedimentation, over-harvesting of reefs, shellfish beds and
fisheries, rising sea levels and the intense storms and current
shifts driven by climate change.
In New Zealand, at least, the idea of ‘rights of the sea’,
which helps to set ecological bottom lines to ensure its ongoing

Fig. 27
Fig. 26 Te Rangihiroa (Sir Peter Buck)
Elsdon Best and an unidentified and others setting a trap in
man holding up a large a fish weir, Waiapu River,
wooden-framed fishing net, Gisborne, New Zealand,
New Zealand, 1921. Photograph c. 1920s. Photograph by
by James Ingram McDonald. James Ingram McDonald.
Wanganui River Expedition Album, Ramsden Papers, National Library of
Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand, Wellington. Ref. no.
New Zealand, PA1-q-257-74-1 F- 37936-1/2

54 55

2 rainforest fern whose inflorescence is edible.6 In these regions
ARCHITECTURE,
THE SEASONS AND
RITUALS IN THE LAND
OF THE KANAKS
emmanuel kasarhérou
he diversity of ecosystems in Oceania has compelled
T
mankind to adapt to its geological contingencies, to
agricultural opportunity and to climatic cycles as they occur.
As he climbed up the valleys of these mountainous islands, man
created paths leading from the water’s edge to dense forests,
from villages to cultivated fields. As he adapted to the climatic
conditions of the mountains, he fashioned landscapes, creating
open spaces and avenues, building edifices in the villages,
carving terraces for cultivation out of the mountainside and
planting tall, columnar pines in the forests, like beacons in a sea
of green.
Mankind’s presence in New Caledonia dates from the end
of the second millennium bce (fig. 29). The history of the sea
voyages that led human beings to the southern extremity of the
Melanesian archipelago has yet to be established in detail – and
perhaps never will be, for want of archaeological evidence. The
destruction or submergence of materials beneath the rising
ocean at the beginning of the Quaternary Period has seen to this.
Nevertheless, oral tradition retains the distant memory of human
sea voyages in association with the peregrinations of useful
plants such as the yam (fig. 28) and taro, the foundations of this
culture.
In Aijië country, in the centre of Grande Terre, the largest
island in the archipelago, the ‘elders’ used to describe how the
‘wild yams’,1 Dioscorea bulbifera L. and Dioscorea pentaphylla L.,
were the first to arrive in dugout canoes from over the sea, and
were established on the west coast of the Bourail region.2 Further
south, in Xârâcùù country,3 an earlier period is remembered,
before the arrival of the wild yams and the magnania (Pueraria
sp.).4 This pre-horticultural period, when men lived by foraging, is
called ‘âgi mâ purèwè’ in the Xârâcùù language. Âgi is the name
of a tree in the rainforest that bears an edible nut inside a hard
56
shell.5 Purèwè (Ptisana attenuata Labill.) is the name of a large Leenhardt, who hoped that archaeological investigation of these
the story is also told of the Payamaja or Pânyâmanyâ, humans
who lived before the yam-growers, residing at the bottom of
places would provide clues to the history of human habitation
in this region of the world.9 No research carried out to date has
been able to give credence to his intuition; this does not mean,
the broad valleys in the central mountain range of Grande Terre.
These peoples are alleged to have introduced the art of irrigating
terraces for cultivation.7 Paradoxically, in addition to this great
however, that scattered threads from the recesses of human
memory should be definitively ruled out of the reconstruction of
the history of the area.
technical achievement, they are also considered responsible for
foolish errors: they aspired to cause the water irrigating a field
On the island of Maré, a more complete and coherent
cycle of oral traditions recalls the arrival of the ‘genuine’
of taro to return towards its source, to procure a giant rock or a
whole forest to fashion the central post of a hut, or to capture
a waterfall to make it into a head plume… In Houaïlou, people
yams (Dioscorea alata) on the coast of the island. They were
accompanied by three banana trees (Musa sp.) and the wild fowl
(Gallinaceae).10 The yams came in dugout canoes via the island
still talk about the way they tried to catch the moon’s reflection
in a river in Karagereu, or attempted to catch it in a noose in a
of Aneityum, south of Vanuatu, from a country named ‘Ma’, also
in the east. They were escaping either from an epidemic or from
valley in Ba, and how in Canala8 and Kone they waited for the fire. They touched land on the coast at Watheo, where a rock
moon to rise over a hill before trying to capture it as they used now known as ‘the boat of the yams’ can be seen – a natural
to capture the large bats called flying foxes. These traditions are commemorative monument. Their journey to the centre of the
partly narrative constructs; they provide an explanation for the island, where the earth is deeper, richer and more favourable
state of the world by telling of its origins, but they could also to growing yams, is easily tracked. The water hole in which
be the memories or intuitions of early man. The stories have in they bathed to wash off the salt from the sea spray is visible.
common the fact that they are always set in a precise location. The order in which the yams took their bath established their
This was first noticed by the pastor and ethnologist Maurice degree of bitterness and hence their hierarchy, establishing also
Fig. 28
Yam plantations at Gonde,
Houaïlou District, Northern
Province, New Caledonia,
early twentieth century.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of
Cambridge, OA2_9_5_024
57
the hierarchy of the men who cultivated and ate them. The first
yams enjoyed sweet water and made their way to the land most
favourable to their cultivation, becoming chiefs. The last ones
found only brackish water and had no other choice but to take
the remaining land. Like Maurice Leenhardt, who suggested that
the traditions of Houaïlou might have a basis in reality, Father
Dubois was of the opinion that the traditions of Maré could also
be based in reality and that this might help to throw light on the
Islanders’ history.
To be able to live in a country starts with being able to find
food, or in this case importing the starchy staples that are lacking
there. Traces of the terraces built for the cultivation of water taro
(Colocasia sp.) can still be seen in New Caledonia, and cover an
impressive area of land. The tiers of the ancient irrigated terraces
in the Bourail region are remarkable for their size; they cover
whole areas of the foothills of the central mountain range. Many
tiers have collapsed as a result of damage caused by colonisers’
cattle or through abandonment, but their footprints still survive.
Taro and yams form the central symbolic duality of the Kanak
culture of New Caledonia. The yam is regarded as the masculine
element of a couple. The longest varieties are the most prized.
Figures of speech in the oral literature compare the yam’s long
tuber to a penis driven into the earth. The cultivation of the yam
requires the tuber to be protected from high humidity, and so
cultivation takes place on ridges of earth, billons, built higher
or lower according to the prevailing humidity of the location.
The ridges can be taller than a man when the risk of humidity is
great, or the layout of the terrain demands it – on the side of a
mountain, for example. Cultivation of the most prized varieties of
Dioscorea alata, known as ‘true’ yams, ‘chief’ yams or first-quality
yams, requires great attention and an enviable level of skill. The
tuber is harvested after eight to ten months. Similarity with the
timetable of human gestation reinforces the Kanak notion that
men and yams enjoy a relationship that goes back much further
than a family relationship, hinting at the consubstantiality of
vegetables and human beings. The elder Yené Bwêêrhexau
expressed this existential link with the saying: ‘Mëu wè na wa
kamö, aè kamö wè na ma mëu’ (the yam makes the man and the
man makes the yam).11
The yam also serves in the visualisation of social order.
The elders, or chiefs, are the tops of the yams, the younger
siblings the middle and the youngest the lower tips. The same
designations are used for the older, middle and younger branches
of a clan. Men and yams take different bodily forms and could in
the last analysis just be the same life principle embodied first in
one and then in the other.
The taro occupies a different place in the couple,
representing the feminine principle. The taro requires fresh
water in order to develop and its cycle is different from that of
the yam. Its circular tuber contrasts with the elongated tuber of
the yam. In years gone by cultivating both crops could partially
mitigate the problem of bridging, introduced into the cycle of
yam cultivation during bad years. Like the yam, the taro enjoys a
close relationship with man. ‘Gè moké to léwé mwa mâ aè, gè da
tö ârhè, ûrû kamö‘ (You are still in the bosom of the taro and the
yam, you have not yet been born as a man) is said of the child not
yet conceived. Later, the speaker realises what the expression
means and says: ‘Gö me xèi léwé mwa mâ mëu, wè, na ki curu kâi
na pevaa mâ nyanya mëu, na böri gö tövéa xèi jârâ mëu’ (I came
from the taro and the yam, because my father and my mother ate
yam and I am born of the sap of the yam). 12
Thus, taro and yam, as well as being the staple food of the
Fig. 29
Incised Rock, New Caledonia,
1914. Photograph by Paul
Montague.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge;
P.4005.ACH1
58
people of this archipelago, are also the origins of their procreation
and the source of life for humans. One very common theme in
oral Kanak literature is the theme of the return to the world of the
living through the consumption of cooked yam.
To live in the country means to live at the rhythm of the
annual yam harvest and to celebrate it with rites that conciliate
the spirits of the ancestors, land and elements. It also means
observing the signs of the seasons in order to establish a
calendar of rituals and labour. The migration of certain types of
birds or marine species such as whales, the flowering of plants
such as the wija (Miscanthus floridulus, Poaceae), combined
with observation of the stars – for example the appearance of
the Pleiades – or changes in the weather: all are indicators that
allow the life of man to be established within a temporal cycle.
In the past, people‘s age was reckoned in yam seasons. The yam
harvest, in March and April, marks the beginning of the ‘yam
year’; a good year heralds a period of prosperity. The abundance
of food allows large social events to take place, and during these
events exchanges of yams and taro are carried out alongside the
exchange of manufactured goods such as bracelets and shell
currency. Consent is exchanged between clans for the marriage
of children, invitations are extended to celebrate new initiates, or
to celebrate the memory of renowned ancestors who have died in
Fig. 30
Kanak men and women in
front of a grande case, New
Caledonia, 1874. Photograph by
Allan Hughan.
NLA, Canberra. NLA24229801
59
earlier years – the removal of mourning is celebrated or political
alliances consolidated.
These celebrations used to be prepared in the ceremonial
hut and celebrated in the central alley, the space immediately in
front of the door. The largest example of the architecture – which
is constructed entirely from plants – is the large ceremonial hut
(fig. 30), a space for male friendship and bonding. In Grande
Terre in the past this area was reserved for initiates, men who
had undergone certain trials, in particular the cutting of the
foreskin; the ring of scar tissue made it possible for these men
to wear the long penis sheath that was so characteristic of
Kanak masculine attire in the nineteenth century, and which
disappeared only when Christianity arrived. The large ceremonial
hut, or grande case, is round, as are the individual huts, although
these are smaller and are constructed around a central post
(fig. 31). Rectangular and oblong buildings are used for practical
activities, as kitchens and workshops. The grande case is built
on an artificial mound of earth, which keeps the inhabitants safe
from running water or rising damp. Its perfectly round shape
gives it something in common with a celestial body. The earth on
which it is built is thoroughly trampled with the feet to compact
it and to provide a solid base for the building. The installation of
the central post is one of the major events in the foundation of
 a ceremonial hut, and plants and propitiatory objects are buried
in the hole before the post is driven into the earth. Around the
king post, the surrounding posts are also driven into the earth
equidistant from one another. The eaves purlin holds the heads
of the encircling posts together in a ring and the ring supports
the rafters. The rafters link the surrounding posts to the king post
and support the roof thatch of wild grass. The walls between the
wall post are covered in niaouli bark (Melaleuca leucodendron).
The ceremonial hut is an enclosed space with a single entrance,
low and narrow; people enter with bowed heads or bent backs.
This gesture of humility and respect, appropriate in the presence
of elders and important people, is inescapable because of the
architecture. The entrance to the ceremonial hut has no door and
is therefore never closed; in the past it was sometimes screened
off with a plaited hanging.13 The large sculptures with carved
faces on the doorpost on either side of the entrance provide
sufficient protection for the occupants (fig. 32). The quantity of
carvings dedicated to the memory of the ancestors, for example
the dream predictions that form the floors of the upper storey,
the sculpture on the king post or the posts around the house,
are only visible to those authorised to enter. The only carvings
visible from the outside are the guardians of the entrance – on
the door jambs or the faces on the threshold – and the roof finial
representing the chief. The top of the carvings on the doorposts
is often hidden by the roof thatch, and the roof finial, fixed
sometimes more than ten metres high, is silhouetted against the
sky and has to be guessed at rather than seen.
The timber frame of the grande case represents an
idealised version of the social group that built it: the chief or the
eldest brother is the central post, his younger brothers or his
subjects are the posts around the hut, all placed at the same
distance from him. All are driven into the ground, symbolising the
pre-eminence of the land rights of the groups they represent. The
relatives, with no land rights, provide the roof and the supports of
the building. They are represented by the slats and the roof, the
bark walls or the supporting walls of the mound. The grande case
is the space where discussions and debate take place, and from
which edicts, once agreed, are proclaimed publicly outside by the
chief or his representative in the name of the group.
Fig. 31
A man and woman beside an
ancestral figure and house,
Gonde, Houaïlou District,
Northern Province, New
Caledonia, 1914. Photograph
by Paul Montague.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge;
P.4001.ACH1
61
The central alley is an integral part of the grande case and
is the space for group public expression. It is a broad, straight,
raised avenue, bordered by coconut palms and monkey puzzle
trees and descending downwards from the grande case, which
is always built on a hill. The raised avenue is reminiscent of the
raised ridges in which yams are grown. Although nothing survives
in the vocabulary or imagery to make this connection explicit, it
is difficult not to think of this as a metaphor for the yam gardens
because it is the place where, piled up in tall heaps, yams are
exchanged at the same time as words are exchanged between
the human inhabitants. The central alley is turfed with a special
long-leafed grass called jâiwa in Ajië (Chrysopogon aciculatus
(Retz.) Trin.),14 on which it is pleasant to rest and gossip. As they
lie or sit on this thick carpet of greenery, people carefully pick the
inflorescences off the grass to prevent it from bearing fruit, and
to encourage the rhizomes to spread further and further until a
thick, soft carpet is formed. Depending on the importance of the
group, the central avenue can be augmented to left and right
by side avenues. The central alley is an open space from which
everything that is going on can be seen. But it is also a space
governed by hierarchy and regulated by status. The top of the
alley, near the entrance to the grande case, is reserved for the
males of the group and for high-status guests; the lower part of
the alley is reserved for women and men of lower social status.
This hierarchy is not signalled in any way. According to what is
going on, certain parts of the alley can be temporarily marked off
or divided by provisional enclosures where, for example, gifts can
be collected or return gifts prepared. The alley is not enclosed
and the conversations, speeches, singing and dancing taking
place in it are public; all can attend, provided they stay in the
area appropriate to their social status.
This is the way architectural space is organised in the
centre of Grande Terre. In the north and south and in the
Loyalty Islands the ceremonial hut is similarly round, but the
ceremonial space is enclosed to form a courtyard. The enclosure
is surrounded by dry-stone wall or a palisade of wooden posts
placed close together, with entries giving limited access,
according to the social status of individuals and groups. The yard
is turfed and does not follow a geometric shape – it is adapted
to the topography. It creates a semi-open space in front of and
around the hut, and provides an intermediary space between the
ceremonial hut, the centre of spiritual and political power, and
the outside world. This organisation of the space is connected
to a set of social structures that is more hierarchical than in
the centre of Grande Terre, where the mobility of the social
hierarchies is less strictly regulated.
The grande case is the symbol of the chieftaincy that it
houses and, in its image, the human groupings that comprise it
are envisaged as small huts within the large hut. The chieftaincy
is an assembly of clans who share a common ancestor, either real
or accepted as such. Other clans have often become related over
the centuries, although they do not share a common ancestry.
These are the relatives who protect the family heart of the
chieftaincy. The clans themselves are composed of smaller family
groupings whose branches bear the names of the ancestors
who founded them. In this way the image of the architectural
construction can be applied to the human groupings that
acknowledge each other as belonging to the grande case. The
territory is represented as the space of the relationships between
metaphorical ‘great huts’; within this space, relationships
between the smaller huts contained inside them interact
simultaneously. In certain areas, a chieftaincy that is larger than
the others has, over the years, installed its younger branches or
its relatives at strategic points across the territory; the territory is
then represented intellectually as a super-hut whose central post
is the site of the principal great hut and provides the great chief
and the posts around the hut, the roof and the walls, with huts
of younger siblings and relatives arranged around the margins
of this political space. The word ‘case’ (hut) is connected to the
idea of a container that brings individuals together. According to
circumstance, an individual can belong to a larger or a smaller
hut, but each hut contains or is contained within the huts
associated with it, like a set of Russian dolls.
The memory of a grande case and of its avenue lives on
for many years after it has disappeared. Traces of the circular
mound and the long, straight alley remain like scarification on
the ground, or like cultivated ridges that have become fallow.
The human groups formerly sheltered within the hut have long
since disappeared, but the name of the place, or the name of
the hut and its alley, remains and these names, mentioned in
‘genealogical’ conversations along with the names of ancestors,
remind us of the great age of the clan and of the lands inhabited
by the clan. Public evocation of the routes taken by the departing
clans revives a complex historical geography. As they recall
the public dwellings of the past, people in their conversations
extol relationships that have been maintained and call to mind
relationships that could be reactivated. Knowledge of the complex
network built up by the clans and their own social networks lies at
the heart of traditional knowledge. This stroll down memory lane is
often described as ‘the customary way’ or ‘the way of alliances’.15
‘Genealogical’ memory, which associates human beings and
dwelling places of the past, can sometimes go back several
centuries, although it is not possible to give precise dates.16
These stories still permeate the culture of this country,
divided as it is between a centuries-old history inherited and
carried by the Kanak people, and recent colonial history during
which the land was confiscated and given away to others who
were unaware of the sacred scars it bore; they eliminated these
traces with their bulldozers, replacing mounds, alleys, ridges
and irrigated terraces with a land scheme imported from Europe
consisting of small parcels. The fields of yam and taro were
replaced by acres of monoculture. The destruction of the grandes
cases and the prohibition of the construction of new ones in
Grande Terre, carried out by the colonial government, were
fortunately never implemented in the Loyalty Islands, where the
grandes cases of yesteryear still stand proudly. Their restoration
and partial reconstruction are nowadays a collective project and a
political act that allows the members of the chieftaincy to resume
the place that tradition has assigned to them. The materials
gathered and the skills implemented for these projects locate
each group and each individual within the social space of the
chieftaincy.
The elders of the land of the Ajië claim that the island was
born from a cake made of starchy roots enveloped in banana
leaves, thrown into the sea by an unknown demiurge. This
culinary image of the origins of the island reminds us that
the cultivation of the yam and the taro served as the basis of
Kanak culture. The food binds us to the earth from which it
has grown and connects us over time with the ancestors who
preceded us here.
Fig. 32
Two Djo-wo (door posts) placed
either side of a Go-ma (house
finial), Gonde, Houaïlou District,
Northern Province, New
Caledonia, 1914. Photograph
by Paul Montague.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge;
P.70305.ACH2
62
 More remarkably, some ancestral treasures of great Understandings of how collections were made, which

3 mana (spiritual power) were deliberately gifted by prominent

Islanders to foreigners with whom they wished to inaugurate
relationships. It is no coincidence that the seminal early
cross-cultural interactions they represented, and the potential
they have in the present have thus been opened up dramatically,
but not in a way that permanently resolves or settles any issue.

MUSEUMS, COLLECTIONS, twentieth-century anthropological study on the gift, by Marcel

Mauss, was inspired by instances from Oceania. Mauss insisted
Ongoing discomfort around the expatriate situation of such vast
assemblages of Islanders’ art will not go away. At the same

COLONIALISM AND THE that what was presented was never just a utilitarian article, but
also a bearer of spirituality (fig. 33). ‘Finally,’ he wrote at the
conclusion of his essay, ‘the thing given is not inert. Animated,
time, collections have been rediscovered and made accessible to
collaborative research; they are no longer beyond the reach of at
least some Islanders – artists, scholars, curators and community

GIFT: A DIALOGUE often individualised, it tends to return to … its “hearth of origin”

or produce, for the clan and territory from which it originated, an
equivalent to take its place.’1
This understanding does not, therefore, suggest that
nicholas thomas, museum collections are simply ‘legitimate’ because artefacts
peter brunt, were given rather than stolen. For those works that were
sean mallon and deliberately gifted (if not for things that may have been more
n o e l l e m. k. y. k a h a n u straightforwardly bartered) this dynamic conception of the hau,
the spirit of the gift, raises the question of the ways in which
expectations concerning reciprocal obligations and the promise of
mutual benefit shaped gifts at the time they were made, and how
the ramifications of those acts are understood today.
members among them.
The curators of this exhibition recognised that the colonial
formation of museum collections raised questions that remained
open, thought-provoking and indeed troubling. In selecting
works, we aimed not to include artefacts that were illegitimately
taken, although in one case – that of the spectacular food bowl
from Roviana (cat. 149) – we considered it important to represent
a history of confrontation and violence, through which this work
entered British collections. It appeared important, above all, to
acknowledge ongoing debate around this issue.
Two highly respected commentators from the Pacific were
therefore invited to respond. Sean Mallon, based in Wellington,

his exhibition brings into view extraordinary historical The idea that historical collecting was essentially

T works from the extensive collections of ethnographic

museums across Europe. These institutions’ collections
have been generally obscure, long out of public view. Yet they
have also been a source of contention. The idea of the vast
basement store crammed with weapons, baskets, pots, canoe
models and arresting masks, ritual assemblages and parts of
houses is one that many people find disconcerting. From the
time of decolonisation onwards, such masses of artefacts have
instinctively been understood as colonial loot by many Pacific
Islanders as well as by Europeans concerned, however broadly,
with culture, heritage, identity and empire. Other Islanders have
taken the more positive view that museums have preserved their
heritage. Others still have affirmed the importance of artefacts in
collections as ‘ambassadors’ of indigenous culture.
appropriation has been qualified by research over recent decades
that has resonated with a wider ‘sea change’ in Pacific history
and indeed colonial history globally. Islanders were never simply
victims of colonial impositions or intrusions. They engaged
in resistance, they accommodated change and they actively
sought opportunities to extend relationships, to travel and to
build connections with outsiders. So it often was with artefacts.
Some pieces were indeed looted. But the majority were obtained
through barter, and even in the earliest years of contact, Islanders
produced artefacts in response to the eagerness of mariners to
collect. Collections were certainly formed in colonial contexts,
but those contexts were marked as much by Islanders’ interests
in participating in cross-cultural exchange and commerce, as by
imperial avarice.

Fig. 33
Kin lined up examining shell
valuables, Mope, Western
Highlands, Papua New Guinea,
May 1964. Photograph by
Marilyn Strathern.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge,
N.132093.MST

64 65
has written widely on art in Oceania, ranging from historic genres
to diasporic culture, as well as on curatorial practice. Noelle
Kahanu, from Honolulu, is a curator, artist, filmmaker and writer.
Both have given sustained consideration to museum collections,
colonial histories, and issues of representation, access and
collaboration among other challenges. Both are practitioners
– Sean has worked at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Tongarewa for over twenty years, while Noelle worked at the
Bishop Museum for fifteen, before moving to the University of
Hawai’i. We are grateful to them for their reflections on these
issues, in the context of this exhibition.
COLLECTIONS, ACCESS
AND COLLABORATION
sean mallon
In the late 1990s I was fortunate enough to visit a few European
museums and was astounded by the number of artefacts housed
in collection storerooms. Some spaces were well organised with
neatly installed drawers and shelving; others were over-stuffed,
disorganised and impenetrable. I was to learn that the storage of
collections was a problem for many museums around the world.
I was excited to see the collections but also overwhelmed by
how much was in storage; on one occasion, I could only walk
about two metres into the room, which extended several meters
beyond the threshold. All museums welcomed me, but some
were more welcoming than others. I was new to the field, and
not an established scholar or researcher. I was very aware of how
fortunate I was to have access at all.
Almost twenty years later the situation has started to
change. Museums with large Pacific collections host a growing
number of researchers, artists and community groups from the
Pacific. However, relative to the wider population, their visitor
numbers are still very small. Few Pacific people are aware of what
is in museum collections beyond their region, or of the complex
histories and scale of European collecting. Many people, myself
included, are still in a process of rediscovering this history for
themselves. And travelling to the northern hemisphere to visit
museums is a luxury even professional researchers struggle to find
funds for.
There is a perception that European museums are filled
with loot or are artefactual mausoleums. I have heard people
make statements along these lines many times over my career,
even about the museum in which I work in New Zealand.
Museums are so deeply associated with colonialism and the
anthropological study of indigenous peoples that it is difficult to
change views. For many of us, museum collections still represent
colonisation, and immense and unrecoverable cultural loss.
Yet the doors to the storerooms have been opened wider
and access to collections has improved along with the prospect of
meaningful reconnection. There has been a growing awareness
outside academic and curatorial circles that the histories of
museum collections are far more complicated than was previously
acknowledged. The publication of new histories of cultural
encounter and exchange in the Pacific and the searchable
catalogues of museum collections online have allowed
researchers to analyse the material cultures of the past with new
rigour and utilise them as valuable cultural and heritage sources.
In my experience, the engagement of Pacific peoples
with museum collections is often one of discovery and recovery
(fig. 34). There are some things we remember and many things
we don’t know. Museum collections give material form to a
past that often seems very distant and vague. They can connect
us to different times and places, help heal a sense of cultural
loss and present us with an opportunity to find our place in the
contemporary world.
Museums and their collections are social and political
resources. They can be rallying points for communities and the
catalyst for events and exhibitions that celebrate cultural identity,
diversity and history. They can mediate the relationships between
individuals and institutions, provoke confrontation, enhance
the prestige of institutions and the curators who care for them
and put them on display, and provide inspiration for artists and
researchers who make use of their imagery, materials and form
in their own artworks or writings. All these things are possible,
but much of the historical knowledge around museum collections
66
in the northern hemisphere remains the preserve and territory of
non-indigenous people.
In recent decades, some museums have developed
collaborative projects to increase access and engagement
for Pacific scholars, artists and cultural experts. They have
productively celebrated, reframed and interrogated what we
know of the Pacific past. In the United Kingdom and Europe,
landmark exhibition projects include ‘Pasifika Styles: Artists Inside
the Museum’ (Cambridge, 2006), ‘Pacific Encounters: Art and
Divinity in Polynesia, 1760–1860’ (Norwich, 2006) and ‘Made in
Oceania – Tapa Art and Social Landscapes’ (Cologne, 2014). There
have also been programmes of repatriation of human remains,
and loans of artefacts to Pacific museums, a significant example
being the temporary return of Hawaiian figures from the British
Museum and the Peabody Essex Museum for ‘E Kū Ana Ka Paia:
Unification, Responsibility and the Kū Images’ in Honolulu (2010).
As the histories of individual objects and entire
collections are made visible and our understanding grows more
sophisticated, the potency of these artefacts will become known
and in some cases demand attention. It makes a difference that
some artefacts were not appropriated, but purchased or gifted
by Pacific Islanders (fig. 35). As a curator of Pacific descent I
am intrigued that Pacific Islanders may have had social and/or
cosmological reasons for gifting things. But I am not surprised.
Anyone who has researched collections knows how artefacts are
connected to people, places and events, and how records both
written and oral are the key to unlocking their stories.
I have long been drawn to the idea that objects have social
lives or are entangled in all sorts of encounters and transactions.2
Fig. 34
Mark Adams, At Nesacoea,
Djeine, New Caledonia,
9.6.2016. François Wadra
(seated third from right), an
anthropologist from New
Caledonia, and Julie Adams
(rear centre) of the Cambridge
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology take photographs
of Kanak objects from the
Museum’s Montague Collection
to communities in Nesacoea
and other villages in the area
from where the collection was
gathered in the early twentieth
century.
Courtesy of the artist
67
As I have researched the provenance of objects I have come to
appreciate how they accumulate stories, associations and history
from the many and often complex ways people and institutions
have interacted with them. For example, consider Le ageagea o
Tumua, an ‘ie tōga (fine mat) from Samoa (cat. 101). ‘Ie tōga are
among the most valuable Samoan measina or cultural treasures.
Some are given names and exchanged many times, they can
pass through several generations, gaining value as their age and
associations accumulate. Le ageagea o Tumua has had a rich
social life. It once belonged to the former Samoan Head of State,
Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese Efi. He says: ‘Le Ageagea o Tumua
signifies and symbolises history and genealogy. It represents
the legacies and inheritances of thirty-two generations, from Tui
Atua Leutele Leiite to Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese Efi.’3 In 2002 it
was gifted to New Zealand’s Prime Minister, Helen Clark, after
her public apology to the Samoan people for events that took
place during New Zealand’s administration of Samoa from 1914
to 1962. These events included the fatal shooting in 1929 of
eleven people during a peaceful march by the Mau independence
movement. According to Tui Atua, ‘The gift is a message of love,
remorse, and forgiveness. The gifting of Le Ageagea o Tumua to
Helen Clark is a gifting to Aotearoa [New Zealand], and is akin
to a gift of marriage where this marriage connects, reclaims and
becomes the legacy of love between two nations, cultures and
their children – the nations of Aotearoa and Samoa.’4 Since 2002,
Le ageagea o Tumua has been on display at Te Papa Tongarewa,
New Zealand’s national museum, where it brought attention
to New Zealand’s colonial past, and prestige to the family who
dignified the occasion of the New Zealand government’s apology
with its gifting. It now appears in London, where it continues to
accumulate history: through its inclusion in a major exhibition
about the art of Oceania, it is now part of the history and prestige
of the Royal Academy. It continues to be a medium for the
telling of stories, the recounting of history and the mediation of
relationships.
Mauss’s theorising on gifts and gifting in the Pacific
is useful for how we might understand the future of Pacific
collections and the role of curators and museums in caring for
them. As more Pacific peoples discover their material cultural
heritage in overseas museums, what will their needs be? Will
they want to reconnect with them, or claim them? How will
museums respond to requests that reactivate a connection? Do
obligations or expectations follow these historical transactions?
What constitutes an ongoing relationship? What is there in it for
the museums? What is at stake for Pacific peoples?
‘Oceania’ brings together a collection of artefacts, and
shares a catalogue of stories for further contemplation. As I
write this, I wonder what the exhibition’s impact may be and
what dialogue it may inspire. Although it may be a most visible
representation of the art of Oceania, it is but a small selection of
an increasingly visible international repository of many thousands
of cultural treasures from the Pacific. Online digitised collections Center for Hawaiian Studies at the University of Hawai‘i at
open collection storerooms ever wider, raising questions about Mānoa. In one of his community presentations Grant shared
how museums deal with the legacy of these historical colonial, a drawing he had made of two people in profile in an act of
institutional and private collecting practices. Are the collections greeting. In the void between their faces, he saw a three-
time capsules or catalysts for new relationships? A challenge for dimensional figure that he brought to life. Grant named him
curators in the northern hemisphere, like myself in the south, is to ‘He Mihi’ and he eventually became the tekoteko, or central
devise ways to create spaces and opportunities for collaboration, welcoming figure, atop a new structure on the marae that Grant
connection, conversation and contestation to unfold, for the had been creating for Unitec Institute of Technology in Auckland.
politics of the day to play out and the needs of institutions and In a similar sense, just as ‘He Mihi’ was the physical embodiment
their communities of interest to be addressed. of two people greeting each other, the works exhibited in
‘Oceania’ can also be considered as ‘artefacts of encounter’,
tangible representations of encounters between Pacific peoples,
Captain Cook, and those who followed in Cook’s wake. These
EVIDENCING ENCOUNTERS gifts, be they feathered cloaks, carved images, or greenstone,
AND (RE)IMAGINING signify the status of both parties, the intentionality of the
presenter, and the intimacy of the exchange.
RELATIONS
We Pacific Islanders live in the twenty-first century, but
noelle m. k. y. kahanu
the past is never very far from us. Although we cannot know
exactly what transpired centuries ago, we can in some ways
1. Mihi: to greet; to acknowledge an obligation (Māori) make connections to acts that continue to be practised by many
In 2005 the Māori master carver Lyonel Grant came to Hawai‘i as communities today, such as ritualised greeting and gift-giving. By
part of an artist-in-residency programme at the Kamakakūokalani interweaving the past and the present, I hope this exhibition can
ultimately be viewed not as a mere tribute to past encounters,
but as a means by which to renew relations between Oceanic
Fig. 35
A ceremonial presentation and European communities and the creative works that have
of barkcloth during the visit always borne witness to these encounters.
of HMS Nelson to Fiji in
August 1887. In responding to Nicholas Thomas’s invitation to submit
Museum of Archaeology and an essay for this catalogue, I struggled with how to think
Anthropology, University of
about an exhibition that would attempt to contextualise the
Cambridge, P.45650
‘dazzling and diverse art of the region of Oceania’ within the
framework of the 250th anniversary of Captain Cook’s voyage
of ‘discovery’. Is it even possible to celebrate the beauty
and artistry of the indigenous peoples of Oceania without
considering the tremendous ramifications and consequences
and diseases and deaths that Cook’s travels spawned? The
task of writing became even more challenging as we in Hawai‘i
also commemorated an anniversary of our own in 2018: the
passage of 125 years since the illegal overthrow of the Kingdom
of Hawai‘i, an orchestrated event conceived by a handful of
68
American and European businessmen and executed with the
support of the American Minister to the Kingdom of Hawai‘i
and 162 armed U.S. Marines. Yet the commemorations are
not dissimilar. Marking the passage of time presents us with
opportunities not only to gather in solidarity, but also to reflect,
to refocus, and to reconsider issues of remembrance, restitution
and reconciliation.
2. He makana aloha: the gift of friendship or love; a freewill
offering (Hawaiian)
A few months ago, I stood among five Hawaiian ‘ahu‘ula (cloaks)
on display at the Linden-Museum in Stuttgart (fig. 36). They
had been gathered from multiple European museums as part
of ‘Hawai‘i: Royal Islands in the Pacific’, the first major German
exhibition on Hawaiian culture and history. It was humbling and
overwhelming to be in the physical presence of the ali‘i (chiefs)
who once wore them, who had perhaps chosen, of their own
accord, to send these ‘ahu‘ula from their place of creation out
into the world. Many have dwelt on the importance of such
demonstrated acts of ‘freely gifting’ – cultural anthropologists,
art historians, museum professionals – often with the ultimate
goal of establishing concrete evidence of legitimate possession.
Even the Cook Island scholar Marjorie Crocombe seemed to
agree, noting that ‘most of these things were acquired legally
by the museums that hold them today’.5 How much, though,
can we really know of what transpired in the late eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries? Perhaps the best evidence is an
eyewitness account, like that of James King, who on 26 January
1779 observed the Hawai‘i Island chief Kalani‘ōpu‘u throw over
Captain Cook’s shoulders ‘the cloak he himself wore, put a
feathered helmet upon his head, and a curious fan in his hand’
(fig. 3).6 Such documentation, however, is extremely rare and we
are often left with European accounts, hastily recorded months
after an exchange and complicated by cultural and language
barriers. What was the intention of the gifter? Did he or she have
the authority to make such a decision? Was pressure exerted or
were items in fact stolen, as in the case of numerous examples of
ancestral remains taken under cover of night? This is the colonial
legacy with which only a few museums are beginning to grapple.
69
 On the other hand, if evidence does exist that something
has been freely given (he makana aloha), some would argue from
a maoli or Hawaiian perspective that it is disrespectful to covet
the return of such items. To do so would improperly call into
question the decisions of our ancestral chiefs who chose to send
out into the world the most spiritually and culturally important
of their possessions. These adornments were made for particular
ali‘i. Just as a name chant is written for a specific person, so too
was each mahiole (helmet) and ‘ahu‘ula made for its wearer,
each colour and pattern invoking particular genealogies. For
Kalani‘ōpu‘u to have presented such gifts reveals the high
regard in which he held Captain Cook, not as a god, but as an
equal. Again citing James King: ‘this part of the ceremony was
concluded by the king exchanging names with Captain Cook,
which, among all the islanders of the Pacific Ocean, is esteemed
the strongest pledge of friendship’.7 Perhaps guided by his own
political motivations, he chose to project his mana (spirit, power,
authority) and that of Hawai‘i by gifting such sacred items to
those who would transport them into the vast beyond.
In The Gift Mauss asserts that the giver embedded a bit
of himself in each gift, and that this missing part of him would
return, in one form or another, through either the receiver or
some other individual involved in this chain of gifting.8 Yet
beyond the gifter, there is also the creator, for ‘ahu‘ula not only
contained the mana of he who gifted it, but of those who had
contributed to its making, from whose hands such mana flowed
as they concentrated on a singular creation, selecting specific
materials, designs, colours and patterns. Embedded in every weft,
in every turn of ‘olonā fibre, in every placement of feather was
the exaltation, the celebration, the joy, pride and beauty of the
Hawaiian world. All the mana of the birds and the plants and the
land and water that nurtured them into being was funnelled and
contained in order to embrace, protect and celebrate our ali‘i, the
living embodiments of our akua, our gods.9
3. Mihi: repentance, remorse; to be sorry; to confess (Hawaiian)
Today, the many cloaks scattered throughout Europe continue
to bear testament to their original purpose, attesting to the
beauty, power and authority of our chiefs. Standing in Germany
among these ‘ahu‘ula, I was surrounded by the intentionality now able to take into consideration the ongoing relevance and the same time opens a new page for better sections in this story,
of that message, despite the altered pathways of these chiefly importance of these collections to communities today. Activating which we now want to write together. This act opens the doors
adornments. And truth be told, the fact that these cloaks these collections enables us to recognise the care provided over for further trusting and equal cooperation, joint research projects
were gifted, borne across oceans, exchanged among families, these many centuries while also renewing relationships between and cultural collaborations. It is a step into the future.’ Among
museums and institutions was of lesser significance, because and among Oceanic communities and European museums on the dozen or so participants, there were tears of joy and anguish,
their original purpose still resonated. As Hawaiians assert their today’s terms, rather than confining ourselves to a particular sorrow and regret; apologies were offered and accepted; and a
right to self-determination and freedom from occupation, how historical context. measure of healing and reconciliation took place. Friendships
important is it to have Kalani‘ōpu‘u, as signified in his chiefly ‘What is in the past is in the past,’ observed the Hawaiian were forged and commitments to future engagement were
adornments, return home to Hawai‘i? And return he did, in March community leader and repatriation advocate Edward Halealoha solidified. In one afternoon of encounter, we experienced mihi, in
2016, because those at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Ayau during a recent return of iwi kūpuna (ancestral Native all its many manifestations.
Tongarewa responded to our collective kāhea (the call) and mihi Hawaiian remains) from the German State of Saxony. ‘We prefer Two hundred and fifty years ago, Captain Cook landed upon
(the anguish) following decades of visitations and pilgrimages. to look forward to working with you folks to complete this our shores and ushered in profound and devastating changes.
Such acts have led Dr Philipp Schorch to suggest approaching important journey, and start a new productive one. We wish Today, the Hawaiian long-distance voyaging canoe Hōkūle‘a
restitution itself as ‘an integral dimension of the museum as this event to be a time that we renew our respective humanity (fig. 24) travels the world carrying a message of global hope and
process through which “ethnographic objects” and “human toward our kūpuna (elders), ourselves, and each other as human healing. Our futures are interrelated, now more than ever, and
remains” can be reconnected with the cultural environments of beings.’ In preparation for the repatriation, Ayau asked that ‘Oceania’ provides us with an opportunity to (re)imagine Pacific
their source societies and customary sources of knowledge’.10 three lei hulu (feather lei) be prepared as gifts. At the ceremony European relations, not through a historical lens, but firmly rooted
Dr Manulani Aluli Meyer, a Hawaiian scholar and commemorating the historic return, these lei were gifted to in our shared contemporary realities. It will require meaningful
philosopher, has long contemplated the vastly differing meanings key individuals who had aided in the release, accompanied by dialogue, faith, trust, patience and a willingness to consider that
of the word mihi. For Māori, it means to greet, to welcome, to a traditional chant and honi (face-to-face greeting). Dr Eva- the journeys of these ancestral artefacts, just like our own, need
acknowledge an obligation; for Samoans, it means to make a Maria Stange, Minister of Culture for the Free State of Saxony, not be over.
kissing noise; but for Hawaiians and Tahitians, it means to grieve, acknowledged the theft of more than a century before and
to be sad, to feel regret and sorrow. Perhaps these seemingly apologised: ‘This both ends an infamous chapter in history, but at
disparate meanings instead reveal the gamut of human emotions
displayed when two people, two cultures, two communities
meet face to face. Returning to Grant’s ‘He Mihi’ as the physical
representation of a greeting, it is possible to look with new eyes
at the ‘Oceania’ exhibition as a collection of significant and
important cultural objects that attest to the full range of Pacific
and European encounters.
We can never know for certain what set these objects
on their journeys. What is knowable is that the very existence
of these collections of Pacific material in European repositories
bears testament to relationships that once existed, however
fleeting or profound, however friendly or fraught. That such
collections were assembled under colonial constraints with
unbalanced power relations, in and of itself neither validates nor
negates their legitimacy. Rather, they represent an opportunity
– the (re)starting point of a centuries-old dialogue that is only
Fig. 36
Hawaiian feather cloak
(‘ahu‘ula) of Kalani‘ōpu‘u,
eighteenth century. Given by
Kalani‘ōpu‘u to Captain Cook
during his third voyage, on
26 January 1779. Plant fibre
and feathers, 145 × 220 cm.
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Tongarewa, Wellington; FE000327.
Gift of Lord St Oswald, 1912
70 71
4 The Pacific maiden in particular, her image proliferating
PERFORMANCE AND
THE BODY
michael mel
his chapter is an exploration of two ideas: the body and
T
performance in the context of the Pacific. Today, Pacific
objects collected over two and a half centuries lie in the
corridors of institutions in Europe and elsewhere. These entities,
apprehended and incarcerated, represent the Pacific, but they
are singularly divorced from Pacific bodies in performance. The
body in this case is the human body, and performance refers
to its heightened elevation in an activity. Two ideas need to be
established from the beginning: the differing perspectives of
European and Indigenous ways of seeing and knowing.
For Europeans, when talking about the body or a
performance involving the body, there is a dichotomy – a dualism.
There is the idea of an onlooker, an observer, and the observed;
and there is also the distinction between the material entity
or object of the body, and the mind or consciousness. For all
intents and purposes, the mind and the faculty of Reason are
made the centre, while the body is made the Other, an erstwhile
supplement that is consigned to Nature, and controlled by
Reason. Since the eighteenth century the Pacific body, male
and female, even when idealised as quasi-European, as in
the following quotations from the voyage of Louis Antoine de
Bougainville, typically has been seen in othering and objectifying
terms.
I never saw men better made, and whose limbs were
more proportionate: in order to paint a Hercules or a
Mars, one could no where find such beautiful models.
The girl carelessly dropt a cloth, which covered her, and
appeared to the eyes of all beholders, such as Venus
shewed herself to the Phrygian shepherd, having the
celestial form of that goddess.1
72
and popularised in paintings, engravings and other forms
of visual imagery, fascinated and intrigued the European
imagination. In John Webber’s Portrait of Poedua (fig. 39), a
young Pacific maiden in a classical pose stands with gardenias
tucked behind each ear. Her mass of curly dark hair is dropped
lavishly over her bare shoulders. Her face is turned slightly to
the viewer with a gentle, almost innocent look. From the corners
of her mouth with pursed lips, a wistful smile can be made out,
akin to another much earlier image, da Vinci’s Mona Lisa. Unlike
the seated Mona Lisa, Poedua is standing. Her left arm, finely
tattooed, rests on her hip while the right is by her side. As a
demonstration of her chiefly status, her slightly elongated and
delicate fingers clasp a fly whisk. Unlike her predecessor, who
is fully clothed, showing a curvaceous chest with tiny hints of
a cleavage, Poedua’s curvilinear shoulders and soft and quiet
chest lead the onlooker’s eyes to her youthful breasts. The rest of
her shapely body is covered in cloth.2 In William Hodges’s Tahiti
Revisited, 1776, nubile bodies are placed in an idyllic landscape
with perfumed air and pristine waters in a way designed
deliberately to entice. Webber, Hodges and many others who
visited the Pacific from Europe created images that tickled and
Fig. 37
William Hodges ra, A View
Taken in the Bay of Oaite Peha
(Vaitepiha) Otaheite (Tahiti)
(‘Tahiti Revisited’), 1776.
Oil on canvas, 92.7 × 138.4 cm.
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich,
London
troubled the European imagination of the Pacific body and
landscape (fig. 37).
In my own context within Mogei culture in the Melpa
region of the Papua New Guinea Highlands, the body is not
an object. The body is not seen or treated as separate and
immutable from what we call noman – knowledge of history,
experiences, memory, feelings and place. The body as a distinct
concept is not part of our way of doing and remembering. I do not
see myself as an enclosed and complete vessel, outside of and
beyond connection to place, family and land. In our performances
and art-making the body is not outside of the mind as a separate
domain or entity. When the body is decorated for performance,
the idea is not to make the body beautiful and good to look at
and admire from a distance. Bedecked with accoutrements, the
decorated body is not and cannot be seen as the self-expression
of the person, nor, in performance, as the physical expression of
an individual actor. In performance, the mind does not control
the body and neither does the body attempt to free itself from
the mind. Rather there is confluence where the bedecked body
is a site, a medium that engages and generates. While each
performer remains extraneous to the other, they generate an
ensemble. The movements, songs, sounds of drums, fragrance
73
 from plants and oil, feathers, leaves and colour, entangle and
entwine. The body merges with a synergy of movement, colour,
sound and fragrance, each discrete and yet impossible to
separate (figs 38, 40, 42). My own life as a Mogei man can be
seen in these performative terms, in which my own body or ‘self’
is interwoven or entangled in a montage of relationships with
family, home, places and historical, social and cultural memories.
I was born in Kilipika village, a small hamlet nestled along
an old riverbed.3 Many, many years ago my grandfather, Kulur
Gharwu – Totah, I called him – had decided to settle there beside
the fertile banks of the River Gholk. Now and again she revelled.
After a heavy downpour torrents of water would sweep past
our homes, burst the banks and run amok through the corn and
sweet potato gardens planted alongside her. Logs, uprooted
banana trunks and leaves of all descriptions would be strewn
all over the garden. As she receded, loads of yellow clay would
be deposited along the drains and garden beds. Today Gholk is
a small steady creek. She meanders her way inside the vein-like
gorge she has carved out up and down the valley and eventually
adds her share to the mighty Kum.
I was the first child of Kulur Mel and Kopi Amb Kerua.
The village midwife after my arrival took my umbilical cord and
afterbirth and buried them on a small rise on the edge of our
ceremonial grounds. My grandfather named me Mek. ‘Mek‘ is
usually, in our language, the name of the bird of paradise with
golden plumes. A bamboo shoot was planted on top of the rise
by my maternal uncle. A large clump of bamboo marked that spot
and over the years has served a multitude of purposes.
Growing up in the village, I would spend the days tending
to the family pigs. Tethered and tied to a tree or clumps of pitpit,
the pigs would dig up the earth for worms and other delicacies.
I was to make sure that they did not break free from the rope or
the bushes and wander off, and was to keep them in the shade
when the sun got too warm. Totah had a name for each of our
pigs. Each one would grunt whenever he was nearby. As he
neared they caught his scent and raced out to him, only to be
yanked back by the tethered rope.
Totah and I, every now then, would go into the big forest
in the mountains that surrounded our village to collect bush

Fig. 38
Chimbu performers from the
Central Highlands of Papua
New Guinea at the South
Pacific Festival of Arts, Port
Moresby, Papua New Guinea,
1980. Photograph by Gil Hanly.
Courtesy Gil Hanly

74 75
twine. We would look for the vines that grew from the forest
floor and wound their way up into the canopy. A few moments
during those trips were very memorable. Totah would clutch my
hand. I’d look up to his face. A finger, first to his lips for a gentle
ssshhh, and then he would stretch out to point up to the canopy.
Streaks of sunlight now and again pierced through the leaves
and branches. I could not make out whatever it was high up
there. We then squatted behind a huge tree trunk. I am rock-still.
Suddenly I hear a birdcall and my eyes dart up into the thicket of
the canopy. Totah points up to a tree branch. I see it! I let out a
tiny gasp and spring to my feet. His big hands pull me to sit and
be still. Perched on the thin branch is a kera paraka (red bird of
paradise). Plumes tucked, the creature hops and struts further up
the branch on its wiry legs. Waits. Then with a gentle stretch of
the neck makes several calls. Soon enough another bird swoons
down to a nearby branch. Nonchalant, she stands. Her head juts
left and right. Diffidently, she watches the scheming fellow. As
we observe and wait the male suddenly displays with a swish
a fan of flaming red tail plumes. Then he bends his tiny legs
for gentle pliés and gives out a magnificent waooooo, waoooo,
waoooo, waoooo. The call rings out and reverberates throughout
the forest past the partner on the opposite side. He edges
towards her. Suddenly he is all over her, a flurry of wings and tail
feathers high up in the trees. Plumes and hearts are ablaze.
In our community we took the plumes of the birds of
paradise as items of immense value for trade. Even more
significant were wigs made of human hair and other dried
flowers, which were worn around our heads and served as
platforms for some of the most elaborate headdresses made up of
bird of paradise plumes and a range of other feathers. Dancers’
bodies were embellished with a variety of shells, armbands,
hand-knit aprons, necklaces, carved bones, marsupial fur, tree oil
and selected leaves and moss from the forest. Their faces were
masked with elaborate designs. I adored the women’s facial
design. The white streaks that emanated from their eyes and
rolled down their cheeks were like giant tears (fig. 41). Seeing
their tears and hearing their songs made me want to cry. Songs
were sung in unison to the beat of kundu drums as fully adorned
warriors stepped lightly, did gentle pliés and moved with grace
as the plumes of the birds of paradise swayed back and forth
and glimmered in the sunlight. The bird of paradise plumes came
alive as the human dancers (decorated with their finery) moved
and swayed. Both creatures (human and bird) were no longer
separate. Entwined in a synergy of vivid colours, enchanting
songs and elevated movement, onlookers were enticed and
beguiled by the dancers.

Fig. 39 Fig. 40 opposite Fig. 41 overleaf

John Webber, A Portrait of
Poedua, c. 1782. Oil on canvas,
144.7 × 93.5 cm.
National Library of Australia,
Rex Nan Kivell Collection NK5192
Portrait of a young man named
Buremin painted as ‘the hawk’
(Ni-mbel) for a formal dance
called Ha-leng; Ruruar village,
Atchin, Malekula, Vanuatu,
1915. Photograph by John
Layard.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge,
N.98866.LAY
A line of women dancers
with bailer shells, Kuli tribal
area, Mount Hagen, Western
Highlands Province, Papua
New Guinea, 16 September
1967. Photograph by Marilyn
Strathern.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge,
T.133207.mst

76 77

Fig. 42
Marind-Anim performers
dancing with semi-circular
masks of sago spathe,
Papua New Guinea,
1916–19. Photograph by
Paul Wirz.
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of
Cambridge, P.2722.ACH1
80
And yet, the body that I have is also one that has been
honed by a multitude of forces. Modernisation as a guise for
Europeanisation has ‘machined’ the body that I ‘have’ and ‘think
with’ and am ‘conscious of’ as me. From a European perspective
I am black, Michael, and Papua New Guinean. I am a colonial
subject, in opposition to whiteness, the antithesis of everything
that is European, and someone whose body has been named
and contained in European terms (fig. 43). I was born on 8 March
1959 according to the Birth Records held at the Rebiamul, the
Catholic mission station near the then colonial administration
headquarters, Mount Hagen (named by a German explorer in the
nineteenth century). I am number 10773 on the Baptism Register.
Born to Leo Mel and Rosa Kerua, Father William Ross baptised
me and gave me the name Michael.
I was enrolled in prep class at Holy Trinity Practicing School
in February 1965. The school was about five miles from Kilipika. I
wore a small knitted bag for the front, and over my backside hung
a small bundle of cordyline leaves, all held around my waist by
a belt made from a narrow strip of bark. My father brought me
to school. Each day I would get up early and run to school. The
classroom was built using local material. The floor was covered
in woven bamboo. We all sat on the floor – girls on one side and
boys on the other. I learnt the A, B, C, and counted 1, 2 and 3. We
copied the numbers and letters from the blackboard onto small
square slates with chalk in the morning. Closer to lunchtime we
would sing about the kookaburra bird. Each class opened and
closed with the Lord’s Prayer. Every Wednesday there was Mass
Fig. 43
Michael Mel, L Iamb Nai?
Pombral Molga Kundul Al?
Who Is This Person? Black Or
White? Performance at the De
Young Museum, San Francisco,
28 April 2007.
Photograph Tom Hogarty
81
for the school and all children were required to attend. Anyone
absent from Mass would be called up to the head teacher’s
office. It was rumoured among us children that the headmistress
– Mother Francis – smacked an offender with her cane across a
pair of bare buttocks. Two lashes for preps and first graders, five
for the second and third graders, and the rest would take out the
major prize of ten cane smacks!
The disciplining of our bodies can be seen as a metaphor
for the way colonial education and European perspectives more
generally have subdued and marginalised our experiences as
Indigenous people. Epeli Hau‘ofa, for example, drew a contrast
between our region as a ‘sea of islands’ and its reconstruction as
‘islands in the sea’.
Continental men, namely Europeans, on entering the
Pacific after crossing huge expanses of ocean, introduced
the view of ‘islands in a far sea’. From this perspective
the islands are tiny, isolated dots in a vast ocean …
[O]ur ancestors, who had lived in the Pacific for over two
thousand years, viewed their world as ‘a sea of islands’
rather than as ‘islands in the sea’ … This is the historical
basis of the view that [Pacific communities] are small,
poor and isolated. It is true only insofar as people are still
fenced in and quarantined.4
Or to adapt an insight from Edward Said’s book on the European
construction of the ‘Orient’, the Pacific ‘is not an inert fact of
nature. It is not merely there’; rather it is a cognitive construct,
‘an idea that has a history and a tradition of thought, imagery,
and vocabulary that have given it reality and presence in and for
the West’.5
There is a need for the people of the ‘sea of islands’ to
reinstate and assert their voices and actions to disrupt and
contest the imaging and containment of the ‘Pacific Body’ in
Pacific performances. This is no easy task. Any effort to de-
construct or re-construct the body to account for the experiences
and worldviews of Indigenous communities is a challenge. In this
chapter I have focused on my own story and memories, which
have shown me the labyrinthine nature of reality.
 CATALOGUE
PLATES

82 83
I
VOYAGING
AND
NAVIGATION
 t is ironic that the Islanders of the Pacific were thought – by
I Enlightenment philosophers, for example – to inhabit a state of
nature. There was nothing natural about the human settlement
of the vast Oceanic region, which began around 30,000 years
ago. There is no archaeological evidence for sea-going boats of
any kind from this period, yet Islanders must have had boats to
make the initial voyages that settled the islands of the Bismarck
Archipelago and in due course the Solomon Islands. Those who
undertook these crossings were for a period out of sight of both
the land they had left behind and the land ahead. Their ventures
embraced the sea, in a fashion unprecedented in human
experience.
The human settlement of the islands of the Pacific gained
momentum with the voyages associated with the Lapita peoples
– named for a distinctive style of pottery that spread with
remarkable rapidity through Island Melanesia into western
Polynesia and beyond over the centuries from 1350 bce onward.
People reached the Hawaiian islands, Rapa Nui and New
Zealand between 800 and 1200 ad, and inter-archipelagic
voyaging continued over great distances for centuries. When
Captain James Cook reached Rapa Nui in March 1774, he wrote
that ‘it is extraordinary that the same nation should have spread
themselves over all the Isles of this Vast Ocean from New
Zealand to this Island which is almost a fourth part of the
circumference of the Globe’.
86
The cultures of Oceania diversified and adapted locally.
Apart from in the uplands and interiors of larger islands, people
continued to live on water and in many places still do today.
Canoes constructed for inter-island voyaging, for trade and
exchange ceremonies, for war within lagoons and up and down
rivers and for local fishing were not just vessels but aesthetic
expressions of a group’s genealogy and spiritual power.
Islander voyagers entered new realms during the epoch
of empire. Islanders crewed European ships, visited the Asian
and northern hemisphere ports, and often returned to settle
on islands other than their own. During the twentieth century
they travelled increasingly as labour migrants and created new
communities. In the twenty-first century the prospect of rising
sea-levels threatens to make further voyages of relocation
essential.
The last 250 years have been marked also by the voyages
of artefacts. As cross-cultural encounters gained momentum in
the late eighteenth century, Europeans began avidly to collect
‘artificial curiosities’. For their part, Islanders were keenly
interested in exchange that brought them European novelties.
By the late nineteenth century, ethnographic collecting had
become a form of imperial commerce in itself, and tens of
thousands of objects in due course reached museums
throughout Europe and elsewhere.
Mata Aho Collective
Kiko Moana, 2017
New Zealand (Erena Baker:
Te Atiawa ki Whakarongotai, Ngāti Toa
Rangātira; Sarah Hudson: Ngāti Awa,
Ngāi Tūhoe; Bridget Reweti: Ngāti
Ranginui, Ngāi Te Rangi; Terri Te Tau:
Rangitāne ki Wairarapa)
Polyethylene and cotton thread,
11 × 4 m
Collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Tongarewa, Wellington, ME024286
87
2
Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner (b. 1987)
Tell Them, 2012
Marshall Islands
Film, performance, 3 minutes, 22 seconds
Poetry by Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner / Film by Masahiro Sugano
I prepared the package
for my friends in the states
the dangling earrings woven
into half moons black pearls glinting
like an eye in a storm of tight spirals
the baskets
sturdy, also woven
brown cowry shells shiny
intricate mandalas
shaped by calloused fingers
Inside the basket
a message:
Wear these earrings
to parties
to your classes and meetings
to the grocery store, the corner store
and while riding the bus
Store jewelry, incense, copper coins
and curling letters like this one
in this basket
and when others ask you
where you got this
you tell them
they’re from the Marshall Islands
show them where it is on a map
tell them we are a proud people
toasted dark brown as the carved ribs
88
of a tree stump
tell them we are descendents
of the finest navigators in the world
tell them our islands were dropped
from a basket
carried by a giant
tell them we are the hollow hulls
of canoes as fast as the wind
slicing through the pacific sea
we are wood shavings
and drying pandanus leaves
and sticky bwiros at kemems
tell them we are sweet harmonies
of grandmothers mothers aunties
and sisters
songs late into night
tell them we are whispered prayers
the breath of God
a crown of fushia flowers encircling
aunty mary’s white sea foam hair
tell them we are styrofoam cups of
koolaid red
waiting patiently for the ilomij
tell them we are papaya golden
sunsets bleeding
into a glittering open sea
we are skies uncluttered
majestic in their sweeping
landscape
we are the ocean
terrifying and regal in its power
tell them we are dusty rubber
slippers
swiped
from concrete doorsteps
we are the ripped seams
and the broken door handles of
taxis
we are sweaty hands shaking
another sweaty hand in
heat
tell them
we are days
and nights hotter
than anything you can imagine
tell them we are little girls with
braids
cartwheeling beneath the rain
we are shards of broken beer
bottles
burrowed beneath fine white sand
we are children flinging
like rubber bands
across a road clogged with
chugging cars
tell them
we only have one road
and after all this
tell them about the water
89
how we have seen it rising
flooding across our cemeteries
gushing over the sea walls
and crashing against our homes
tell them what it’s like
to see the entire ocean__level___
with the land
tell them
we are afraid
tell them we don’t know
of the politics
or the science
but tell them we see
what is in our own backyard
tell them that some of us
are old fishermen who believe that
God
made us a promise
some of us
are more skeptical of God
but most importantly tell them
we don’t want to leave
we’ve never wanted to leave
and that we
are nothing without our islands.
 4

Tangonge, the Kaitaia carving,

ad 1300–1400
Kaitaia, North Island, New Zealand
Wood, 39 × 226 cm
Tāmaki Paenga Hira Auckland War Memorial
Museum, 6341

Sculpture of two double figures

and a quadruped, c. 1690–1730
Tahiti, Society Islands
Ficus wood, length 53 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, D 1914.34

90 91
5

Sabi or savi, canoe shield

on crocodile-form prow,
early twentieth century
Kaminimbit village, Iatmul, Sepik River
region, Papua New Guinea
Wood, pigments, sago palm spathe,
cowrie shells, rattan, vegetable fibre,
shield: 80 × 107 cm; prow:
length 185 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 9367ab and Vb 9398

92 93
6

Canoe, before 1900

Wuvulu, Western Islands, Bismarck
Archipelago, Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, length 5.58 m
Museum fur Volkerkunde, Hamburg, E 2787

94 95
7 8 detail overleaf
Bonito fishing canoe,
late nineteenth century
Makira (San Cristobal),
Solomon Islands
Wood, pearl shell, fibre, length 7.2 m
Übersee-Museum, Bremen, D13230
96
Wuramon, soul canoe with figures
of turtles, birds and humans,
mid-twentieth century
Asmat people, Central Asmat region,
south coast of Papua
Wood, natural dyes and pigments, fibre,
length 9.22 m
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
TM-2530-2
97
98 99
9 10
Stone relief from a meeting house,
nineteenth century
Yap, Caroline Islands
Coral stone, length 60 cm
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, GRASSI
Museum für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, Mi 847
Canoe splashboard,
early nineteenth century
Louisiade Archipelago, Papua
New Guinea
Wood, pigment, 34 × 51 cm
British Museum, London, Oc1851,0103.2
100
11
Lagim and tabuya, canoe
splashboard and prow,
early twentieth century
Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, length 60 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
71.1928.13.1
101
 12

Canoe prow, early to

mid-twentieth century
Wakde-Yamna area, Humboldt Bay,
north coast of Papua
Wood, paint, height 40 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
TM-2003-128

13

Nguzunguzu, figure from

a canoe prow, nineteenth century
Marovo Lagoon, New Georgia,
Solomon Islands
Wood, shell inlay, height 16.5 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 7525

102 103
 15

Taurapa, canoe sternpost,

late eighteenth or early
nineteenth century
Māori, New Zealand
Wood, shell, height 148 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
72.1985.1.2 D

14

Canoe prow, late nineteenth

or early twentieth century
Kamoro people, south coast of Papua
Wood, limewash, length 155.5 cm
Museum Volkenkunde, Leiden, RV-1889-255

104 105
 16, 17

Hoe, canoe paddles,

eighteenth century
Māori, New Zealand
Wood, paint, lengths 189 cm and
180.5 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University
of Cambridge, D 1914.66, D 1914.67

18

Paddle, nineteenth century

Santa Cruz or Reef Islands,
Solomon Islands
Wood, pigments, length 169 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
TM-H-2249

19

Paddle, early nineteenth century

Santa Isabel Island (?), Solomon Islands
Wood, paint, mother of pearl,
length 132.2 cm
Musée de Boulogne-sur-Mer, 998.3.58 (49/10)

20

Steering oar, early twentieth

century
Kairiru Island, Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, length 392 cm
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Museum für
Völkerkunde Dresden, 75367

21

Paddle, late nineteenth or early

twentieth century
Dibiri Island, Bamu Delta,
Papua New Guinea
Wood, imported buttons, length 231 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, E 1916.143.27

106 107
 22 23 24

Canoe paddle, Canoe paddle, collected 1907–10 Hoe, canoe paddle, nineteenth
mid-twentieth century Unir River, Asmat, south coast of Papua
century
Asmat, south coast of Papua Wood, lime and ochre pigments, Northern New Zealand
Wood, length 276 cm length 332.5 cm Wood, length 176 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands, Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands, Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 34-38-1
TM-2919-7 TM-A-302b

108 109
 25

Hos, navigator’s
weather charm,
late nineteenth or
early twentieth century
Lamotrek Atoll, Yap Archipelago,
Caroline Islands
Wood, pigment, stingray spine,
fibre and shell, length 29 cm
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 77830

26

Navigator’s weather charm,

late nineteenth or early twentieth
century
Caroline Islands
Stingray spine, vegetable fibre, coral,
length 20 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
70.2013.1.2626

110 111
27 28 29 overleaf

Navigation chart, Navigation chart, Navigation chart,

nineteenth century nineteenth century nineteenth century
Marshall Islands Marshall Islands
Ailinglaplap Atoll, Marshall Islands
Wood, fibre, snail shells, 90 × 90 cm Wood, fibre, snail shells,
Wood, cane and shell,
34.2 × 55.7 cm
118.7 × 30.6 cm Museum fur Volkerkunde, Hamburg, 393:1
National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen,
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 87629
I.1738

112 113
114 115
30

Tupaia (c. 1725–1770)

Untitled drawing of a Tahitian
scene, April – July 1769
Society Islands
Pencil and watercolour on paper,
26.7 × 37 cm (whole sheet)
British Library, London, Add MS 15508, f.14

116 117
31 32 33

Titere (c. 1800s) Tuai (known as Thomas Tooi, Tuai

Drawing of four kites, 1818 1797?–1824) and Titere (c. 1800s) Drawing of two waka (canoes),
England
Drawings of a waka (canoe) and 1818
Ink on paper, 16 × 10.4 cm moko (face tattoo), 1818 England
Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero England Ink on paper, 15.9 × 19.7 cm
o Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland, Ink on paper, 13.7 × 19.7 cm (verso of cat. 32)
GNZMMSS-147-1
Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero
o Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland, o Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland,
london only
GNZMMS-147-2 GNZMMSS-147-3

paris only london only

118 119
 34 35

Tuai Tuai
Drawing of Korokoro’s moko Drawing of a waka (canoe), 1818
(face tattoo), 1818 England
England Ink on paper, 18.3 × 31.2 cm
Ink on paper, 20.6 × 16.1 cm Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero
o Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland,
Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero
GNZMMSS-147-4
o Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland,
GNZMMSS-147-5
paris only
london only

36–39 overleaf

Aqo (ʚ. 1890–1910)

Four untitled drawings of maritime
scenes with canoes, 1908
Simbo, Western Solomon Islands
Pencil on paper, each 25.5 × 36 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University
of Cambridge, 2010.441, 2010.442, 2010.443, 2010.444

120 121
122 123
 40

Fishhook, eighteenth century

Hawaiian Islands
Bone, fibre, height 9 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1923.103 c

41

Fishhook, eighteenth century

Society Islands
Shell, fibre, height 8.3 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1925.421

42

Fishhook, eighteenth century

Society Islands
Pearlshell, bone, fibre, height 10 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, D 1914.29

124 125
 43

Female tattooed figure, eighteenth

or early nineteenth century
Aitutaki, Cook Islands
Wood, pigment, height 58 cm
Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 190

44

Drum, late eighteenth

or early nineteenth century
Ra‘ivavae, Austral Islands
Wood, fish skin, coconut fibre, height 128 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, E 1904.459

126 127
 46

Tiki akau or katina, figure

of a god or ancestor,
late eighteenth or early
nineteenth century
Marquesas Islands
Wood, height 117.5 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
70.2000.12.1

45

Female figure with child,

late nineteenth or early
twentieth century
Ifar village, Lake Sentani, north
coast of West Papua
Wood, height 91 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 6659

128 129
 47

Substitute trophy head,

early twentieth century
Purari Delta, Papua New Guinea
Wood, ochre, height 72 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, E.1905.408

48

Flute stopper, early twentieth

century
Biwat language group, Yuat River,
Sepik region, Papua New Guinea
Wood, cassowary feathers, teeth,
shells, turtle shell, fibre, pigments,
height 73 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 2906

130 131
49

Te otanga, armour, helmet and

trident, late nineteenth century
Kiribati
Armour (opposite): coconut fibre,
human hair, height of cuirass c. 102 cm,
length of overalls 165 cm;
Helmet (opposite): fish skin,
diameter|E. 20 cm;
Trident (this page): coconut palm wood,
shark teeth, human hair, palm fibre,
palm leaf, length c. 117 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University
of Cambridge, Z 7034.1-3, 2011.93.3, E 1907.603

133
 51

Shield, late nineteenth

or beginning of twentieth century
Unir River, northwest Asmat,
south coast of Papua
Wood, paint, height 168.5 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
TM-A-528

50

Female figure, early to

mid-twentieth century
Attributed to Giri people, lower Bamu
River, East Sepik Province, Papua New
Guinea
Wood, pigment, shell, vegetable fibre,
height 24.5 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
71.1960.112.18

134 135
 52

Kavat mask, 1890–1913

Baining people, New Britain,
Papua New Guinea
Fibre, bamboo, barkcloth, paint,
76 × 65 × 50 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 5676

53

Suspension hook, mother and

child, mid-twentieth century
Iatmul people, Kanganaman village, East
Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea
Wood, height 72 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
TM-2670-28

136 137
 55

Vayola, war shield,

late nineteenth century
Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea
Acacia wood, cane, ochre, charcoal
and lime, 74 × 33 cm
National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen,
Ib.754

54

Shield, late nineteenth century

Humboldt Bay, north coast of Papua
Wood, height 119 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,
Netherlands, TM-A-719

138 139
 56
Shield, early twentieth century
Kundima village on the lower Yuat River,
Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, fibre, cassowary feathers,
height 173 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1930.430
140
57
Worrumbi or elayaborr, shield,
mid-twentieth century
Mendi or Wola people, Southern
Highlands, Papua New Guinea
Wood, pigment, fibre, height 123.5 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
72.1997.1.2
58 overleaf
Michael Parekowhai (b. 1968)
*G-ȨTGTQ2ɂTǜMCWOQ6G#YCPWK
o Te Motu: story of a New Zealand
river, 2011
New Zealand (Nga Ariki Rotoawe)
Piano, wood, ivory, brass, lacquer,
steel, ebony, pāua shell, mother of pearl,
upholstery, two pieces:
103 × 275 × 175 cm (piano);
85.5 × 46 × 41 cm (chair)
Collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Tongarewa, Wellington, 2011-0046-1/A-N to N-N
141
142 143
II
MAKING
PLACE

144 145
W
hen islands were settled, they ceased to be purely
natural environments and became inhabited places.
Human occupation changed them physically, as
slopes and valleys began to sustain gardens and irrigation
systems, and shorelines came to feature fishponds. Moreover,
places were made architecturally. Throughout Oceania, houses
manifested sociality, through spectacular painted facades,
through great sculpted posts representing ancestors and through
stone walls and raised platforms that marked ritual precincts. In
some places, canoe houses sheltered great vessels vital to ritual
fishing expeditions or warfare.
Space was never simply a physical realm but an
environment defined by activity, seasonality and a cosmological
and mythical formation: in some places the terrain was
conceived as resting on the back of a crocodile; elsewhere,
islands had been fished up, drawn to the surface of the ocean by
a deity. Seas, reefs, streams, forests and mountains were
distinctively inhabited realms; day-to-day ritual propitiated spirits
who might bring success in fishing and hunting. Oceanic places
were marked and defined by many forms of art – from rock
engravings to botanical adornment – that did not take the form
of artefacts and were never susceptible to being collected.
Throughout the Pacific, ancestors, gods and spirits were
represented through sculpted, painted, woven or otherwise
created forms that recalled the creation of the world, the
constitution of the cosmos and the tension between divine
principles – of conquest and fertility, for example. Houses
featured named ancestors and narratives of genealogy,
movement and settlement, and commemorated those recently
deceased. Architectural elements dramatised the power and
accomplishments of particular groups and were often there to
confront visitors. Oceanic art was thus commonly not an
expression of identity, but a story of affinity, of the relations
sustained with places of origin and with other groups elsewhere,
an expression of defiance in the context of contest and tension.
Art enabled Islanders to make places, but it did so in a dynamic
and evolving way, all the more so as cross-cultural encounters
brought new intruders with new claims upon Islanders’ places.
59
Malu semban, openwork board,
early twentieth century
Sawos people, Sepik region,
Papua New Guinea
Wood, 165.5 × 59.4 × 8 cm
(including fibre loop)
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1935.39
146 147
60 61

Ahuia Ova (c. 1875–1951) Ahuia Ova

Drawing of a dubu (ceremonial
platform), 1903–04
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
Graphite and red crayon on paper,
34.6 × 43 cm
British Museum, London, Oc2006,Drg.689
Drawing of two urita (supernatural
creatures), 1903–04
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
Graphite and red crayon on paper,
34.1 × 43.3 cm
British Museum, London, Oc2006,Drg.694

148 149
 63

Bisj, ceremonial pole,

mid-twentieth century
Amborep village, central Asmat,
south coast of Papua
Wood, pigment, height 5.25 m
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,
Netherlands, RV-3242-2

62

Mimia, male carved figure,

late nineteenth or early
twentieth century
Kiwai Island (?), Western Province,
Papua New Guinea
Wood and pigment traces,
127 × 16 × 16 cm
British Museum, London, Oc1906,1013.41

150 151
 64

To’o, woven image of the god

’Oro, late eighteenth or early
nineteenth century
Society Islands
Wood, coconut fibre, height 48.5 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1907.342

65

Ti’i, god image with two

heads, early nineteenth
century
Tahiti, Society Islands
Cordia wood, height 59 cm

British Museum, London, Oc1955,10.1

152 153
66
Ki’i, temple of Ku-ka’ili-moku,
the god Ku, the Island Snatcher,
late eighteenth or early nineteenth
century
Attributed to the Kona coast, Hawai‘i
Breadfruit wood, height 267 cm
British Museum, London, Oc1839,0426.8
154
67
Uli figure, early twentieth
century
Central New Ireland, Bismarck
Archipelago, Papua New Guinea
Wood, natural pigments (including
lime and soot), shell, plant fibre,
height 139 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,
Netherlands, on loan from Universiteitsmuseum
Groningen, Netherlands, TM-6156-2
155
 69, 70

Female and male figures,

late nineteenth or early
twentieth century
Kranket Island, Madang Harbour,
Astrolabe Bay, Papua New Guinea
Wood, pigment, heights 232.8 and
258.5 cm
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 63096, 63097

68

Orator’s stool, mid-twentieth

century
Kabriman village, Blackwater River,
middle Sepik region, Papua New Guinea
Wood, pigment, conus shell,
147 × 48 × 53 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb17563

156 157
71 detail opposite

Decorated beam,
mid-nineteenth century
Uki, southeast Solomon Islands
Wood, paint, shell, length 466 cm

Maidstone Museum, 1271

158 159
 72

Tutulu, ceremonial house post,

late nineteenth or early
twentieth century
Buliali, Emira Island, Bismarck
Archipelago, Papua New Guinea
Wood, pigments, height 261.5 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1927.1932

73

Attributed to Karibwongi
Ragerage (b. c. 1860)
House post, nineteenth or
early twentieth century
Makira (San Cristobal),
Solomon Islands
Wood, height 211 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
70.1999.5.3

160 161
74 75

Finial sculpture, Yipwon figure, nineteenth

mid-twentieth century or twentieth century
Gaikarobi village, Wosera-Gaui area, Korewori River, Angoram, East Sepik
East Sepik Province, Papua Province, Papua New Guinea
New Guinea Wood, height 184 cm
Wood, height 171 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris, 70.2007.41.1
72.1963.5.12

163
 76

Decorated beam from a bai,

men’s meeting house, early to
mid-nineteenth century
Palau
Wood, paint, in two sections,
265 cm and 271 cm (front and back
shown)
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden,
Museum für Völkerkunde Dresden, 05518 and
05519

164 165
 77

Gable sculpture with emaciated

figure and hybrid bird,
late nineteenth or early
twentieth century
Asei village, Lake Sentani, north coast
of West Papua
Wood and pigment, 197 × 9 × 28 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 6665

78

Gable sculpture with figure

and fish, late nineteenth or early
twentieth century
Asei village (?), Lake Sentani,
north coast of West Papua
Wood and pigment, 312 × 50 × 60 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 6669

166 167
 80

Female figure with child, nineteenth

or early twentieth century
Ussiai people, Manus Island, Admiralty
Islands, Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, height 74 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb11911

79

House post, late nineteenth

or early twentieth century
Doyo village, Lake Sentani, north coast
of Papua
Wood, height c. 250 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
TM-2202-101

168 169
 81

2QWRQW, wall carving,

1840–60
Te Arawa, Māori, New Zealand
Wood, inlaid eyes of haliotis shell,
145 × 71 × 6 cm
British Museum, London, Oc1894,0716.2

82

Male deity figure known

as Rao, before 1835
Mangareva, Gambier Islands
Wood, height 106 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac,
Paris, 72.53.287

170 171
 84

Tino aitu, male deity figure

known as Ko Kawe (Kave),
nineteenth century
Nukuoro, Caroline Islands
Wood, height 163 cm
Museum für Völkerkunde, Hamburg, E 1894

83

Facade sculpture representing

Dilukai, late nineteenth or early
twentieth century
Palau
Wood, height 61.5 cm
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 76310

172 173
 85 86

Deity figure known as A’a Ancestor figure named Popua,

late sixteenth or seventeenth late nineteenth or early twentieth
century century
Rurutu, Austral Islands Nukumanu, Papua New Guinea
Sandalwood, height 116.8 cm Wood, fibre, shell, height 275 cm

British Museum, London, Oc,LMS.19 Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, GRASSI

Museum für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, Me 10903

174
 88

Model of Waiet, c. 1905

Mer Island, Torres Strait
Wood, shell, turtle shell, cassowary
feathers, feathers, pigments,
height 34 cm

Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,

University of Cambridge, Z 9453

87

Sculpture of the god Lono,

late eighteenth century
Hawaiian Islands
Wood, height 89 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
71.1879.10.11.1

176 177
 89 90

Female figure, early nineteenth Moai Hava, c. 1100–1600

century Rapa Nui
Amaile village, Aleipata district, Upolu, Basalt, 210 × 106.5 × 94 cm
Samoa British Museum, London, Oc1869,1006.1
Wood, shell, height 69 cm

British Museum, London, Oc1841,0211.52

178 179
III
THE SPIRIT
OF THE GIFT

180 181
 cross Oceania, human life was shaped less by defined
A social groups and more by relationships. People sustained
lifelong obligations to kin, such as their mother’s
relatives, to whom presentations would be made at times of
marriage, the birth of children and death. Larger groups
periodically hosted others and made great ceremonial offerings
of food or valuables; these were highly competitive: the
recipients might struggle for years to bring together appropriately
sumptuous return offerings. There were myriad circumstances
under which specific gifts were made to bring about particular
outcomes: peace and reconciliation, a transfer of land, the
acquisition of ritual knowledge.
In the early twentieth century, anthropologists such as
Bronislaw Malinowski and Marcel Mauss famously revealed the
extent to which Pacific Islanders presented each other with
things in order to create and extend relationships. That is, they
didn’t merely engage in exchange in order to secure goods or to
obtain access to products that they themselves could not
produce (although a great deal of trade was carried out as well,
in order to distribute rare and valuable stone, shell and ochre,
feathers and other bird, animal and plant products, and artefacts
expertly made by peoples of particular localities). Gift-giving
brought prestige to donors and created debts, partnerships and
connections that gave people identities, and which they
negotiated throughout their lives. Gifts forged connections
between communities, and these ties were periodically
marked with further gifts, which re-enacted and extended
the relationship.
The gift was never just a transaction: it was also a 91
spectacle, and frequently a highly aestheticised one. Hence,
among the many artefacts that constituted gifts, fabrics loomed
large. Across Oceania, barkcloth was beaten to the fineness of
Double-figure hook,
late eighteenth or early
nineteenth century
tissue, delicately stained or painted with dynamic, geometric Fiji or Tonga
motifs and botanical images of growth and fecundity. Some of Whale ivory, glass beads, fibre,
height 12.5 cm (without cord)
these textiles were for wrapping around the body, others were
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
joined to form vast fabrics, which were spread across the ground University of Cambridge, 1955.247
for great public events marking the marriages and funerals of
aristocrats.
In the early decades of encounter, cross-cultural gifts were
made strategically. Ambitious chiefs presented works bearing
extraordinary spiritual power to visitors – also unavoidably
intruders – such as Captain Cook. These gifts were not
expressions of obeisance but efforts to shape relationships with
people who appeared, suddenly, from beyond the worlds known
to Islanders. They aimed to bring evidently powerful, potentially
dangerous strangers into the web of engagements and
obligations that constituted Islanders’ lives.
182 183
 92 93 94

Necklace with seventeen fish,
late eighteenth or early nineteenth
century
Fiji (but possibly made in Tonga)
Whale ivory, shell, coconut shell, fibre,
28 cm (length of longest pendant)
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, Z 2770
Necklace of eight anthropomorphic
figures, nineteenth century
Fiji
Whale ivory, fibre, length 49 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University
of Cambridge, Z 2752
‘Head’ of money, early twentieth
century
Houaïlou (?), New Caledonia
Flying fox fur, lizard bones, shells, fibre,
height 19 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
71.1934.2.89

184 185
 96

Soulava, necklace,
early twentieth century
Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea
Shells, seeds, glass beads, pandanus leaf,
length 75 cm
British Museum, London, Oc,M.332

97 overleaf

Barkcloth, nineteenth century

Aitutaki, Cook Islands
Barkcloth, pigment, c. 1.66 × 3.38 m
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, E 1901.123

95

Mwali, armshell,
early twentieth century
Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea
Pandanus leaf, glass, fibre, cone shell,
cockleshell, diameter of shell: 6.5 cm
British Museum, London, Oc,M.333

186 187
188 189
98 99

Flax cloak with VǜPKMQ border, n#JWnWNC, feather cloak,

eighteenth century
Māori, New Zealand
Muka fibre from harakeke, flax (Phormium
tenax), dye, width 2.55 m
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, D 1924.84
early nineteenth century
Hawaiian Islands
Feathers, fibre, painted barkcloth
(on reverse), width 2.27 m
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1934.1159

190 191
100

Masi, barkcloth,
mid- to late nineteenth century
Matuku or Moala, eastern Fiji
Barkcloth, dyes, 3.31 × 4.44 m
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, Z 5064

192 193
101 102

.G#IGCIGCQ6WOWCnKGVȨIC, Siapo mamanu, painted

fine mat, nineteenth century
Samoa
Pandanus leaf, feathers, 2.28 × 2.26 m
Collection of the Museum of New Zealand
Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, FE011716
barkcloth, late nineteenth or early
twentieth century
Samoa
Barkcloth, ochre, 1.8 × 2.36 m
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, Z 30709

194 195
 103

Tivaevae ta’orei, patchwork quilt,

c. 1900
Cook Islands
Cotton, 2.23 × 2.89 m
Collection of the Museum of New Zealand
Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, FE011982

196 197
 105

#MWCJWNWOCPW feathered god

image, probably Ku the god of war,
late eighteenth century
Hawaiian Islands
Fibre frame, human hair, pearl shell,
seeds, dog teeth, feathers,
height 81 cm
British Museum, London, Oc,HAW.80

104

#MWCJWNWOCPW
feathered god image,
late eighteenth century
Hawaiian Islands
Fibre, feathers, human hair, pearl shell,
seed, dog teeth, height 62 cm
British Museum, London, Oc,HAW.78

198 199
IV
PERFORMANCE
AND
CEREMONY

200 201
 cross Oceania, the daily routines of gardening, fishing

A and other subsistence activities were from time to time

disrupted by dramatic, spectacular, sometimes
frightening ceremonial activities, which drew people together in
far greater numbers than ever normally congregated, and which
sometimes required years of preparation in order to build food
supplies, procure valuable offerings, construct special ritual
precincts and prepare individuals for participation in rituals and
performances. Such events, which varied significantly between
cultures in terms of their social foci and meanings, were of
paramount importance in many Islanders’ imaginations and were
at the heart of their aspirations and ambitions. Some ceremonies
were enacted seasonally, others were far more infrequent,
perhaps experienced just once or twice in a lifetime, and, relative
to their extended preparation, realised in relatively brief, intense
and dramatic events.
It would require an encyclopedia to map the different
purposes and contexts of performance throughout the Pacific.
Across New Guinea, male and female initiation was a protracted,
staged process, subjecting novices to ordeals and body
modifications such as scarification. Frequently masks or effigies
representing malevolent spirits were used to terrify participants,
along with the sounds of hidden drums and sacred bullroarers.
Only on the conclusion of the rite would the real nature of the
masks and musical instruments be revealed. Elsewhere,
headhunting raids, fishing expeditions, the installation of chiefs,
marriages and alliances were all marked by ceremonies of
various kinds.
Warfare, although deadly, was also aesthetic performance,
hence the daunting and elaborate decoration of shields, clubs
and other weapons. Conversely, clubs and axes were widely
employed in dance, frequently an expression not only of
aggressive vigour, but also of unity: social collectivity was not
something that simply existed, but something brought into view
by an assemblage of people, harmoniously and brilliantly
decorated, choreographically united through performance. These
kinds of displays can still be witnessed today, not only in local
ceremonies but through international gatherings such as the
Festival of Pacific Arts, which has rotated around Island nations
since the 1970s.
106

Headdress, early
twentieth century
Roro people, Yule Island,
Papua New Guinea
Fibre, feathers, shell,
c. 240 × 200 cm
Museum Volkenkunde, Leiden, RV-1999-550

202 203
 107 108

Necklace, before 1912 Necklace, before 1909

Tobi Island, Palau Wuvulu, Papua New Guinea
Sea urchin spines, fibre, diameter Shark vertebrae, shell
c. 30 cm (Cassis rufa), glass beads, fibre,
diameter c. 35 cm
Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 12-43-184
Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich,
09-599

204 205
109

Club, eighteenth century

Balade Harbour, New Caledonia
Wood, length 64 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1922.986

110

Koka dance ‘shield’,

late nineteenth century
Buin, Autonomous Region of
Bougainville, Papua New Guinea
Wood, chalk, ochres, height 100 cm
British Museum, London, Oc1900,-.65

206 207
 111

Gizu
Krar, composite mask,
late nineteenth century
Nagir, Torres Strait Islands
Turtle shell, height 55 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1890.182

112

Mawa mask,
nineteenth century
Saibai Island, Torres Strait
Islands
Wood, pigment, shell,
feathers, 77 × 55 × 25 cm
The National Museum of Ireland,
Dublin, AE:1887.62

208 209
113

Tupaia
Untitled drawing of dancing woman
and chief mourner,
June – August 1769
Society Islands
Pencil and watercolour, 28 × 39 cm
British Library, London, Add 15508, f.9

210 211
114
Qana vivi, pandanus textile,
early twentieth century
Ambae, Vanuatu
Pandanus fibre, dye, 155 × 53 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb4472
212
115 detail overleaf
Heva tupapau, ’the costume
of the chief mourner’,
eighteenth century
Tahiti, Society Islands
Pearl shell, feathers, turtle shell, coconut
shell, coconut fibre, barkcloth, pigments,
height 234 cm
Royal Albert Memorial Museum and Art Gallery,
Exeter, E1742, 1776, 1777, 1778a, b, 1779, 1781
london only
213
214 215
 116

Fan, early nineteenth century

Rarotonga, Cook Islands
Plant fibre, wood, 50 × 40.5 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, Z 6102

117

Tahi’i, fan,
early nineteenth century
Marquesas Islands
Woven pandanus, coconut fibre,
wood, bone, height 38.5 cm
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, S40592L

216 217
 118

Ceremonial adze,
nineteenth century
New Caledonia
Jadeite, wood, shell, plant fibre, bat
(possibly flying fox) fur, height 66 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
71.1937.10.1

119
Mark Adams (b. 1949)
Chalfont Crescent, Mangere,
5QWVJ#WEMNCPF,KO6CQʙPWoW
Tufuga tatatau: Su’a Sulu’ape
2CWNQ++, 30 June 1985
New Zealand
C Type prints, 120 × 150 cm
Courtesy of the artist

218 219
120 detail opposite

‘U’u, club,
nineteenth century
Marquesas Islands
Wood (toa, Casuarina equisetifolia),
length 148 cm
Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 94-264

121

Dance wand,
late nineteenth century
Baining people, New Britain, Papua
New Guinea
Barkcloth, pigment over cane or wood
frame, height 286 cm
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Museum für
Völkerkunde Dresden, 12085

122 below

Carved figure known as Pepe,

nineteenth century
New Britain, Papua New Guinea
Wood, pigment, fibre, length 185 cm
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Museum für
Völkerkunde Dresden, 08098

220 221
 123 124 125

#RCoCRCK, rhomboidal club, 1770s
Tongan Islands
Wood, height 90.1 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1925.830
Culacula, club, mid-nineteenth 2CMKRCMK, war club, 1790s
century Tonga
Fiji Hardwood, height 112 cm
Wood, height 108.5 cm Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,
Netherlands, TM-A-1626a
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, Z 2970

222 223
126

Wenena gerua, headdress

ornament, mid-twentieth century
Siane people, Eastern Highlands,
Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, height 104 cm
(both sides shown)

Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,

Netherlands, TM-2670-548

224 225
 127

Dance paddle featuring

animals and European figures,
late nineteenth century
Autonomous Region of Bougainville,
Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, height 100 cm
(both sides shown)

Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 20706

128

Shield, late nineteenth

or early twentieth century
Mengen people, New Britain,
Papua New Guinea
Wood, fibre, feathers, paint,
height 138 cm (both sides shown)
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 14323

226 227
 129

Figure (mask attachment),

c. 1914
Sulka, New Britain, Papua New Guinea
Tree bark, wood, human hair,
45 × 46 × 14 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 28155

228 229
 130

Shield, late twentieth century

Central Highlands, Papua
New Guinea
Wood, paint, 160 × 71 × 10 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 27276

131

Shield, mid-twentieth century

Abau people, Idam or Green River
valley, upper Sepik River region,
Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, 162 × 58 × 9 cm
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 21203

132

#KCKOWPW mask,
late nineteenth century
Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea
Wood, barkcloth, cane, pigment,
height 245 cm
The National Museum of Ireland, Dublin,
AE:1890.351

230 231
 133 134

Shield with inlaid shell, Taumi, gorget,

late nineteenth century late eighteenth century
Solomon Islands Society Islands
Fibre, resin, paint, pearl shell, shell, Fibre, feathers, shark teeth, dog hair,
96 × 31 × 9 cm height 73 cm
National Museums Scotland, Edinburgh, A.1948.425 National Museums Liverpool, RI 57.73

232 233
V
ENCOUNTER
AND EMPIRE

234 235
J
ust as precolonial interactions among Islanders involved
exchange and the movement of motifs, styles and actual
artefacts, which were frequently used in communities
other than those in which they had been created, meetings with
Europeans from the eighteenth century onwards prompted
artistic innovation. The practices of scientific illustration,
witnessed from the voyage of the Endeavour onwards,
encouraged Islanders, beginning with the master navigator
Tupaia, to experiment with drawing on paper and with illustrative
approaches that had few precedents in customary art.
Throughout Oceania, woven textiles and beaten barkcloth
were of enormous social and spiritual significance. It is therefore
not surprising that European cloth was eagerly sought in trade.
Islanders were quick to recognise that flags were special fabrics
associated with power and sovereignty. They were swiftly
emulated and flag-derived designs were reproduced in tattoos,
on fabrics and in personal ornaments.
Christian missionaries were prominent agents of change,
and they encouraged the rejection and frequently the destruction
of ‘idols’, but the number of European missionaries in the Pacific
was comparatively small, and religious change was brought
about, above all, by Islanders themselves, who had diverse
reasons for adopting what they saw as a new cult.
Empire did involve violent intrusion, the appropriation of
land, the exploitation of labour and the affirmation of sovereignty
on the part of European powers. The imposition of colonial law
was accomplished in part through punitive operations, which
sometimes enabled individuals to obtain artefacts and works of
art, such as the Roviana feasting trough (cat. 149), through
looting. But artefacts reached European collections and
museums as much because Islanders keenly engaged in colonial
commerce, often producing artefacts especially for trade,
including new genres of object, precursors of modern tourist arts.
For better or worse, empire also opened up new
imaginings for Islanders. Artists such as Tene Waitere responded
to European commissions, and produced experimental works
outside the context of customary architectural art. Artists also
represented colonial life, often in comic terms, subtly or overtly
mocking the odd appearance, mannerisms and sexual appetites
of European colonisers.
Lisa Reihana’s in pursuit of Venus (infected) (cat. 153) offers
an extraordinary re-enactment of early encounters, exemplifying
the continuing vitality of Indigenous performance in the present.
One of the aspects of encounter most damaging for Islander
populations was the rapid spread of sexually transmitted disease,
which caused widespread infertility and was a major contributor
to the catastrophic depopulation that many islands and
archipelagos suffered over the course of the nineteenth century.
The ‘infected’ of the title highlights that harm, but also points to
manifold ways in which these cultural meetings affected the
bodies, lives, experiences and cultures of both peoples of the
Pacific and the West.
135
Ngatu, barkcloth,
late nineteenth century
Tonga
Barkcloth, pigments, 2.74 × 5.9 m
Manchester Museum, 0.9322/469
236 237
 136

Hiapo, painted barkcloth,

c. 1888–90
Niue
Barkcloth, pigments, 2.28 × 1.86 m
British Museum, London, Oc1953,+.3

137 detail overleaf

Painted barkcloth representing

the Titikaveka church, c. 1842–46
Rarotonga, Cook Islands
Barkcloth, pigments, 1.31 × 2.21 m
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 2017.25

238 239
240 241
138

Pennant flag of the Union

of Tūhoe, c. 1860s–1870s
Māori, New Zealand
Cloth, 5.72 × 1.05 m
Collection of the Museum of New
Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa,
Wellington, ME000796

242 243
 139 140

Tene Waitere (1854–1931) Attributed to Patoromu Tamatea

Ta Moko panel, 1896–99 (ʚ. 1850–1870)
New Zealand
Whakapakoko, Madonna
Wood, shell, paint, height 78 cm and Child, c. 1840s
Collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Māori, New Zealand
Tongarewa, Wellington, ME004211 Wood, shell, height c. 60 cm
Tāmaki Paenga Hira Auckland War Memorial
Museum, Auckland

244 245
 142

Paddle inscribed ‘ATOPA 1846’,

1846
Ra’ivavae, Austral Islands
Wood, height 97.5 cm
National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, Ib.116

141

Crucifix, early twentieth century

Solomon Islands
Wood, pigments, height 116 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris, 71.1934.188.1892

246 247
 145
143 144
Moai papa, female figure,
Engraved bamboo, Aqo
c. 1850–70
late nineteenth century Figure of a woman, c. 1900
Rapa Nui
New Caledonia Simbo, western Solomon Islands
Toro miro wood (Sophora toromiro),
Bamboo, ochre, height 111.7 cm Wood, pigment, fibre, height 34 cm
obsidian, bone, height 64.5 cm
British Museum, London, Oc1913,1115.369 The National Museum of Ireland, Dublin, AE:1923.225
National Museums Scotland, Edinburgh, A.1895.373

248 249
146

Figure, 1880s
Fiji
Fern wood, whale’s tooth, shell, fibre,
height 103 cm
National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, Ia.75(d)

147

Female figure, 1950s

Keenakap, central Asmat,
Papua
Wood, paint, fibre, height 56 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,
Netherlands, TM-2541-23

148

Male figure, 1950s

Keenakap, central Asmat,
Papua
Wood, paint, fibre, height 59 cm
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,
Netherlands, TM-2541-22

250 251
 149 detail above

Feast trough in the form of a

crocodile, late nineteenth century
Kalikongu village, Roviana lagoon,
Solomon Islands
Carved wood, shell inlay, pigment,
length 692 cm
British Museum, London, Oc1903,1007.1

252 253
 152

Shield with image of the Phantom,

late twentieth century
Wahgi Valley, Papua New Guinea
Wood, rope, pigment, plastic,
height 161 cm
Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford, 2002.22.1

150

European figure, late nineteenth

or early twentieth century
Babelthuap, Palau
Wood, paint, height c. 100 cm
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, GRASSI
Museum für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, Mi 2285

151

European figure, late nineteenth

century
Sorol Island, Yap
Wood, fibre, paint, height 51 cm
Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum, Cologne, 40584

254 255
153

Lisa Reihana (b. 1964)

KP2WTUWKVQH8GPWU=KPHGEVGF?,
2015–17 (details)
New Zealand (Ngā Puhi, Ngāti Hine, Ngāi Tu)
Single-channel video, UltraHD, colour,
7.1 sound, 64 minutes
Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, gift of the
Patrons of the Auckland Art Gallery, 2014

256 257
258 259
VI
MEMORY

260 261
 cross Oceania, ancestors were and still are sources of 154

A power, identity, entitlement to land and many other

aspects of social standing and personality. Diverse art
forms commemorated and celebrated ancestors, their particular
Fiona Pardington (b. 1961)

2QTVTCKVQHCNKHGECUVQH/CVQWC
6CYCK#QVGCTQC0GY<GCNCPF,
accomplishments and the stories of their families’ movements 2010
and alliances. Those who had founded particular communities,
New Zealand, of Māori (Kai Tahu,
and more recent progenitors, were embodied in art forms such Kati Waewae and Ngāti Kahungunu),
as figure sculptures within ceremonial houses: they were present Scottish (Clan Cameron of Erracht),
MacDonald and O’Niell descent
in the architecture and the habitat occupied by people on a Cats 154–158: archival photographic
daily basis. inkjet print on Hahnemühle paper,
146 × 110 cm
The major rituals that followed death incorporated
commemoration. Those rituals also, however, gave memory a With thanks Musée de l’Homme
(Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris
place in time. Mourning was intended to come to an end, and at
this point the dead were despatched to the afterworld. Their Courtesy the artist and Starkwhite, New Zealand

lingering presence was undesirable and might be dangerous.

Forms such as malangan were created for ceremonies that took
place, in many cases, years after death. They brought closure
and enabled communities to continue with day-to-day life.
If memory had been vital to the constitution of Oceanic
societies for centuries and millennia, it became still more
significant as cross-cultural encounters became prominent within
Islanders’ lives, and particularly once communities suffered the
disruption of colonisation and modernity. With acute
depopulation across many islands and archipelagos, and the loss
of people through abduction for forced labour, generations were
lost. Twentieth-century migration entailed inherent dislocation,
from cultural milieux as well as from place. Sea-level rise among
other aspects of environmental change now threatens Island
homes. Commemoration, loss and the struggle to retrieve place,
identity and history have become central themes for the artists of
the new Oceania.

262 263
155 156 157 158

Fiona Pardington Fiona Pardington Fiona Pardington Fiona Pardington

2QTVTCKVQHCNKHGECUVQH/C2QW 2QTVTCKVQHCNKHGECUVQH6QW6CNQC 2QTVTCKVQHCNKHGECUVQH-CMCNG[ 2QTVTCKVQHCNKHGECUVQH(CWUVKPQ

Ma Tekao (painted), Gambier
+UNCPFU, 2010
With thanks Musée de l’Homme
(Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris
(painted), Samoa, 2010
With thanks Musée de l’Homme
(Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris
RCKPVGF 5QNQOQP+UNCPFU, 2010
With thanks Musée de l’Homme
(Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris
6EJCTIWCNQʘ RCKPVGF /CTKCPC
+UNCPFU, 2010
With thanks Musée de l’Homme
(Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris

264 265
 159

Mayalibit Bay altar group,

early twentieth century
Mayalibit Bay, Waigeo Island,
West Papua
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,
Netherlands

top row bottom row

Mon, spirit figure of the oldest Korwar, spirit figure of a wife

son of the head of the altar of the oldest son of the head
group of the altar group
Wood, cloth, height 55 cm Wood, cloth, height 40 cm
TM-573-39 TM-573-41

Mon, spirit figure of the head Korwar, spirit figure of a

of the altar group second wife of the oldest son
Wood, cloth, height 71 cm of the head of the altar group
Wood, cloth, height 43 cm
TM-573-36
TM-573-40

Mon, spirit figure of the

second son of the head of the Korwar, spirit figure of an
altar group adopted son of the head of the
Wood, cloth, height 64 cm altar group
Wood, cloth, skull, height
TM-573-42
43 cm
TM-573-43
middle row

Korwar, spirit figure of the Korwar, spirit figure of a wife

wife of the head of the altar of the second son of the head
group of the altar group
Wood, cloth, height 35 cm Wood, cloth, height 20 cm
TM-573-37 TM-573-45

Korwar, spirit figure of a Korwar, spirit figure of the

second wife of the head of the second wife of the second son
altar group of the head of the altar group
Wood, cloth, height 37 cm Wood, cloth, height 23 cm
TM-573-38 TM-573-44

160 overleaf

Fish malangan,
early twentieth century
New Ireland, Papua New
Guinea
Wood, paint, fibre, shell,
98 × 261 × 56 cm
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden,
Museum für Völkerkunde Dresden,
32953

266 267
268 269
161

Kobbu, mourner’s hood,

early twentieth century
Yei-Anim or Marind-Anim people,
south coast of Papua
Fibre, barkcloth, 195 × 30 cm
Museum Volkenkunde, Leiden, RV-1718-12

162

Hei tiki, anthropomorphic ornament,

eighteenth century
Māori, Cape Terawhiti area, New Zealand
Nephrite (greenstone), haliotis shell, resin,
height 9.5 cm
Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford, 1886.1.1167

163 overleaf

Reliquary in the form of a

crocodile, mid-twentieth century
Porapora, Angoram, East Sepik,
Papua New Guinea
Vegetal fibres, shells, length 114 cm
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
72.1966.12.14

271
272 273
164
Mask, early twentieth century
Hienghène, New Caledonia
Wood, coconut fibre, European cloth,
human hair, feathers, height c. 195 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1917.118.131
274
165
Rambaramp, mortuary effigy,
early twentieth century
South West Bay, Malakula, Vanuatu
Skull, wood, fibre, paint, pig tusks, turtle
shell, height 190 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, 1927.2174
275
166

Yuki Kihara (b. 1975)

Siva in Motion, 2012
Samoa/New Zealand
Single channel high-definition video,
silent, 8 minutes 14 seconds
Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, Auckland, 2012/25/7

167, 168

Taloi Havini (b. 1981)

and Stuart Miller (b. 1983)

,GFK$WMC and ,GPPKHGT$WMC from

the series ‘Blood Generation’, 2009
Taloi Havini: Autonomous Region of
Bougainville, Papua New Guinea (Nakas
clan, Hakö people of north-eastern Buka).
Stuart Miller: Sydney, Australia
Digital prints, Edition 10, 80 × 120 cm
Taloi Havini c/o Andrew Baker Art Dealer

276 277
169

John Pule (b. 1962)

Kehe tau hauaga foou (To all new arrivals),
2007
Niue/New Zealand
Enamel, oil, pencil, pastel, oil stick
and ink on canvas, five panels,
each 270 × 200 cm
Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, gift of the
Patrons of the Auckland Art Gallery, 2007

278 279
 I VOYA GI NG A ND 2241 4040

CATALOGUE
NAVIGAT I O N Jetnil-Kijiner (b. 1987)
Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner Tangonge, the Kaitaia carving,
Tell Them, 2012 ad 1300–1400
Marshall Islands Kaitaia, North Island, New Zealand
Film, performance, 3 minutes, 22 seconds Wood, 39 × 226 cm
1
348 Jetnil-Kijiner / Film by Masahiro Sugano
Poetry by Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner Tāmaki Paenga Hira Auckland War Memorial Museum,
Mata Aho Collective 6341
Kiko Moana, 2017 References:Brown
Selected references: Brown2003;
2003;Panoho
Panoho2015
2015
Jetnil-Kijiner is a poet and spoken-
Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner

ENTRIES
New Zealand
Polyethylene and cotton thread, 11
4 ××114 m
Collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Tongarewa, Wellington, ME024286
Kiko Moana is a spectacular textile drop,
eleven metres in length, made by Mata Aho,
a collective of four Māori women – Erena (Erena
Baker
Baker, (Te
Te Atiawa ki Whakarongotai, Ngāti Toa
Rangātira),
Rangātira; Sarah
SarahHudson,
Hudson Ngāti
(NgātiAwa,
Awa,Ngāi
Ngāi
Tūhoe),
Tūhoe; Bridget
BridgetReweti,
Reweti Ngāti
(NgātiRanginui,
Ranginui,Ngāi
Ngāi
Te Rangi)
Rangi; Terri
and Terri
Te Tau,
Te Tau
Rangitāne
(Rangitāne
ki Wairarapa)
ki
Wairarapa)
– formed in –2012.
formed
Graduates
in 2012.ofGraduates
Massey of
Massey
University,
University,
Wellington,
Wellington,
they havethey
built
have
a built
acontemporary
contemporaryartartpractice
practicegrounded
groundedinin
concepts of mana wahine, the power of Māori
women, and mātauranga Māori, Māori
knowledge and learning, as a fundamental
philosophical orientation. If a basic tenet of
modernist freedom was the contingency of
human identity, the fact that we are ‘thrown’
into a particular situation of birth, parentage,
upbringing, time and locality, the Mata Aho
collective have chosen to embrace their
situation as Māori women embedded in their
social, cultural and historical realities.
Kiko Moana consists of two parts: one
visual and material, the other textual and
digital. The drop is made from ordinary
tarpaulin (bought from a local building-
supplies store) and uses techniques of
weaving, layering, embroidering and cutting
that draw on a long tradition of textile arts
among Māori women, and Polynesian women
generally. The work’s aesthetic power comes
from the effect of its scale, workmanship and
its dynamic relationship to the spaces in
which it is displayed. The work’s second part
is a narrative archive, accessible online (at
kikomoana.com), of taniwha stories about
supernatural spirits associated with specific
bodies of water – an association that gives
the work as a whole its title. The stories were
collected by Mata Aho in quasi-ethnographic
fashion from interviews and conversations
with contemporary Māori people. But whereas
ethnography traditionally aspired to describe
and classify, to rationalise the social and
supernatural in objective and scientific terms,
Mata Aho’s archive reflects more the flavour
and sociality of those stories, a way of telling
and relishing them, as an expression of
mātauranga Māori.
Prior to ‘Oceania’, Kiko Moana was
shown in the stairwell of the Landesmuseum,
Kassel, as part of Documenta 14, a
contemporary art exhibition established after
the Second World War as a bellwether of
important trends and directions in
contemporary art. One of those trends,
reflected in ‘Oceania’, is a dialogue between
contemporary artists and historical traditions
specific to group identities. nt/pb
word artist from the Marshall Islands. Her
performance at the opening of the United
Nations Climate Summit in 2014 was widely
acclaimed. In February 2017 the University of
Arizona Press published her first collection of
poetry, Iep Jāltok: Poems from a Marshallese
Daughter. nt/pb
3064
Sculpture of two double figures and
a quadruped, c. 1690–1730
Tahiti, Society Islands
Ficus wood, length 5351 cm
Collected by Captain James Cook between April and
July 1769
April and July 1769.
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
Cambridge,ofDCambridge,
University 1914.34 D 1914.34
References:Thomas
Selected references: Thomasetetal.
al.2016;
2016; Thomas et al.
2017 et al. 2017
Thomas
This sculpture has long perplexed researchers.
At one time thought to have been a canoe
ornament, it is more likely to have formed the
end of a carving over a gateway, from which it
was at some time broken off or detached.
Carbon dating has shown that the work was
between fifty and eighty years old at the time
it was acquired by Captain James Cook during
the Endeavour’s Tahitian sojourn in mid-1769.
It was therefore probably preserved, a relic of
an older structure, on a marae or temple, and
presented, most likely to Cook personally, by
one of the Tahitian aristocratic men or women
who saw the navigator as a taio, a ‘friend’ or
customary ally and exchange-partner. The
work is the first figure sculpture collected by a
European from any part of Oceania that
remains extant and documented today.
The doubling of figures and faces
through back-to-back or otherwise replicated
forms was notable in many Oceanic art
traditions. It is interpreted generally as an
expression of invulnerability and mana
(spiritual power), but is associated with art
forms of many kinds, ranging from personal
ornaments and weapons through feast vessels
to architectural elements. In its original
setting, this work would have marked off tapu,
or sacred, space; as a relic it possibly recalled
a narrative concerning a temple site and the
chiefs and people associated with that place.
Although the work’s particular story is lost, it
remains extraordinarily powerful, an
unmistakable expression of Polynesian divinity
and of divinity’s capacity to multiply and
connect. The sculpture is moreover also
remarkable as an exemplification of early
dealings between Islanders and Europeans. It
must have been a gift of exceptional
significance on the part of an aristocrat or
priest concerned to initiate a consequential
relationship with Captain Cook, who must
have been perceived by the donor, in
Polynesian terms, as a voyager and man of
great status and mana. nt/pb
A tiki, an ancestor or god image, is at the
carving’s centre; its ends are formed of
seemingly predatory quadrupeds with
elongated jaws. This work is unmistakably
an expression of mana, spiritual power.
Discovered in 1920 near the town of Kaitaia
in northern New Zealand, buried in swampy
ground, it is likely to have been placed there
deliberately for safekeeping during a period of
conflict. The carving, probably an element of
a gateway leading into a sacred or communal
precinct, is famous for exemplifying a
sculptural style very different to that of Māori
art of the historic period, but similar to some
angular early central Polynesian works, such
as the Tahitian sculpture of double figures and
a quadruped (cat. 3) 064) collected
collected during
during Cook’s
Cook’s
first voyage. Possibly dating as far back as
the fourteenth century, this extraordinary and
powerful architectural form thus reflects the
deep ancestral connections between Māori
and tropical Polynesian art traditions, and
represents the incarnation of spiritual power,
the separation of space, and the invitation to
pass across a threshold into a community’s
space – all principles fundamental to Oceanic
life and sociality, both in the past and the
present.
The carving is also of exceptional
importance from a local perspective. Now
‘Tangonge’after
known as Tangonge afterthe
theplace
placeit itwas
was
found, it has been cared for by the Auckland
Museum since 1921, and has also been
displayed for several years recently at Kaitaia,
at the Far North Heritage Museum and
Archives. Haami Piripi, chair of Te Rūnanga o
Te Rarawa, the local tribal organisation, which
uses the sculpture as its logo, said that
Tangonge’s return had had a striking effect on
tribal spirit and morale, and that its local
presence had been ‘an essential element for
the community development of our whānau
and hapū’ (families and clans). nt/pb
5057
withcrocodile-form
Sabi or savi, canoe shield on crocodile-
form prow,
prow, early early twentieth
twentieth century
century
Kaminimbit village, Iatmul, Sepik River region,
Papua New Guinea
Wood, pigments, sago palm spathe, cowrie shells, rattan,
fibre: shield:
vegetable fibre, (shield)80
80××107
107;cm;
(prow) length
prow: 185185
length cmcm
Speiser
Collected in 1930 by Felix Speiser.
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 9367ab and Vb 9398
Reference:Paris
Selected reference: Paris2015
2015
The Iatmul of the middle Sepik River region
made large canoes for war, trading and fishing
expeditions by digging them out from a single
massive log. Such vessels, which might carry
twenty to thirty men, generally featured a
prow in the form of the head of a crocodile,
reflecting the vital roles played by crocodiles in
Iatmul
in myth
Iatmul andand
myth art.art.
TheThe
very ground
very thethe
ground

280 281
Iatmul inhabited was seen as an island resting carved. The greater part of the canoes were Asmat afterworld. Those ancestors were sent with the work: the officer Thomas Huxley 056
13 268
15
on the back of a great ancestral crocodile. terminated in front with the head of a bird, on their way, as the initiates were taken to the noted that a canoe came aside with things for Nguzunguzu, figure from a canoe prow, Taurapa, canoe sternpost, late eighteenth
If a headhunting expedition was under which was seen a large bunch of fringe, river and out across the water in actual barter, including the ‘figure-head which was nineteenth century or early nineteenth century
undertaken, a sabi or savi, a canoe shield, coloured with a red dye, which appeared to canoes; before returning to the village and to so much wanted yesterday’. nt/pb Marovo Lagoon, New Georgia, Solomon Islands Māori, New Zealand
otherwise stored within a house, would be me to have been made with the leaves of the a feast, they would be dunked in the water Wood, shell inlay, height 16.5 cm Wood, shell, height 148 cm
mounted on the canoe prow. Such expeditions vacoua [a corruption of the name of a type of and were seen to pass through successive 1929
Collected by Eugen Paravicini, 1929. Collected by the French navigator Jules Sébastien César
often entailed confrontations with enemies in pandanus]. The other extremity was likewise stages of life before returning to shore and to Kulturen, Basel,
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb
Vb 7525
7525 d’Urville
Dumont d’Urville.
their own canoes. Functionally, the canoe ornamented with a red fringe…’ In 1865 the their real ages and to ordinary life. Here and Branly-Jacques
Musée du quai Branly Chirac,
– Jacques Paris,
Chirac, Paris,
References:Brunt
Selected references: Bruntand
andThomas
Thomas2012,
2012,pp.
pp.11ff.;
11ff.;
shield helped to protect the lead warrior, at British traveller Julius Brenchley similarly elsewhere in Oceania, canoes were at once 11
054 Hviding 2014
72.1985.1.2 D
the front of the canoe, from spears or arrows, remarked upon canoes decorated with pearl actual vessels and means of passage, and Lagim and tabuya, canoe splashboard
but he was charged too with protecting the shell inlay, their prows and sterns decorated evocative vessels of identity and the life and prow, early twentieth century This taurapa was collected by Dumont
mask, which was thought to represent an with ‘tassels, made of strips of pandanus leaf cycle. nt/pb Though collected in 1929, this nguzunguzu, the
Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea d’Urville, an admirer of Māori culture and
especially powerful, named spirit. dyed red’. The form and decoration of canoes Wood, paint, length
overall 60
length
cm 60 cm
prow ornament from a tomoko or war canoe,
society, who visited New Zealand in both
Made of a strong piece of sago palm in these regions seem to have been consistent is likely to have been made towards the end
Musée du quai Branly
Branly-Jacques
– JacquesChirac,
Chirac,
Paris,
Paris,
71.1928.13.1 1827 and 1840, during extended voyages
spathe supported by a rattan frame, such from the earliest observations through to the of the nineteenth century, not long before
71.1928.13.1 through Pacific and Antarctic waters. A classic
canoe shields were painted with light ochre early twentieth century. Selected References: Gell 1992; Campbell 2002 colonial pacification in the western Solomon
Selected references: Gell 1992; Campbell 2002 example of eighteenth-century waka taua, or
and circles; upon them, a carved and painted Bonito fish migrated through the region 051
9 Islands. Tomoko were exceptionally large and
war-canoe embellishment, it features incised
mask would be mounted, the whole form in large numbers annually; fishing for them Stone relief from a meeting house, Trobriand canoes bore a splashboard (lagim) elaborately decorated canoes, primarily for
and perforated negative elements that are
edged with cassowary feathers. nt/pb was not merely a subsistence activity but the nineteenth century Trobriand
and canoes bore
a wave-splitter a splashboard
(tabuya), (lagim)
both featuring lagoon use. Each paddled by twenty or more
not only decorative, but serve to reduce drag
overwhelming focus of ritual, male initiation aand a wave-splitter
carved and painted(tabuya),
low-reliefboth featuring
design. The warriors, they were daunting expressions of
Yap, Caroline Islands and crosswind interference to the balance of
and male hierarchy in the southeast Solomon Coral stone, length 60 cm aforms
carved
haveandbeen
painted low-relief
prominent design. The
in anthropological a people’s prestige, as well as the means
the craft; the sternpost’s height, moreover,
Islands. In advance of the arrival of the fish, forms
debate.have been
Alfred prominent
Gell proposedinthatanthropological
they typified of undertaking trading voyages and the
GRASSI Museum
Staatliche für Völkerkunde
Kunstsammlungen zu Leipzig, Mi 847
Dresden, gave the vessel’s captain an immediate read
gods were propitiated, taboos were observed debate.
works thatAlfred Gellnot
should proposed
be seenthat they typified
as meaningful headhunting raids that escalated during the
GRASSI Museum für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, Mi 847 on the pitch and yaw of the moving canoe.
6059 and boys were prepared to undertake their Selected Reference: Morgan 1988 works that should
or symbolic, but asnot
partbeofseen as meaningful
a system of action nineteenth century.
Selected reference: Morgan 1988 In addition, the taurapa helps to establish
Canoe, before 1900 first fishing expeditions. Canoes of this type or symbolic, but as part of a system
and in particular of social competition. of action
The art Many prow figures bear heads, speaking
balance as men are embarking just prior to
were central to these activities and This stone relief of a vessel with warriors at and
formsinamounted
particular inof his
social competition.
view The art
to a ‘technology of the deadly intent of these expeditions, but
Wuvulu, Western Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, launch.
Papua New Guinea prominently featured frigate birds, associated This stone
each end wasrelieforiginally
of a vessel with black
painted warriors
andatred. forms amounted inthey
of enchantment’; his were
view to a ‘technology
designed to dazzle some feature birds, now considered in the
The takarangi (spiral lattice work) often
Wood, paint, length 5.58 m metaphorically with predatory activity, as well each end few
Although was similar
originally painted
works appearblack and red.
to have of
or enchantment’; they werewhom
bewilder trade-partners designed to dazzle
voyagers Solomon Islands to be the marks of ‘peace
represents the celestial cosmos, evoking
as with the bonito schools, and bonito and Althoughmuseums,
reached few similarthe works appear
collector to havethat
reported or bewilder
sought trade-partners
to awe, overwhelm whom voyagers
and befuddle canoes’, the construction of which was
Museum für Volkerkunde, Hamburg, E 2787 themes of navigation. Incorporated in the
sea-spirit motifs. reached
in Kadai museums,
village the the collector
meeting housereported
featuredthat sought to awe,
with their magicoverwhelm
and with the andarresting
befuddle encouraged by missionaries in the aftermath
Reference:Pitt
Selected reference: PittRivers
Rivers1925
1925 design also are superior and subordinate full
This canoe features not only the ainwhole
Kadai assembly
village theofmeeting house of
stone images featured
this with their magic
appearance andcanoes.
of their with theAnarresting
ethnographer of pacification, for mission-sponsored canoe
figures, the former generally relating to atua
shell-inlaid and stained motifs found on other akind.
whole assembly of stone images
Elsewhere in Oceania, in the Marquesas of this appearance of their
of the Trobriands, canoes.
Shirley An ethnographer
Campbell, has races, among other activities. The pigeon
(gods) or infamous entities noted for their
On the small islands of Aua and Wuvulu, to examples from the region (in the Auckland kind. Elsewhere
Islands for example, in Oceania, in supporting
low walls the Marquesas of the the
made Trobriands, Shirley Campbell,
counter-argument that thehasmotifs featured in this sculpture, however, was
prowess in battle. No effort was spared
the north of New Guinea, men and women Museum, the Maidstone Museum and the Islandsplatforms
house for example, low walls
or marking outsupporting
ritual made
do bearthenames
counter-argument
and meanings, that
andthethat
motifs
the renowned for its capacity to fly dead straight
regarding the ornate embellishment of the
were often expert in different kinds of fishing. British Museum) but additional elaboration, house platforms
precincts or marking out
often incorporated ritual stones
sculpted do
art bear names
therefore hasand meanings, and effect
a communicative that the
in over great distances towards remote islands,
waka taua. Invariably these craft would carry
While women worked with nets around including small carved anthropomorphic precincts often
representing tiki,incorporated
ancestors orsculpted
deities. stones
The art therefore
addition to the has a communicative
social efficacy to whicheffect in
Gell revealing it to be not a post-contact
an ancestral name, and thus be imbued with
artificially contrived holes in the coral reef, figures on the internal struts. The history of representing tiki,
representation of ancestors
a group oforfigures
deities.orThe
a scene addition to theemphasis.
gives greater social efficacy to which Gell substitution, but an older expression of
an associated animistic power. Since a waka
men used outrigger canoes for shark-fishing, the vessel is not known; it is possible that it representation
on of a group
a relief is, however, of figures or
uncommon. a scene
nt/pb gives This
greater emphasis.
complete prow may comprise navigational virtuosity. nt/pb
taua was literally a ‘battleship’, which
which was mostly undertaken individually, was made for a collector, or acquired by a on a relief is, however, uncommon. nt/pb This that
elements complete
did notprow may comprise
originally belong conveyed the war party to combat, all the
though the length of some canoes indicates collector when relatively new, since it does elements thatwere
together, but did not originallyafter
assembled belonghaving representative embellishment featured themes
that they were built to carry several men. not appear much worn or used. It reached together, but were
been collected. nt/pb assembled after having
relating to that function, which moreover were
Baited lines were used to hook and play Germany towards the end of the nineteenth been collected. nt/pb
carved to the highest levels of excellence. lg
large sharks, which were weakened through century. nt/pb 071
14
stabbing or stunned with a hardwood mallet 10
044 Canoe prow, late nineteenth or early
prior to being deftly flipped into the boat. Canoe splashboard, twentieth century
Shark-fishers’ canoes were dug out from early nineteenth century 12
068 Kamoro people, south coast of Papua
the trunks of breadfruit trees. The aluna, the Canoe prow, early to mid-twentieth
Canoe prow, mid-twentieth century
century Wood, limewash, length 155.5 cm
Louisiade Archipelago,
Louisiade Archipelago, Papua
Papua New
New Guinea
Guinea 60–061
16, 17
delicate verticals that suggest the fins and 282
8 Wood, pigment,
Wood, pigment, 34
34 ×
× 51
51 cm
cm Wakde-Yamna Museum Volkenkunde,
Nationaal Museum vanLeiden, RV-1889-255
Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
Wakde-Yamna area,
area, Humboldt
Humboldt Bay,
Bay, north
north coast
coast of
of Papua
Papua century
Hoe, canoe paddles, eighteenth century
tails of sharks, were carved from separate Wuramon, soul canoe with figures of turtles, Collected by
by Captain
Captain Owen
Owen Stanley,
Stanley, commander
commander of the Wood,
Wood, paint,
paint, height
height 40 cm
45 cm RV-1889-255
Collected Selected References: Leiden 2003; Jacobs 2011 Māori, New Zealand
blocks and tied into the hulls, seemingly birds and humans, mid-twentieth
mid-twentieth century
century of the Rattlesnake,
Rattlesnake, in 1849in 1849. Nationaal Museumofvan Wereldculturen, Netherlands, Selected references: Leiden 2003; Jacobs 2011
National Museum World Cultures, Netherlands, heights 189 cm and 180.5 cm
Wood, paint, lengths
integral elements of a single form. White Asmat people, Central Asmat region, south coast of British Museum,
British Museum, London,
London, Oc1851,0103.2
Oc1851,0103.2 TM-2003-128
TM-2003-128
limewash, which was regularly reapplied, Papua
south coast of Papua
The Kamoro people occupied the estuaries Collected on 12 October 1769, during the first voyage of
Selected Reference:
Selected reference: Philp
Philp2013
2013
helped to preserve the vessels. Canoes Wood, natural dyes and pigments, fibre, length 922
9.22 cm
m
The
and Kamoro
rivers ofpeople occupied the
the southwestern estuaries
coast of New Cook
Captain James Cook.
The ethnologist and canoe specialist James and rivers of thebetween
southwestern coast of New Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
belonging to a chief were broken up at his Guinea, moving sago swamps and
National
NationaalMuseum
Museumofvan
World Cultures, Netherlands,
Wereldculturen, Netherlands, Hornell, who visited the north coast of what 1914.66–67
University of Cambridge, D 1914.66, D 1914.67
death, and their hulls mounted upright, The Massim region of southeastern Papua is Guinea, moving between
fishing grounds. Like theirsago
Asmat swamps and
neighbours
TM-2530-2
constituting commemorative grave- made up of numerous offshore islands and was then ‘Netherlands New Guinea’ in fishing grounds.ceremonies
they conducted Like their Asmat neighbours
and created Reference:White
Selected reference: White2015
2015
Selected Reference: Smidt1993
reference: Smidt 1993 1918, was struck by the differences between
markers. nt/pb archipelagos, including the Trobriands, the they conducted ceremonies
commemorative and created
sculptural forms to honour
D’Entrecasteaux Islands and the Louisiade the scroll-like motifs prominent on canoe commemorative
the deceased. They sculptural forms to honour
were artistically prolific, These Māori hoe, canoe paddles, feature the
The wuramon, or soul canoe, was vital to Archipelago, all of which were linked through decorations to the west, in Geelvink Bay, the the
makingdeceased.
a wideThey
rangewere artistically
of carved poles,prolific, distinctive curvilinear style of painting known
major Asmat ritual cycles, focused primarily complex trade and ceremonial exchange area now known as Cenderawasih, and the making a wide and
panels, figures range of carved
other objects,poles,
as well as kōwhaiwhai, well known from the rafters
on the initiation of boys, but embracing systems. Canoes were not only the means prominence of human, bird and fish motifs panels,
as fibre figures
masks. and other
Canoes objects,
were as wellin
prominent of Māori meeting houses, but also widely
7070 the maturation of girls also. Initiates were of transport but highly expressive forms, on the prows (wache meti) of Humboldt Bay as fibre
their masks.
ritual and Canoes
ceremony,were
andprominent
as in otherin reproduced in colonial and contemporary
Bonito-fishing canoe, secluded for a period of months in especially featuring elaborately designed prows and canoes. Whereas he related this contrast their
worksritual
theirand ceremony,
decoration and asdistinctive
featured in other design in New Zealand.
late nineteenth century constructed houses, while a canoe of this kind splashboards. This may be the earliest to dubious racial distinctions among the works
irregular,their decoration
angular featured
motifs, distinctive
constituting These two examples, together with a
was constructed. The canoe lacked a complete splashboard ever collected. It was brought to populations of the region, he was no doubt irregular,
rectangular, angular motifs,
triangular andconstituting
zigzag forms, some dozen others dispersed across museums in
Makira (San Cristobal), Solomon Islands
hull, since it never entered the water, but was London by Captain Owen Stanley, commander correct in seeing the coast and offshore rectangular,
representingtriangular and zigzag
the cassowary forms, some
and hornbill, Britain, Germany, Italy and New Zealand, were
Wood, pearl shell, fibre, length 7.2 m
used once only, when the youths emerged of the Rattlesnake, which undertook a islands as constituting ‘a border region, with a representing
others body parts, the cassowary
the body inand hornbill,
motion, and acquired on 12 October 1769, just three days
Übersee-Museum, Bremen, D13230 long established traffic, centuries old’, linking
from seclusion. They crawled across it, surveying voyage through the region in the others body parts,capacities
the reproductive the body ofin women.
motion, andProw after the Endeavour’s crew encountered Māori
Reference:Neich
Selected reference: Neich2013,
2013,pp.
pp.300–39
300–39 were seized and then suffered scarification, late 1840s. Stanley, a capable artist, produced New Guinea with the islands of the Moluccas the
panelsreproductive
of this kindcapacities of women.
were periodically Prow
attached for the first time. All feature striking variations
becoming adult in the process. a profile drawing of the type of canoe that and the wider world of insular southeast Asia. panels
to canoes of this kind were
on major periodically
ceremonial attached
occasions. on curvilinear forms, created with kōkōwai, a
The soul canoe’s ‘passengers’ are the would have featured this board: it reveals the Alongside trade goods, art styles and motifs to
Thecanoes
vesselsonwere major ceremonial
positioned occasions.
in formation,
In June 1793 the French navigator Jacques- red ochre associated with enhanced mana
threatening water spirits known as ambirak; a assemblage of curvilinear carvings, sculpted certainly travelled in this context, generating The vessels
revealing thewere positioned
dynamism in openwork
of the formation, (spiritual power), used extensively in personal
Julien Houtou de Labillardière encountered
central carving typically represented a turtle, birds and shell accoutrements that constituted an extraordinarily complex pattern of cultural revealing
forms. nt/pb the dynamism of the openwork adornment and in staining carved ancestral
a group of men in canoes off the island of
celebrated for the many eggs it lays, and the whole prow, although the splashboard affinities and locally distinctive styles. nt/pb forms. nt/pb images. The set of paddles also features a
Ulawa in the southeast Solomon Islands. ‘We
admired the elegant form of their canoes,’ he hence the principle of fecundity. Where itself is only partially visible, just in front of the distinctive denticulate carving of the looms,
wrote. ‘These were ornamented on the outside human figures were present, they represented man paddling, from this perspective. The local between blade and handle, suggesting that
with figures of birds, fishes, and &c., rudely the deceased, on their way to Safan, the owners initially had misgivings about parting they are the work of one artist. Whereas the

282 283
 paintings
paintings shareshare a conceptual
a conceptual logic,logic,
the the
designs in each case are distinctive. The Māori
art historian Anna-Marie White has recently
written: ‘The literal translation of kōwhaiwhai
is to pursue or to repeat [reflecting] concepts
of continuity and perpetuity… The names of
various designs reference aspects of the
natural world… [but] kōwhaiwhai is not just
an illustration or symbol. Rather, kōwhaiwhai
has the capacity to convey emotions, attitudes
and spirit.’ Māori around the modern town of
Gisborne (or Tūranga-nui-a-Kiwa), whose
ancestors may have been among those who
first encountered the Endeavour and engaged
in exchange with members of Cook’s crew, are
keenly interested in these taonga (ancestral
treasures). nt/pb
244
18
Paddle, nineteenth century
Santa Cruz or Reef Islands, Solomon Islands
Wood, pigments, height
length 169 cm
National
NationaalMuseum
Museumofvan
World Cultures, Netherlands,
Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
TM-H2249
Selected Reference: Haddon1937
reference: Haddon 1937
Wooden paddles were used to power small
outrigger canoes within the sheltered waters
of the extensive lagoons that fringed the Reef
Islands and the Santa Cruz Islands (Temotu
province, Solomon Islands). They were also
taken aboard sailing vessels known as tepukei
on inter-island journeys. Made of light wood,
these essential implements were decorated
with elegant angular motifs recalling the
wings of frigate birds or the fins of fish.
Since the Spanish first visited the Temotu
province in the sixteenth century, the islands
there were tainted with reports of hostility and
cannibalism. For that reason, although some
exploring and trading vessels did visit the
islands, many encounters occurred at sea, not
on land, and much of the trade and exchange
included artefacts often to be found aboard
canoes, such as fishing gear and paddles. nt/
pb
nt/pb
048
19
Paddle, early nineteenth century
Santa Isabel Island (?), Solomon Islands
Wood, paint, mother of pearl, height
length 132.2 cm
Acquired by William Hamilton in 1825
1825.
Musée de Boulogne-sur-Mer, 998.3.58 (49/10)
Selected Reference: Waite1997
reference: Waite 1997
Paddles are among the most collected and
least researched objects from the Solomon
Islands. They were produced throughout
the archipelago and served multiple
functions, from navigational aid to dance
apparatus during performances. Skilfully
made and sometimes elaborately decorated,
they articulate visual elements found on
other types of material culture (from body
ornaments to weaving), and sometimes bear
affinities to tattoo designs or incorporate
elements of religious and mythological beliefs.
The present paddle is an impressive
example of the great care taken in the
manufacture and decoration of these objects.
Possibly manufactured on Isabel Island, its
handle takes the shape of an openwork
triangle carved with human heads reminiscent
of the protective heads placed at the prows of
Solomon Islands canoes. On both sides, the
upper part of the blade is lightly incised and
painted in red and black pigments forming
alternating contrasting bands of colour. The
lower part of the blade is incised and painted
with figurative scenes. Although they cannot
be interpreted with certainty, these scenes
refer to two central aspects of Solomon Island
culture: bonito fishing (here represented by
the frigate birds that ‘inform’ fishermen of the
location of bonito shoals) and headhunting
(indicated by the presence of crocodiles). The
mutation or hybridity
The mutation of some
or hybridity of the
of some of animals
the
points
animalstopoints
the permeability and
to the permeability and
interconnectivity of these practices. The
depiction of a human leg, supported or
‘pecked at’ by bonito fish, is most unusual and
may refer to a specific myth or historical event
memorialised by the carver.
This is one of the earliest Melanesian
canoe paddles to have been collected. Works
in this style appear no longer to have been
made in the late nineteenth century, when
many more were acquired by collectors and
museums, though there is one similar paddle
in the Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich. lc
66
20
Steering oar, early twentieth century
Kairiru Island, Papua New Guinea
Wood, paint, length 392 cm
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Museum für
Völkerkunde Dresden, 75367
This impressive steering oar is from Rumlal
village, on Kairiru Island, off the north coast
of Papua New Guinea and within sight of the
major modern coastal town of Wewak. Though
close to the Sepik region, which is represented
by very extensive museum collections, there
is little documentation of the art and material
culture of Kairiru, which are very sparsely
represented in collections. The interlocking,
incised crescent-shaped motifs of the design
on the oar are related to those in many
art traditions across the Sepik region and
along the north coast of Papua New Guinea,
although the significance that they possess
varies from culture to culture. The present oar
was probably made around the beginning of
the twentieth century, when Kairiru Islanders
were beginning to work as migrant labourers
and engaging with Catholic missionaries. nt/
pb
nt/pb
284
247
21 050
24 late 1909
revival of and early 1910.
Lamotrek The endurance
navigational knowledge and 001
30
Paddle, late nineteenth Hoe, paddle, c. 1820
nineteenth century revival of Lamotrek
and ritual navigational
were represented in theknowledge
1996 film, Tupaia (c. 1725–1770)
or early twentieth century Northern New Zealand and ritual
Spirits were
of the represented in the 1996 film,
Voyage. Untitled drawing of a Tahitian scene,
Dibiri Island, Bamu Delta, Papua New Guinea Wood, height 150
176 cm SpiritsThe
of the
ParisVoyage.
charm, featuring a coral ‘body’, April–July
April – July1769
1769
Wood, imported buttons, length 231 cm Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 34-38-1
The Paris
is thought charm,
to have beenfeaturing
used in a coral
similar‘body’,
way, Society Islands
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
is
butthought
there istonohave been used
provenance to in
linka similar
it to a way, Pencil and watercolour on paper,
Cambridge,
University ofECambridge,
1916.143.27E 1916.143.27 but thereisland.
specific is no provenance
nt/pb to link it to a 26.7 × 37 cm (whole sheet)
Shaped ergonomically, this hoe is probably specific island. nt/pb British Library, London, Add MS 15508, f.14
made of Kanuka wood (Kunzea ericoides). It
Dibiri Island, at the mouth of the Bamu River, must have performed its primary function
was a renowned centre for the production admirably, but Māori artefacts commonly Tupaia’s scene in Tahiti is fascinating, not
of drums and of canoes, both of which were have a number of applications or uses. It because it is an engaging representation in
widely traded to communities up the Fly River was not uncommon for paddles to be used 314
27 a European style of canoes bearing warriors,
and elsewhere, in exchange for shell money combatively; the superior tensile strength of Navigation chart, nineteenth century a long open house and a number of plants
and latterly for European goods. The canoes Kanuka wood allows for very robust usage, and trees, but because, like his drawings of
Ailinglaplap Atoll, Marshall Islands
built were up to twenty metres in length. This but also permitted finely detailed carving marae, it seems to embrace the descriptive,
Wood, cane and shell, 118.7 × 30.6 cm
early twentieth-century paddle features a face of the kind this hoe bears. The blade of documentary interest in Tahitian life,
in which European trade buttons represent Possibly collected by the ethnographer Paul Hambruch characteristic of a scientific traveller such
the paddle features a contorted tureke or
during the Hamburg Südsee-Expedition of 1908–10
1908–10.
eyes. nt/pb serpentine-style female figure motif. The as Joseph Banks. Polynesian art embraced
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 87629
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 87629 many genres, styles and ideas, but typically it
surface puhoro patterns employed by the artist
to overlay the figure suggest that it originates exemplified sanctity, spiritual power and social
from the Ngāpuhi confederation of tribes in reach, in the sense that a work of personal
the northern reaches of New Zealand. adornment might incorporate rare feathers
245
22 Many of the attributes and techniques 28 or shells that could only be obtained from
058
Canoe paddle, mid-twentieth century developed in association with canoe craft Navigation chart, nineteenth century afar. One thing Polynesian art had never done
Navigation chart, nineteenth century
Asmat, south coast of Papua became fundamental to the creation of the Marshall Islands was describe things, but in this work and in
Marshall Islands
Wood, height
length 276 cm large meeting houses prominent from the Wood, fibre, snail shells, 90 × 90 cm
Wood, fibre, snail shells, 90 × 90 cm
others, Tupaia did precisely that, drawing
National
NationaalMuseum
Museumofvan
World Cultures, Netherlands,
Wereldculturen, Netherlands, mid-nineteenth century to the present. In fact Museum für Völkerkunde, Hamburg, 393:10 attention to the key elements of canoes and
Museum für Völkerkunde, Hamburg, 393:10
TM-2919-7 superior war canoes are known to have been the manner in which during the course of a
repurposed to ‘donate’ the materials with confrontation they would be brought together
Selected Reference: Smidt1993
reference: Smidt 1993
which to build such structures: as expressions so that warriors on raised stages could attack
of community identity and mana, spiritual each other. He also depicted the structure of
power, in some ways they are 321
29 the typical form of the elongated open houses
synonymous. lg Navigation chart, nineteenth century within which people gathered and slept, and
246
23 he drew attention to the useful flora of Tahiti,
Marshall Islands
Canoe paddle, collected 1907–10 Wood, fibre, snail shells, 55.7
34.2 × 34.2
55.7 cm in particular to the pandanus tree, with its
Asmat, Unir River, south coast of Papua structure of exposed roots, the coconut palm,
National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, I.1738
Wood, lime and ochre pigments, height
length 168.5
332.5 cm taro and the breadfruit tree. nt/pb
Selected References: Krämerand
references: Krämer andNevermann
Nevermann1938,
1938,
Collected by Hendrikus Albertus Lorentz
Lorentz. 243
25 p. 222; Howe 2006, pp. 156–97; Mallon in Brunt and
National
NationaalMuseum
Museumofvan
World Cultures, Netherlands,
Wereldculturen, Netherlands, Hos, navigator’s weather charm, late Thomas 2012, p. 57
TM-A-528
TM-A-302b
nineteenth or early twentieth century
Selected Reference: Smidt1993
reference: Smidt 1993 202
31
Lamotrek Atoll, Yap Archipelago, Caroline Islands
The curator and scholar Sean Mallon has Titere (c. 1800s)
Wood, pigment, stingray spine, fibre and shell,
height
length 29 cm
observed that ‘for generations of indigenous Drawing of four kites, 1818
The Asmat of New Guinea’s southwestern
navigators, finding, travelling and living
coast produced, and still produce, wood Collected by the ethnographer Augustin Krämer in England
among these islands was not a matter of Ink on paper, 16 × 10.4 cm
carvings ranging from monumental poles to
1909–10
1909–10.
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 77830 chance – it was a necessity of life, an act of
shields, ancestral figures and vessels. Prior Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero o
imagining, knowing and remembering the
to colonial pacification, headhunting was
Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland,
ocean’. Although navigational knowledge GNZMMSS-147-1
vital to male initiation, ritual and cycles of
was conveyed in many ways, the stick
antagonistic reciprocity between groups. As london only
charts of the Marshall Islands have become
late as the 1960s, headhunting raids, which 336
26 famous expressions of indigenous geographic
were times of intense danger and excitement, Navigator’s weather charm, late nineteenth understanding. They are not maps as such, but
were undertaken in large groups of canoes, or early twentieth century devices that represent patterns in the ocean 32
which made their way through the extensive Caroline Islands swell, which together with the movements 201
estuaries and swamps characteristic of the Stingray spine, vegetable fibre, coral, length 20 cm Tuai (known as Thomas Tooi, 1797?–1824)
of birds and stars were among the vital Tuai (known as Thomas Tooi, 1797?–1824)
vast muddy lowland that constituted the and Titere (c. 1800s)
Collected by the artist Paul Jacoulet
Jacoulet. reference points for the indigenous mariners and Titere (c. 1800s)
Asmat environment. Drawings of a waka (canoe)
Musée du quai Branly-Jacques
Branly – JacquesChirac,
Chirac,
Paris,
Paris, who undertook voyages of settlement and Drawings of a waka (canoe)
Their canoes, typically of great length, 70.2013.1.2626 and moko (face tattoo), 1818
trade. They were aids to memory and teaching and moko (face tattoo), 1818
were elaborately decorated; they featured devices, and were of several kinds: the meddo England
England
ambirak, mythological animals with extended Ink on paper, 13.7 × 19.7 cm
Micronesian navigators (paliuw) used spirit shows wave patterns in relation to islands Ink on paper, 13.7 × 19.7 cm
beaks, frequently poised as if in the act of images in Janus or back-to-back form, represented by cowrie shells. Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero o
Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero o
devouring human beings; as well as flying These examples were collected by Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland,
representing named guardian spirits such as Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland,
GNZMMS-147-2
foxes; and praying mantises, likewise yaliulewaiy, as charms to protect them from German ethnographers who participated in GNZMMS-147-2
notorious for tearing apart their prey. Paddles storms. They incorporated stingray spines, the Hamburg Südsee-Expedition of 1908–10, a par i s only
par i s only
like the present example contributed to the said to be vital to their potency, and in this major undertaking that brought back some
splendour of the canoe and its assembly of case coconut leaves. Spirits were invoked prior 6,000 Micronesian artefacts. These were later
decorated warriors, who stood upright in the to the voyage with chants; the charm was shared out among German museums and
narrow vessels while paddling. Their carried aboard the sailing canoe, protected eventually generated anthropological reports
33
203
curvilinear openwork motifs were abstracted within a small spirit house. If the weather running to thirty volumes, which are now
Tuai (known as Thomas Tooi, 1797?–1824)
elements of hook-like forms, which evoked appeared threatening, the navigator would considered valuable repositories of cultural
Drawing of two waka (canoes), 1818
wings, beaks and predatory action. The bring it out and appeal to the spirit to calm knowledge by some Islanders. nt/pb
shorter
exampleexample
from the(cat.
Unir246),
Riverfrom thenorthwest
in the Unir River the storm. England
in the northwest
Asmat region (cat.Asmat region,
23), was was collected
collected by The work in the Linden-Museum was
Ink on paper, 15.9 × 19.7 cm (verso of cat. 32)
201)Sir George
Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero o Tāmaki
by Hendrikus
Hendrikus Albertus
Albertus Lorentz,
Lorentz, who who trained
trained in in collected by Augustin Krämer from Lamotrek
Sir George –Grey
Makaurau SpecialLibraries,
Auckland Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero o
Auckland,
biology and led expeditions to west New atoll, part of the vast archipelago of the
Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland,
GNZMMSS-147-3
Guinea in 1907 and 1909–10. nt/pb Caroline Islands, which he visited twice, in GNZMMSS-147-3
london only
late 1909 and early 1910. The endurance and london only
285
34
204 36–39
211, 212, 213, 214 Aqo depicts himself (cat. 39) swimming
(2010.444; cat. 214) 084
43 Tahiti, some 435 miles to the north, before 46
086
Tuai (known as Thomas Tooi, 1797?–1824) Aqo (fl. 1890–1910) from one sinking
swimming from onetomoko to another,
sinking tomoko toduring a Female tattooed figure, the encounter with Europeans. This example, Tiki akau or katina, figure of a god or
Drawing of Korokoro’s moko (face tattoo), Four untitled drawings of maritime scenes fateful
another,headhunting raid headhunting
during a fateful led by the greatraid led eighteenth or early nineteenth century however, was made with tools incorporating ancestor, late eighteenth
1818 with canoes, 1908 warrior Ingava
by the great of Munda.
warrior IngavaCanoes are shown
of Munda. Canoes Aitutaki, Cook Islands introduced iron, but before conversion to or early nineteenth century
England Simbo, Western Solomon Islands at
arethe top left
shown fishing
at the for bonito
top left fishingfor
forthe
bonito for Wood, pigment, height 58 cm Christianity led Islanders to surrender sacred Marquesas Islands
Ink on paper, 20.6 × 16.1 cm Pencil on paper, each 25.5 × 36 cm preparatory
the preparatoryfeasting before
feasting the raid,
before which
the raid, which Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 190
drums to missionaries or give them away in Wood, height 117.5 cm
Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero o Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
itself involved five (ka lima) tomoko from trade. nt/pb
Selected reference:
Reference:Appel
Appeland
andPureariki
Pureariki2017
2017 Musée du quai
quai Branly – JacquesChirac,
Branly-Jacques Chirac,Paris,
Paris,70.2000.12.1
70.2000.12.1
Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland, 2010.441, 2010.442, 2010.443, 2010.444
Cambridge, 2010.441–444 Munda. Ceremonials at the successful return
GNZMMSS-147-5 of a raid are shown in cat. 37. tt
212 (2010.442). tt
reference: Hviding
Selected Reference: Hvidingand
andBerg
Berg2014
2014
london only This female figure is a representation of one In the Marquesas, ritual precincts were known
of the first ancestors of Aitutaki, who arrived 45
10 as me’ae; the term is linguistically cognate
This extraordinary collection of pencil in the canoe of the navigator Ru; he had Female figure with child, late nineteenth or with Māori and Tahitian marae. On these
drawings was made by Aqo (pronounced left Tubuai in the Austral Islands because of early twentieth century precincts, ancestors were commemorated,
Ango), a Roviana man with relatives on 40
356 overpopulation and conflict. Ru came with Ifar village, Lake Sentani, north coast of West Papua
sacred objects were kept, and a variety of
35
205 the island of Simbo, and given to the Fishhook, eighteenth century his four brothers, his four wives and twenty Wood, height 91 cm rites took place, notably including sacrifices
Tuai (known as Thomas Tooi, 1797?–1824) anthropologist A. M. Hocart during the latter’s chiefly maidens who settled the land of associated with major social undertakings.
Hawaiian Islands anthropologist anthropologist
Collected by the Swiss-Russian Paul Wirz in 1926.
Paul Wirz
Drawing of a waka (canoe), 1818 ethnographic fieldwork in October 1908. Bone, fibre, height 9 cm Aitutaki; the land is still divided among their Such sites also featured a house of priests,
Museum
in 1926 der Kulturen Basel, Vb 6659
England They illustrate a series of narratives, mostly descendants. Museum der Kulturen, Basel, Vb 6659 stone figures and tiki of this kind; though
Collected between 1791 and 1794 by Lieutenant Spelman Selected references: Greub 1992; Webb 2011
Ink on paper, 18.3 × 31.2 cm concerning mythical events associated with Swaine during the voyage of Captain George Vancouver.
Vancouver Our recent interpretation of the patterns some were free-standing, the present example
Selected References: Greub 1992; Webb 2011
Sir George Grey Special Collections, Ngā Pātaka Kōrero o the gods (tamasa) but also describing recent Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of on her body identifies the carved, serrated constituted a support post on the front or side
Tāmaki Makaurau – Auckland Libraries, Auckland, history. Although some sequencing occurs, the Cambridge, 1923.103c lines on both sides of the figure as Lake Sentani figure sculptures, one of the of a sacred house.
GNZMMSS-147-4 images interweave several tales across each representations of her spine, a symbol of the Lake
most Sentani figure of
iconic genres sculptures,
Oceanic art, onewere
of the As always with Marquesan
paris only page, and their meaning is not always clear. succession of generations, of genealogy, in most
mostlyiconic genres
collected by of
PaulOceanic
Wirz inart, were
1926 and the anthropomorphic figures, the proportions of
The drawing featuring a shrine in the the form of superimposed figures. The same mostly
French collected
writer andbyartPaul WirzJacques
dealer in 1926 and Viot the the head are exaggerated: this was the locus
Selected reference:
Reference:Jones
Jonesand
andJenkins
Jenkins2017
2017
38) presents
upper right (cat. 213) presentsan anorigin
originmyth,
myth, pattern can be seen on many so-called slab French
in 1929.writer
Whileand theirartvocations
dealer Jacquesreflect two Viot of knowledge, sanctity, power and identity.
41
358
the tale of Heleveni and Veonona, two tamasa gods and on a large chief’s seat from Aitutaki. in 1929. While
paradigms their vocations
of Western interestreflect
in Oceanictwo art This work is distinctive in featuring stylised
Fishhook, eighteenth century
Tuai and Titere were early converts to who lived on the island of Kolombangara, According to Aitutakian researcher Ngaa Kitai paradigms
at the time of Western
– the interest
scientific in Oceanic
interest of salvage art anthropomorphic motifs on each side of the
Christianity from the Bay of Islands who Society Islands at the time – the scientific interestadmiration
of salvage
shown in profile below Simbo at the top of the Pureariki this pattern is called mou mou rima, ethnographers and the aesthetic mouth. The interplay between larger form and
travelled to New South Wales with the leader Shell, fibre, height 8.3 cm
page. Veonona made people, but Heleveni literally ‘holding hands’; it expresses the ethnographers
of modern artists andandthe‘primitive
aestheticart’ admiration
collectors intricate, sometimes almost indecipherable,
of the mission, Reverend Samuel Marsden, made the islands, gave people different Collected during the first voyage of Captain James Cook.
Cook
importance of connectedness to nature and of modern
– their artists ventures
collecting and ‘primitive were art’bothcollectors
pursued surface decoration is also typical of
and resided with him there for several years. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of –in their collecting ventures were bothlife pursued
languages, and created death. Heleveni sent a fertility as the origin of humankind and at the a situation where the ceremonial of Marquesan art, which underwent an
Cambridge, D 1914.31
Like a considerable number of Islanders dog to the neighbouring island of Isabel to same time the importance of the continuity of in
Lakea situation
Sentani and where the ceremonial
Humboldt Bay villageslife ofhad efflorescence in the early years of European
of the period, they were keenly interested procure baskets of witchcraft, but the dog lost generations into the future. Lake
been Sentani
severelyand Humboldt
disrupted Bay villages
by incursions had
of the contact, as the availability of iron tools
in visiting Britain; Marsden thought a visit these after his canoe sank – eight baskets The painted patterns represent tattoos been
Dutchseverely
colonialdisrupted
administration by incursions
and Protestantof the stimulated the creation of fine work, at the
would help build support for the mission, floated to Simbo, and one to Kolombangara. that, on the one hand, refer to certain Dutch colonial administration and Protestant
missionaries. time still wholly for local purposes rather than
and their passage was arranged. They The witchcraft killed a chief, and so Heleveni 42
354 founding canoes, and on the other, to the ara missionaries.
Wirz’s 1926 expedition was in fact a for sale to outsiders. nt/pb
arrived in February 1818 on HMS
HMB Kangaroo, built a skull shrine in a new way (top right), Fishhook, eighteenth century metua, the ‘ancient path of the ancestors’. returnWirz’s 1926had
visit. He expedition
spent about wasthree
in factmonths
a
but coped poorly in the winter and both different from Veonona’s earlier efforts, which Society Islands This term not only denotes a certain type of return visit.five
in the area He hadyearsspent
earlier,about threehe
a period months
suffered bronchial infections. Among those only enshrined fern fronds. Ultimately Pearlshell, bone, fibre, height 10 cm genealogy, but also the birth channel, the in the areaidyllically
described five yearsasearlier,
‘probablya period
the mosthe
who kept them company as they recuperated Veonona an anddhis
hispeople
peopleresolved
resolvedtotoleave
leave passage a child takes to emerge from Po, the described
beautiful timeidyllically
of myas life‘probably
... living in thea most
large 47
353
Collected during the first voyage of Captain James Cook.
Cook
was George Seth Bull, a schoolteacher and Kolombangara, which they did in two war Museum
UniversityofofArchaeology
Cambridge, and Anthropology,
Museum University
of Archaeology and of beginning of all things. Another pattern called beautiful
men’s house timewithof myitslife ... living
bizarre in a large
ancestor figures Substitute trophy head,
missionary who had worked with communities canoes (tomoko) named Manoga Lima, Cambridge,
Anthropology, D 1914.29
D 1914.29 vaine para kite ao is related to all the skills a men’s housepoles...’
and carved with its(Webb bizarre2011,
ancestor
p. 40).figures
By the early twentieth century
of freed slaves in Sierra Leone. This group travelling to Tauloho in the Manning Strait; Selected
Selectedreferences:
References:Carreau
Carreau2016;
2016;Cook
Cook1955,
1955,p.p.307
307 girl has to learn in order to ‘emerge into the and carved however,
mid-1920s, poles...’ (Webbthe few2011, largep. ceremonial
40). By the
of arresting drawings was executed for Purari Delta, Papua New Guinea
near there the tomoko turned into narrow world as a woman’. Thus, all the tattoo mid-1920s,
houses hadhowever,
been destroyed;the few figure
large ceremonial
sculptures 72 cm
Wood, ochre, height 73
him, most likely in the context of extended parallel islands. Veonona then departed for patterns on the figure are reminders of the houses
normallyhad keptbeen destroyed;
in them figure sculptures
were broken or placed
conversations about Māori custom and Isabel, leaving behind his sister’s son Fishhooks were commonly exchanged normally kept in them
in other, atypical weresome
locations; broken or placed
were Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
foundation values of the traditional culture of University ofE.1905.408
Cambridge, Cambridge, E.1905.408
culture. Tuai represented the face, or rather Hirikatekatei, who became a reef. The between Islanders and early mariners and in other, atypical
submerged in thelocations;
lake to protectsome them were from
Aitutaki. ma/ntp
the moko, facial tattoo, of his elder brother narrative was said to establish that Roviana were much admired by the latter. During submerged
destruction.inThe thesuccess
lake to of protect
Wirz’sthem from
and Viot’s reference: Newton
Selected Reference: Newton1961
1961
Korokoro; this and the other illustrations people had rights to islands in the Manning his third voyage, James Cook wrote during destruction. The success
collecting expeditions andofthe Wirz and Viot’s
subsequent
featuring kites, canoes and weapons notably Straits, in opposition to the use of that land by the Hawaiian visit that ‘Their fishing hooks collecting
dispersal ofexpeditions
Lake Sentani andfigure
the subsequent
sculptures and In precolonial societies of the Papuan Gulf,
give prominence to the aesthetically charged European planters. are of various sizes and figures ... they make dispersal of Lake
other artefacts in Sentani
museums figure
and sculptures
private and
183
44 headhunting was seen as vital to sustaining
designs of these forms, as well as the fibre Other drawings document ownership of their hooks of bone, mother-of-pearl, or other artefacts
collections wereinamuseums
consequence and private
of these
Drum, late eighteenth and enhancing life-force within particular
accoutrements on the prow and stern of ritual knowledge and lore. A shark tamasa, wood, pointed and barbed with little bones collections were
radical disruptions. a consequence of these
or early nineteenth century communities: heads were necessary in a
the canoes, which accentuated the vessels’ Kolodavi, is called upon to save a sinking trade or tortoise-shell ... Considering the materials radical Ofdisruptions.
the present sculpture, nothing is
Ra‘ivavae, Austral Islands variety of agricultural and initiation rituals,
presence and power. These were, in other (cat. 36); acat.
canoe (2010.441; man211);
named Patanamed
a man Reka calls
Pata of which these hooks are composed, their known Ofofthe
itspresent
originalsculpture,
placementnothing is
or the specific
Wood, fish skin, coconut fibre, height 128 cm and men who successfully obtained heads
words, not so much depictions that conveyed upon calls
Reka his tamasa charms
upon his tamasato raise
charms a reef of sand
to raise a neatness and strength are amazing; and known
identitiesof of
its the
original placement
squatting woman or or
thethespecific
child in the course of raiding expeditions were
the visual appearance of the subjects as during
reef of asand
storm at sea,
during rescuing
a storm a fleet
at sea, of a
rescuing indeed, upon trial, we found them superior to Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
identities
standing on of the
her squatting
thighs, butwoman or the were
such figures child
Cambridge, E 1904.459 renowned. Heads were preserved and
representations of what rendered a Māori fleet
tomoko (2010.455;
of tomoko not exhibited).
(2010.455). The topThe top of
of this work our own’. standing on her
typically kept in, thighs, but such as
or incorporated figures
part of,werethe displayed in ceremonial houses and during
face, canoe or ensemble of warriors full of this work illustrates
illustrates the fate ofthe fate of
a party of amen
partywhoof men Smaller hooks were primarily for inshore Selected reference:
Reference:Thomas
Thomasetetal.
al.2016
2016 typically
structurekeptof a in, or incorporated
ceremonial house or aschief’s
part of, the performance; substitute trophy heads of this
mana. who visited
visited SimboSimbo and wrongly
and wrongly ate nuts
ate nuts from from
a fishing; larger composite ones incorporating structure of a ceremonial
house. However, ethnographer houseSimon or chief’s kind were also made and used in dance and
Tuai and Titere met diverse supporters of a treeprotected
tree protectedbybya tamasa.
a tamasa.OneOnewho who lures for offshore trolling. The artefacts were house.
Kooijman However,
cautionsethnographer
against assuming Simonit
Across eastern Polynesia, drums were for display.
the mission and provided the Cambridge reproached the others was given a protection not only utilitarian but had cosmological Kooijman
representscautions
‘an actual against
mother assuming
and child’; it it is
associated with sacred precincts (marae), The precise origin of this artefact is
linguist Samuel Lee with material towards his charm by the chief, but as the party departed, associations – among both Māori and represents
more likely,‘an he actual
suggests, mother and child’;
‘to show that the it is
temples and rituals. Their deep and resonant unclear, but similar wooden trophy heads have
study of the Māori language. They returned to the seas rose up and their canoes were Hawaiians, the god Maui was said to have more
peoplelikely,
of theheleading
suggests, clan‘towereshow that the
descended
sound marked the sanctity of the moment, a been collected from Wapo Creek and
New Zealand in 1820. nt/pb battered by flying fish. The men dropped eight fished the islands up from beneath the sea. people of the leading
from maternal founderclan wereand
figures descended
deified
state of tapu, and the presence of gods. The neighbouring areas within the Purari River
charms to quell the waters, but their canoes Hooks were kept at fisherman’s shrines and from
beings’maternal
(Webb founder
2011, p. figures
25). nt/pb and deified
prominence of sinnet (coconut fibre) binding Delta. nt/pb
delta.
sank. They swam to a sandbank, and all but have sometimes been excavated among grave beings’ (Webb 2011, p. 25). NT/PB
in their making was not merely a physical
the man who had reproached the others were goods. nt/pb
means of holding the sharkskin tympanum in
devoured by sharks as they crossed a final place, but a further expression of their tapu
passage. The events were said to be historical, nature: binding, like wrapping, reinforced and
but they provide a morality tale that contained divine efficacy (mana). Drums in
demonstrates the efficacy of the property this tall, intricately carved style were made
taboo over the nut grove, and indeed by exceptionally accomplished carvers on the
acknowledges that nuts were a specialist island of Ra‘ivavae and were among valuables
trade product of Simbo. traded between the Austral Islands and

286 287
103
48 339
50 Papuan languages, implying affiliation with reflect interactions along the north coast, and pigs
in for major
order to breedceremonial exchanges
considerable numbers andof which
piano ishebalanced
has become on thea major
nose of player.
a seal;Grandin
Flute stopper, early twentieth century Female figure, early to mid-twentieth century the populations of mainland New Guinea particularly the influence of cultures to the feasts.
pigs forBefore
major pacification by the Australian
ceremonial exchanges and pianos
another,are a recurring
it is festoonedelementwith black in his work
lilies. At and
the
Biwat language group, Yuat River, Sepik region, Papua Attributed to Giri people, lower Bamu River, East Sepik rather than the maritime, Austronesian east. nt/pb administration
feasts. in the 1950s,bytribes
Before pacification and clans
the Australian riff on the
Venice subjectHe
Biennale, of Kōrero
performance.
PūrākauInwas one, a
New
PapuaGuinea
New Guinea Province, Papua New Guinea cultures, they were and are renowned for were regularly engaged
administration in bow-and-arrow
in the 1950s, tribes and clans piano
exhibited is balanced
with twoon the pianos,
more nose of each a seal;cast in in
Wood, cassowary feathers, teeth, shells, turtle shell, Wood, pigment, shell, vegetable fibre, height 24.5 cm the creation of arrestingly painted barkcloth warfare;
were subsequently,
regularly engagedconflict carried on,
in bow-and-arrow another,
bronze and it istopped
festooned withwith black lilies.
the figure of a bull,At the
in
fibre, pigments, height 73 cm Musée du quai Branly-Jacques Chirac, Paris, masks and effigies over wooden and bamboo primarily subsequently,
warfare; through the less visiblecarried
conflict practice
on,of Venice
an ensemble Biennale, He Kōrero
entitled On First Pūrākau
Lookingwas into
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris,
71.1960.112.18
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 2906 71.1960.112.18 frames. These works were for one-off use sorcery. through the less visible practice of
primarily exhibited
Chapman’swith Homer,two more pianos,
after the title each cast in
of a sonnet
Selected Reference: Bolton et al., 2013
Selected reference: Bolton et al., 2013
during ceremonies, which from time to 322
55 sorcery.
As was the case elsewhere in New bronze
by Johnand topped
Keats. with
Silent andthe figurethe
frozen, of abronze
bull, in
time brought otherwise dispersed hunting Vayola, war shield, late nineteenth century Guinea,
As shields
was thewere caseaesthetically
elsewhere indramatic New an ensemble
bulls, named entitled
Chapman’s On First
Homer and Ainto
Looking Peak in
Sacred flutes were of major significance
This woman wears shell arm-rings, indicative and gardening peoples together. The rites Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea and oftenshields
Guinea, dauntingwereexpressions
aesthetically of the vigour
dramatic Darien, stood
Chapman’s in marked
Homer, after contrast
the title with the red
of a sonnet
among Sepik peoples, particularly during This woman wears shell arm-rings, indicative
of high status, and a hat or cape, associated focused concentrated on birth, male and Acacia wood, cane, ochre, charcoal and lime, 74 × 33 cm of the
and individual
often daunting warrior and theofgroup
expressions that
the vigour by Johnwhich
piano, Keats.was Silent and frozen,
created the bronze
to be played, and
initiation rites. At the time of marriage a of high status, and a hat or cape, associated
with ritual states such as those of female female initiation and harvest and mortuary bore
of thethem into battle.
individual warriorHowever,
and theamong Mendi
group that bulls,
whosenamed title includes
Chapman’s the core
Homer and AofPeak in
concept
bride was given a flute by her father, for with ritual states such as those of female National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, Ib.754
initiation. Sculptures of this kind, of which rituals, and involved both daytime and night Selected References: Leach 1954; Bolton et al. 2013, pp. and their
bore themWola neighbours,
into battle. However,iconography
among Mendi was Darien, stood in marked
kōrero, meaning to speak,contrast
to converse,with the red
to tell
transmission ultimately to her sons. Flute initiation. Sculptures of this kind, of which Selected references: Leach 1954; Bolton et al. 2013,
only a few are known in museum collections, ceremonies, focused respectively on the 21–24 distinctive;
and their Woladesigns were pricked
neighbours, out but was
iconography the piano,
stories.which was created to be played, and
stoppers represented male ancestors, and only a few are known in museum collections, pp. 21–24
are not well documented, but they appear to female domains of the garden and the male deep incision
distinctive; of strong
designs weregeometric
pricked out andbut the whoseThe title includesadded
ensemble the core concept
another layerof of
might be handed down over a number of are not well documented, but they appear to
have represented female spirits, important domain of the wild. curvilinear
deep motifs
incision typicalgeometric
of strong of other regions
and was kōrero,
meaning meaning
to He Kōreroto speak, to converse,
Pūrākau that underpinsto tell
generations, or exchanged among kin. nt/pb have represented female spirits, important Men of higher status in the Trobriand Islands
The present example’s prominent eyes Men of higher status in the Trobriand Islands not found. Motifs,
curvilinear sometimes
motifs typical of otherpainted in just
regions was stories.
the reason for its inclusion in ‘Oceania’.
bearers of power, prophecy and love bore shields very different to those used
bearers of power, prophecy and love are a hallmark of Baining pieces of this kind, bore shields very different to those used not
one found.
colour,Motifs,
in othersometimes
cases two painted
or three,infeature
just Keats’s Thesonnet
ensemble was added
published anotherin 1816 layer
in of
magic. nt/pb across mainland New Guinea, which typically
magic. nt/pb but this work’s combination of the standard across mainland New Guinea, which typically circular
one forms
colour, associated
in other caseswith
two or thethree,
sun and
feature meaning
response to to He
his Kōrero
readingPūrākau that underpins
of a Renaissance
featured large and bold painted and incised
motif with a full secondary figure above the featured large and bold painted and incised moon and
circular creation
forms stories;with
associated stylised
the sun human
and the reason for
translation (by its inclusion
George in ‘Oceania’.
Chapman) of Homer’s
motifs, as well as fibre elements. Vayola
eyes, deftly constituted through flowing lines, motifs, as well as fibre elements. Vayola figuresand
moon arecreation
rare among Mendi
stories; but more
stylised human Keats’s
Odyssey.sonnet In the was poem, published
he makes in a1816 in set
startling
184
49 from the Trobriands were made from slabs of
appears unique among works extant in from the Trobriands were made from slabs of commonarein rare
figures Wolaamong
examples.
Mendi It isbutthought
more that response
of connections to his between
reading ofHomer’s
a Renaissance
seafaring
Te
Te otanga,
otanga, armour,
armour, helmet
helmet and
and trident,
trident, 267 acacia wood, and were delicately painted on
51 museum collections. nt/pb acacia wood, and were delicately painted on these figures
common represent
in Wola the obligation
examples. It is thought on that
a translation
adventures (by in theGeorge
AegeanChapman)
(which of heHomer’s
‘ruled as
late nineteenth century Shield, late nineteenth or beginning of a white ground with motifs associated with
Shield, late nineteenth or beginning of a white ground with motifs associated with warriorfigures
these to avenge the death
represent of a kinsman.
the obligation on a nt/ his demesne’);
Odyssey. In the the poem, he makesofaEurope’s
beginnings startling set
twentieth century war magic. These shields were the focus of
Kiribati twentieth century war magic. These shields were the focus of pb
warrior to avenge the death of a kinsman. of connections
imperial designsbetweenon another Homer’s
sea ofseafaring
islands,
Armour: coconut fibre, human hair, height of cuirass Unir River, northwest Asmat, south coast of Papua a long controversy among anthropologists,
Unir River, northwest Asmat, south coast of Papua a long controversy among anthropologists, nt/pb adventures
those of theinPacific the Aegean
Ocean;(whichand thehecolonising
‘ruled as
c. 102 cm, length of overalls 165 cm Wood, paint, height 168.5 cm following Edmund Leach’s argument that the
Helmet: fish skin, diameter c. 20 cm
Wood, paint, height 168.5 cm following Edmund Leach’s argument that the his demesne’);
project already the beginnings
underway in theofearlyEurope’s
National Museum of World Cultures, Netherlands, designs evoked the dangerous flying witches
Trident: coconut palm wood, shark teeth, human hair, Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands, designs evoked the dangerous flying witches imperial
nineteenth designs
century on when
another seawrote
Keats of islands,
the
TM-A-528 of Trobriand myth. This interpretation has not
palm fibre, palm leaf, length c. 117 cm TM-A-528 of Trobriand myth. This interpretation has not those
sonnet.ofThe the moment
Pacific Ocean; and the colonising
of comprehension is
Selected References: Smidt 1993; Stanley 2012 been supported by Trobriand commentators,
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
Selected references: Smidt 1993; Stanley 2012 53
255 been supported by Trobriand commentators, 223
58 project
expressed already
in anunderway
allusion tointhe theSpanish
early
who point to the meanings of specific motifs
Cambridge, Z 7034.1-2, 2011.93.3, E 1907.603 Suspension hook, mother and child, who point to the meanings of specific motifs Michael Parekowhai (b. 1968) 1968, Nga Ariki explorer Cortés
nineteenth centuryscaling
when a mountain
Keats wrote range thein
The upper sections of Asmat shields typically but deny that the overall image has any
The upper sections of Asmat shields typically mid-twentieth century but deny that the overall image has any He Kōrero Pūrākau mo Te Awanui o Te Motu:
Rotoawe) sonnet.
PanamaThe moment
(‘a peak of comprehension
in Darien’) and seeing is for the
Selected Reference: Adams,Bence
reference: Adams, Benceand
andClark
Clark2018
2018 symbolic significance. nt/pb
feature a stylised face, implying that the symbolic significance. nt/pb He Kōrero
story Pūrākau
of a New mo TeRiver,
Zealand Awanui
2011o Te Motu: expressed
first time the in an‘one allusion to the Spanish
wide expanse’ of the Pacific:
feature a stylised face, implying that the Iatmul people, Kanganaman village, East Sepik Province,
shield as a whole is a body, a sort of extended storyZealand
of a New Zealand River, 2011 explorer Cortés scaling a mountain range in
shield as a whole is a body, a sort of extended Papua New Guinea New (Nga Ariki Rotoawe)
Among the extraordinary objects produced in body of the warrior. The prominent motif in the Wood, height 72 cm Panama (‘a peak
Or like stout in Darien’)
Cortez when and withseeing
eagleforeyes
the
body of the warrior. The prominent motif in the Piano, wood, ivory, brass, lacquer, steel, ebony, pāua
New Zealand
the past by I-Kiribati, the people of Kiribati, lower centre, made up of linked circles and a shell,
Piano,mother of pearl, upholstery;
lacquer, two
steel,pieces:
ebony,103 × 275 first time the ‘one
He star’d wide
at the expanse’
Pacific – andofallthe hisPacific:
men
lower centre, made up of linked circles and a NationaalMuseum
National Museumofvan Wereldculturen,
World Netherlands,
Cultures, Netherlands, wood, ivory, brass, pāua
were suits of armour (te otanga) of this kind, downward pointing arrow, is that of a tar, a TM-2670-28 × 175 mother
shell, cm (piano); 85.5 upholstery;
of pearl, × 46 × 41 cm (chair)
two pieces: 103 × 275 Look’d at each other with a wild surmise
downward pointing arrow, is that of a tar, a 56
349
which were extensively collected in the latter flying fox (a large fruit bat). In Asmat culture, × 175 cm (piano);
Collection 85.5 × 46of×New
of the Museum 41 cm (chair) Te Papa
Zealand Or
– like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes
flying fox (a large fruit bat). In Asmat culture, Shield, early twentieth century
decades of the nineteenth century. The armour a tree can symbolise a human being, its fruit Tongarewa,
Collection ofWellington,
the Museum 2011-0046-1/A-N
of New ZealandtoTeN-NPapa He star’d
Silent, upon at the Pacific
a peak – and all his men
in Darien.
a tree can symbolise a human being, its fruit In many parts of Oceania, suspended hooks Kundima
provided protection from the island warriors’ the human head; hence the flying fox evokes Kundima village
village on
on the
the lower
lower Yuat
Yuat River,
River, Papua New Tongarewa, Wellington, 2011-0046-1/A-N to N-N Look’d at each other with a wild surmise
the human head; hence the flying fox evokes served the practical purpose of keeping food Papua New Guinea
Guinea
Selected reference: Venice 2011
dangerous shark’s-teeth-edged
sharks’-teeth-edged swords, spears the voracious, swift, aggressive and successful If– the bronze pianos were emblematic of
the voracious, swift, aggressive and successful safe from animals. In the Sepik region, some Wood, paint,
Wood, paint, fibre,
fibre, cassowary
cassowary feathers,
feathers, height
height 173
173 cm
cm Selected Reference: Venice 2011
and daggers, like the present example. Such headhunter. The motif occurs widely on Silent,gaze
that silent uponofaimperial
peak in desire,
Darien. He Kōrero
headhunter. The motif occurs widely on hooks took the form of sculptural portraits of Collected He Kōrero Pūrākau mo Te Awanui o Te Motu:
warriors would never have fought alone, and Asmat shields in various hybrid and more Collected by
by Gregory
Gregory Bateson.
Bateson
Asmat shields in various hybrid and more Pūrākau is about the necessity to keep talking
would have been surrounded by a number of or less abstracted forms. The two hooked, founding ancestors or mythic figures. Both Museum of
Museum of Archaeology
Archaeology and
and Anthropology,
Anthropology, He Kōrero
story of a New PūrākauZealandmo TeRiver Awanuiwas ooriginally
Te Motu:
or less abstracted forms. The two hooked, University of
of Cambridge,
Cambridge, 1930.430
1930.430 and toIf make
the bronze
music.pianos were emblematic
The musical programmeof
people not wearing armour who would have incomplete circles in the upper section of the male and female ancestors were represented; University Story of as
created a New Zealand Riverofwas
the centrepiece originally
a six-piece
incomplete circles in the upper section of the that
with silent
the piano gazeinof‘Oceania’
imperial desire, He Kōrero
is dedicated to
carried branched spears, clubs and small design represent bipanew, shell ornaments women were sometimes shown pregnant, or created as the
installation centrepiece
by Michael of a six-piece
Parekowhai for the
design represent bipanew, shell ornaments Pūrākau
those ends. is about
nt/pbthe necessity to keep talking
daggers. worn in the nose, important elements of the exceptionally, as in this case, with a baby. This A
A shield
shield in
in the
the Museum
Museum für für Völkerkunde,
Völkerkunde, installation
2011 Veniceby MichaelatParekowhai
Biennale, which the artist for the
worn in the nose, important elements of the and to make music. The musical programme
These objects reflect an integral aspect self-decoration of a headhunter. hook comes from Kanganaman, an important Dresden,
Dresden, collected
collected about
about fifteen
fifteen years
years earlier
earlier 2011 Venice Biennale,
represented New Zealand. at which the artist
The work is a fully
self-decoration of a headhunter. with the piano in ‘Oceania’ is dedicated to
of Kiribati life: use of the materials available to Asmat art acquired global renown middle Sepik village, the location of what is than
than this
this one
one was
was acquired
acquired in in Kundima
Kundima representedSteinway
functioning New Zealand. grandThe workelaborately
piano, is a fully
Asmat art acquired global renown those ends. nt/pb
people in the relatively impoverished atoll following the disappearance in 1961 of said to be the oldest extant haus tambaram village
village on
on the
the lower
lower Yuat
Yuat River,
River, although
although itit functioningwith
decorated Steinway
seemingly grandtraditional
piano, elaborately
Māori
following the disappearance in 1961 of (men’s house), formally designated by the decoratedand
patterns with seeminglypainted
industrially traditional
withMāorishiny
environment, such as coconuts, pandanus, Michael Rockefeller, son of the governor of was
was said
said to
to originate
originate from
from the
the Keram
Keram valley,
valley,
Michael Rockefeller, son of the governor of government of Papua New Guinea as a place patterns
red lacquer.andThe industrially
work’s title painted withfrom
is taken shiny
human hair, sharks’ teeth, porcupine fish and New York, during a collecting expedition. some
some thirty
thirty miles
miles to
to the
the east,
east, exemplifying
exemplifying
New York, during a collecting expedition. of cultural significance. nt/pb ared lacquer.
1920 novelThe work’s
by Jane title is taken
Mander, whichfrom was
ray skin, to produce these fearsome objects. Wooden sculptures of various kinds were the
the movement
movement of of artefacts
artefacts across
across linguistic
linguistic
Wooden sculptures of various kinds were a 1920
the novel byfor
inspiration Jane Jane Mander,
Campion’s which was
famous
The armour and the weaponry used with already being made for sale to outsiders, and and
and tribal
tribal boundaries
boundaries in in the
the region.
region. A A tall
tall and
and
already being made for sale to outsiders, and
heavy the inspiration
1993 film The Piano. for Jane BothCampion’s
novel andfamous film
II MA K I N G PL
PLAA CE
it would have taken several months to make. the creation of work for museum, tourist and heavy shield
shield of
of this
this kind
kind would
would have
have protected
protected
the creation of work for museum, tourist and 1993 filmthe
feature Thetransportation
Piano. Both novel and film
of a hefty piano,
Groups of many people would have been wider markets has grown considerably since. the
the warrior’s
warrior’s whole
whole body
body from
from his
his opponents’
opponents’
wider markets has grown considerably since. feature of
symbol theEuropean
transportation of a hefty
high culture, from piano,
needed to make the twisted, plaited and The present shield was collected much earlier arrows
arrows and
and spears;
spears; the
the animation
animation of of the
the
The present shield was collected much earlier symbol to
Britain of colonial
European New highZealand
culture,byfrom a settler
knotted coconut-fibre string used for the during one of a series of military and scientific design
design and
and the
the fibre
fibre tassels
tassels inin motion
motion must
must 274
59
during one of a series of military and scientific Britain to
couple who colonial New Zealand
have personally by a settler
embarked on
armour, and to prepare the human-hair string expeditions undertaken from the Netherlands have
have daunted
daunted and
and distracted
distracted hishis enemy.
enemy. nt/ Malu
Malu semban,
semban, openwork
openwork board,
board, early
expeditions undertaken from the Netherlands 54
192 couple who have
colonialism’s personally
‘civilising’ embarked
mission. on
Parekowhai’s
that decorates it. The earliest example in a between 1904 and 1915, following the nt/pb
pb twentieth century
early twentieth century
between 1904 and 1915, following the Shield, late nineteenth century colonialism’s
piano, ‘civilising’
by contrast, is on mission.
a missionParekowhai’s
in
museum collection dates from the 1830s but it establishment of Dutch colonial control. nt/
establishment of Dutch colonial control. piano, byConceived
reverse. contrast, isinon a mission in era,
a ‘post-colonial’ Sawos people, Sepik region, Papua New Guinea
is not known when the armour began to be pb Humboldt Bay, north coast of Papua
nt/pb Wood, height 119 cm itreverse.
is a MāoriConceived
appropriationin a ‘post-colonial’
of Europeanera, high
Wood, 154 × 59.4 × 8 cm (including fibre loop)
produced in the archipelago. The production
57 it is a Māori
culture destinedappropriation
for venuesofinEuropeanthe globalhigh Collected by Gregory Bateson between 1929 and 1934
1934.
of armour on any significant scale came to an NationaalMuseum
National Museumofvan Wereldculturen,
World Netherlands,
Cultures, Netherlands, 177
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
end in the early twentieth century, with the TM-A-719 Worrumbi
Worrumbi or elayaborr, shield,
or elayaborr, shield, mid-twentieth
mid-twentieth culture destined
contemporary artfor venues
world: in theLondon,
Venice, global Paris
Cambridge,
University of1935.39
Cambridge, 1935.39
arrival of missionaries and the British colonial 102 century
century contemporary
and so on. Fittingly,art world: Venice,
the piano London, Paris
is conceived as
52 aandkindsoofon.canoe:
Fittingly,
the thelid ispiano is conceived
its sail, the music Selected Reference: Paris2015
reference: Paris 2015
government. ac Kavat mask, 1890–1913 Fighting commonly took place between Mendi
Mendi or
or Wola
Wola people,
people, Southern
Southern Highlands,
Highlands,
Kavat mask, 1890–1913 as a kind
stand is itsofstern
canoe, or the metamorphosis
rudder, a manaia figure
Papua New
Papua New Guinea
Guinea
Baining people, New Britain, Papua New Guinea villages along the north coast of New Guinea,
Baining people, New Britain, Papua New Guinea
Fibre, bamboo, barkcloth, paint, 76 × 65 × 50 cm
Wood, pigment,
Wood, pigment, fibre,
fibre, height
height 123.5
123.5 cm
cm apparently
twists around of aitsplain
rim toriver canoe:itsThe
become prow,lid iswhile
its Malu semban, openwork boards carved from
Fibre, bamboo, barkcloth, paint, 76 × 65 × 50 cm in which bows and arrows, as well as daggers
Musée sail,whole
the the music thingstand is its and
is lashed sternrigged
or rudder,
with a the buttress roots of large trees, are poorly
Collected by the German planter, traveller and ethnologist for hand-to-hand fighting, were employed. Musée du
du quai
quai Branly – JacquesChirac,
Branly-Jacques Chirac,Paris,
Paris,72.1997.1.2
72.1997.1.2
Collected by the German planter, traveller and ethnologist Selected Reference: Beran and Craig 2005 manaiaasfigure
ropes twists
if to hold downaround its rim to
its soaring become
ambition. understood, but they are thought to have
Richard Parkinson between 1890 and 1913
Richard Parkinson between 1890 and 1913. Large shields were not typically used in the
Selected reference: Beran and Craig 2005 its prow, while the whole
Parekowhai’s primarything is lashed
concerns as an constituted marriage gifts. Although they
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 5676 region, but had been adopted by warriors
and rigged
artist have been with ropes
with the as ifnarratives
to hold down its
of colonial were made in the middle Sepik region, they
of Sko Sae village to the east of Humboldt The Mendi people of the Southern Highlands
The MendiNew
people of the SouthernaHighlands soaringand
history ambition.
the aesthetic and historical were often collected in the lower Sepik, and
Bay, who were making and using impressive of Papua Guinea constituted dense
The Baining people occupy the upland tropical of Papua New Guinea constituted Parekowhai’s
discourses primary concerns
of the contemporary as anin
art world probably therefore presented from group to
shields in this style in the late nineteenth population of some twenty to thirtya thousand,
dense
artist have
which he has been with the
become narratives
a major player.ofGrandcolonial
forest within the Gazelle Peninsula, at the population of some twenty group in the context of marriage exchanges.
century. The designs as well as the form practising intensive forms oftoagriculture
thirty thousand,
pianos
history are andathe recurring element in his work and
northern end of New Britain. Speakers of practising intensive forms of agriculture aesthetic and historical Varied in form, in some cases with greater
in order to breed considerable numbers of discourses
riff of the contemporary
on the subject of performance. artInworld
one,ina

288 289
emphasis on clearly defined humans or birds, some to support established views of racial fire. Mimia figures were kept in the men’s a wooden core, featured woven eyes and 66
075 68
022
they feature a large upper face, a smaller one hierarchy. house (darimo), where they were decorated mouths, and in some cases arms; some Ki’i, temple
temple of Ku-ka’ili-moku, the god Ku,
of Ku-ka’ili-moku, Ku, Orator’s stool, mid-twentieth century
in the lower centre, a set of hooks from which In 1898, Ahuia Ova, a Koita chief from with pigments and body ornaments before examples are also partially feathered. Such the Island Snatcher, late eighteenth or early Kabriman village, Blackwater River, middle Sepik region,
string bags may have been suspended, and Hohodae in Hanuabada, Port Moresby, made being shown to initiates. In 1910 the Finnish images were preserved in boxes or chests nineteenth century Papua New Guinea
a field of hook motifs based on stylised birds’ several drawings for the Torres Strait anthropologist Gunnar Landtman saw a mimia on the sacred precincts known as marae, Attributed to the Kona coast, Hawai‘i Wood, pigment, conus shell, 147 × 48 × 53 cm
heads. Birds were prominent in the mythology Expedition, later published by expedition formed from an anthropomorphically shaped and could be transported from there to Breadfruit wood, height 267 cm Collected by the ethnographer Alfred Bühler in 1959.
1959
of the region, but it is unclear whether the leader Alfred Cort Haddon (1904). Educated by stone. Weapons and garden produce would other places in order to be present during British Museum, London, Oc1839,0426.8 Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb17563
art form featured any specific species, or the London Missionary Society, Ahuia may be placed on or near the figure, which was ceremonies. On marae, they appear to have Selected reference:
Reference:Paris
Paris2015
2015
Selected references:
References:Kaeppler
Kaeppler1982;
1982;Valeri
Valeri1985;
1985; Tengan
narrative. have already been familiar with Western made animate at night by the application of had offerings left in their vicinity, although the
Tengan
2016 2016
This example, collected from a Tsuosh drawing techniques, producing images semen and considered highly efficacious, to Bounty mutineer James Morrison, who wrote
village, is distinguished by an astonishingly Haddon considered relatively accomplished. aid future success. an early and insightful account of Tahitian Orator’s stools were not in fact seats, but
intricate yet fluid field of curved motifs. The Ahuia made these two pencil drawings in late In a part of New Guinea where figure culture on the basis of his period of residence, In the Hawaiian pantheon, the god Ku could ancestral images normally kept beside central
sheer complexity of the field of motifs makes it 1903 or 1904, conceivably of his own volition, sculpture is less common, wooden, believed that they were commemorated have many manifestations, one of which posts within men’s houses in the middle
extraordinary that this section of the work in response to enquiries from Torres Strait three-dimensional mimia appear to be unique rather than ‘worshipped’. This type of image – Kuka’ili’moku – was the god of war. But Sepik. Among the most powerful works within
exhibits careful, though not absolute veteran Charles Seligman during the Cooke to Kiwai Island. Despite missing its penis, this has been associated with the god ‘Oro. The Ku could also be invoked for constructive a house, they exemplified the presence of
symmetry. A repeating element suggests a Daniels Ethnographical
Cooke-Daniels Expedition.
Ethnographical Expedition. exceptional and fluid figure, carved from the ‘Oro cult, imported into Tahiti from the island purposes: to ‘ensure the fertility of women the particular named, founding ancestor,
bird with a pronounced curved beak and large Publishing both drawings in his 1910 whole with head turned and body arching, of Ra’iatea,
Rai’atea, was a novel development in and the land, to “stabilise” the kingdom and especially vital at the time of any debate
eye plunging forward, as if to secure food, but monograph The Melanesians of British New differs from typically rigid and forward-facing eighteenth-century Society Islands ritual and give it peace, to ward off disease, and so among the men of the community, which
distinguishing these elements from others is Guinea, Seligman suspected their more examples. Landtman (1927) describes wooden politics, associated with the realignment of forth’, according to the anthropologist Valerio would concern important matters of kinship,
optically challenging, particularly because the ‘elaborate’ style indicated the hand of Ahuia’s mimia ‘dancing’ alongside initiates by way of hierarchy and the development of new marae. Valeri. There is a chant to Ku that invokes politics, conflict or rights to resources. The
voids between the forms constitute their own brother, Rabura Geita of Kila Kila. However, a rig or rope-pull and, during warfare, being This reconfiguration of the political order was his name as the granter of life to the people overall form was relatively standard, but the
pattern, as if in competition with the sculpted comparison with Ahuia’s 1898 drawings – set on the bow of canoes so that the figure’s underway at the time of the early European in all their different spheres. This image of way the ancestor was represented varied
motifs. particularly his handling of human spirit (urio) would weaken the enemy. Alluding visits. nt/pb
nt/pb Kuka’ili’moku, however, with its colossal size, considerably, with each house said to have its
While malu semban are said to have figures – does not support this; archival to its likely collecting context in February 1904, tensed body posture and grimacing mouth distinctive style. Some figures, in the round,
been hung, sometimes in sets, on the inside evidence points to Rabura as the artist behind Cooke Daniels Ethnographical Expedition
the Cooke-Daniels (which Adrienne Kaeppler calls the ‘mouth featured naturalistic faces with hair, beards
walls of houses, the design in this case is other drawings depicting Kila Kila dubu recorded this figure as an agricultural charm, of disrespect’), conveys his fearsome and and ornaments; the body scarifications borne
partially outlined on the back of the board, as (carved wooden ceremonial platforms). The although it may have been acquired by Acting the aggressive character. Originally, the sculpture by all initiated men were represented through
if the artist hoped that that side too would dubu depicted and annotated here by Ahuia is Acting Administrator
Administrator of KiwaiofIsland
BritishChristopher
New Guinea would have stood on the grounds of a heiau incisions on a figure’s stomach and chest.
occasionally be visible. nt/pb called Gaibodubu and is that of his clan Christopherwhom
Robinson, Robinson, whom thehad
the expedition expedition
joined on 082
65 (temple) as the object of offerings and In this example an enlarged face takes the
(iduhu), the Dubara, at Hohodae. Dubu Erected for
were ahad joined
tour on a tour
of Western of Western
Province. hd Province. hd Ti’i, god image,
image with
with two
two heads,
heads, sacrifices. Indeed, the connotation of sacrifice place of the full figure, painted in white and
feasts,
erected
tabu yamsfeasts;
for tabu yams were
were heaped heaped
underneath early nineteenth century is suggested in the form of its headdress, red ochres in a typically Iatmul style with
underneath
and bananasand bananas
strung strung
between between
posts for which converges towards the image of a pig, fine circular and crescent-shaped forms,
Tahiti, Society Islands
posts for distribution
distribution (gidu) to neighbouring
(gidu) to neighbouring clans and Cordia wood, height 59 cm forming the god’s nose and forehead. The together with inlaid conus shell, constitutingaa
shell constituting
clans andwho
villages, villages, who are
are shown shown surrounded
surrounded by echo of the pig’s form in the rows of knobs in formidable presence. nt/pb
Collected in January 1822 by Captain Sampson Jervois
60
209 by overflowing
overflowing string
string bags.
bags. TwoTwo unmarried
unmarried of HMS Dauntless.
Dauntless
the headdress suggests many sacrifices. The
Ahuia Ova (c. 1875–1951)
(1877–1951) women wearing fibre skirts dance on the 63
262 British Museum, London, Oc1955,10.1 statue was carved using steel tools in the late
Drawing of a dubu (ceremonial platform), horizontal poles, and to the far right more Bisj, ceremonial pole, mid-twentieth century eighteenth or early nineteenth century at a
Selected reference:
Reference:Newell
Newell2010
2010
1903–04 people arrive carrying a long food parcel for a Amborep village, central Asmat, south coast of Papua
time when Kamehameha, high chief of the
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea ceremony called komu. Wood, pigment, height 5.25 m island of Hawai‘i,
Hawai‘i ,initiated
initiatedaaprogramme
programmeofof
Graphite and red crayon on paper, 34.6 × 43 cm In the drawing of two urita, Ahuia Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands, This double-headed figure is unique in the temple-building to Kuka’ili’moku to sanction
illustrates three narratives in connection with Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
RV-3242-2 corpus of art from the Society Islands, but his campaign of conquest throughout the 69, 70
271.1–2
Collected by the Cooke Daniels Ethnographical Expedition
Cooke-Daniels
tabu, the name given to malevolent RV-3242-2 stylistically consistent with other sculptures archipelago – resulting in the creation of a Female and male figures, late nineteenth or
in late 1903 or 1904.
1904
British Museum, London, Oc2006,Drg.689 supernatural creatures (unconnected with the presumed to represent male deities, such as unified Hawaii under Kamehameha’s rule as or early
early twentieth
twentieth century
century
Bisj poles were made for one-off use. A group
feast). These include urita, cephalopod-like Bisj poles were in
made another in the British Museum of a single- monarch. Today, Ku remains an important
Selected references:
References:Haddon
Haddon1904;
1904;Seligman
Seligman1904;
1904; were mounted frontforof one-off use.house
the men’s A group Kranket Island, Madang Harbour, Astrolabe Bay, Papua
creatures responsible for spring and well were mounted in front of the men’s houseto headed male god (Oc.7047), collected at about deity to many Hawaiians.
Hawaiians and, In 2010 this statue
in 2010, this Papua New Guinea
New Guinea
Seligman 1910 for a ceremony expressing a commitment
water, depicted with shaded surrounds to for a ceremony the same time by George Bennet, who was from
statuethe collection
from of the British
the collection Museum was
of the British Wood, pigment, heights 232.8 and 258.5 cm
avenge the deadexpressing
represented a commitment
on each pole. to
indicate the water’s edge. Above, a bamboo avenge engaged in a survey of London Missionary displayed
Museum was again in Hawai‘i
displayed for the
again first time
in Hawaii for in
This bisjthe
wasdead represented
carved for a ritualonofeach pole.
this kind Collected in 1910.
1910
pole (sese) strung with valuables is suspended This bisj Society stations in the Pacific. The heads, over 170time
the first years,in at an 170
over exhibition
years atatan theexhibition
Bishop Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 63096, 63097
that tookwas carved
place in theforvillage
a ritual
of of this kind
Amborep
over a burning pot to entice the urita to that tookThe
place in the chests (with widely spaced nipples), fanned-the Museum,
at the Bishopalongside
Museum, twoalongside
other colossal Ku
two other
61
210 in 1954. lower partvillage
of theofpole
Amborep
recalls
release the spirit (sua) of sick boy. Below, in 1954. out fingers and
fanned-out overall
fingers, andproportions of the two
overall proportions of statues,
colossal one from theone
Ku statues, Bishop
from itself and theitself
the Bishop
Ahuia Ova (1877–1951) the formThe
of alower
canoe,part of the
within pole the
which recalls
dead This pair of post figures was originally part
the form of a canoe, are
the sufficiently similar tosimilar
two are sufficiently suggest that the that
to suggest other
and the from thefrom
other Peabody MuseumMuseum
the Peabody in Salem,in
Drawing of two urita (supernatural
Ahuia illustrates a hill near the Laloki River would undertake theirwithin which
journey theother
to the dead of a ceremonial house on Kranket, a small
that he visited with Seligman in October 1904; would undertake sculptures
the sculpturescould wellwell
could havehave
beenbeen
made by the
made by Massachusetts.
Salem, Massachusetts. nt/pb nt/pb
creatures), 1903–04
1903–04 world. nt/pb their journey to the other island in the harbour of the modern town
occupied by a powerful tabu called hara tabu, world. nt/pb same
the sameartist, or atorleast
artist, werewere
at least products of the
products of
of Madang. They differ in style to works
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea Ahuia believed it caused him to fall from his same
the samecommunity
community of makers.
of makers.
generally associated with the Astrolabe Bay
Graphite and red crayon on paper, 34.1 × 43.3 cm
horse and develop fever. hd Although the painter on Cook’s second
region, and little is known of their context.
Collected by the Cooke Daniels Ethnographical Expedition
Cooke-Daniels voyage, William Hodges ra, RA, depicted
depicted
The painted elements are probably related
in late 1903 or 1904.
1904 64 sculptures on about this scale mounted high 67
256
351 to body decoration and ornaments such as
British Museum, London, Oc2006,Drg.694
woven image
To’o, woven image of
of the
the god
god ‘Oro,
‘Oro, on the prows of large war canoes, the images Uli figure, early twentieth century
To’o, armbands; the pigments employed incorporate
late eighteenth
eighteenth or
or early
early nineteenth
nineteenth century
century could equally well have been situated on
late Central New Ireland, Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Reckitts Blue, a laundry bleach widely sought
The practice of encouraging Indigenous posts within ritual precincts. The particular Guinea
Society Islands
Society Islands from traders by Melanesians during the
expressions on paper began as early as 62
080 identities of the deities represented are not Wood, natural pigments (including lime and soot), shell,
Wood, coconut fibre, height 48.5 cm colonial period, and used as paint on sculpture
the eighteenth century, when participants Mimia, male carved figure, Wood, coconut fibre, height 48.5 cm known; the doubling of the heads probably plant fibre, height 139 cm
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of in New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and
in Cook’s first voyage, particularly Joseph late nineteenth or early twentieth century Museum of 1907.342
Archaeology and Anthropology, University of accentuated the mana or spiritual power of Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands, on
Cambridge, Vanuatu. nt/pb
Banks and his artists, evidently gave the Cambridge, 1907.42 the ancestor and the people associated with loan from Universiteitsmuseum Groningen, Netherlands,
TM-6156.2
Kiwai Island (?), Western Province, Papua New Guinea Selected references: Norwich 2006; Smith and Thomas
Tahitian priest and navigator Tupaia the idea Wood and pigment traces, 127 × 16 × 15 16 cm Selected
with
him. him. TM-6156-2
Selected Reference: Gunn and Peltier 2006
2013, pp. 199–201 Norwich 2006; Smith and Thomas
Reference:
of producing drawings of aspects of Tahitian 2013, pp. 199–201 In 1815, following a period of conflict Selected reference: Gunn and Peltier 2006
Cooke Daniels Ethnographical
Collected during the Cooke-Daniels
life and scenes and encounters witnessed among Tahitian aristocrats, Pomare II, the
1904.
Expedition in 1904 While the famous malangan of New Ireland
elsewhere. By the late nineteenth and early British Museum, London, Oc1906,1013.41 Throughout Polynesia, binding – and Tahitian high chief most closely associated
Throughout Polynesia, binding – and While the malangan
were produced of New Ireland
for ceremonies and were
then
twentieth centuries, the practice had been especially binding with coconut fibre, known with the Christian mission, prevailed in battle
reference: Landtman
Selected Reference: Landtman1927
1927 especially binding with coconut fibre, known produced
discardedfor ceremonies
or sold, uli were and then discarded or
representations
enshrined in Notes and Queries, a handbook as sinnet – was empowering. The operation and soon afterwards the majority of the
as sinnet – was empowering. The operation sold,
of clan ulileaders,
were representations
associated with of clan
a cultleaders,
that
informed by evolutionary principles that assured the integrity and effectiveness of Islanders
islanders were nominally converted. Over
assured the integrity and effectiveness of associated
originated in with
theamountainous
cult originating in the
rainforest
guided travellers and anthropologists on Among the Kiwai people of the Fly River tools such as adzes and vital implements of subsequent years, god images and sculptures
tools such as adzes and vital implements mountainous
of the northern rainforest
interior.ofThe
thefigures
northern
were interior.
the collection of comparative racial and delta, human figures known as mimia were subsistence such as fishhooks, but it also were abandoned, destroyed or sold to
of subsistence such as fishhooks but it also The figuresover
preserved weretime,
preserved
and inover
some time,
casesin some
ethnological data. Drawings made and central to male initiation rites performed as rendered forms sacred. Woven fibre was foreigners. nt/pb
rendered forms sacred. Woven fibre was cases repainted.
repainted. Clan leaders
Clan leaders were were supposed
supposed to beto
collected against this background were part of the cyclical mimia ceremony. Focused used to create intensely sacred images of
used to create intensely sacred images of be fearsome
fearsome andand aggressive,
aggressive, yetyet also
also nurturing;
nurturing;
assessed according to Western theories of on preparation for warfare, the ceremony deities such as the present example. The
deities such as the present example. The the figures appear to embody this
the figures appear to embody this combinationcombination
representation and perspective, and used by included organised fighting and trials by conical forms were often constituted around
conical forms were often constituted around of
of masculine
masculine and and feminine
feminineattributes.
attributes. nt/pbnt/pb

290 291
71
014 the Solomon Islands. It was probably carved The opposed hooks that are so striking in 008
78 80
100 kōwhaiwhai patternson
painted expressions (better
raftersknown in their
and paddles,
Decorated beam, mid-nineteenth century carved
by by an named
an expert expert named Karibwongi
Karibwongi Ragerage the constitution of these figures are Gable sculpture with figure and fish, Female figure with child, nineteenth or early painted
across the expressions
ancestor’sonforehead
rafters andandpaddles)
around the
Uki, southeast Solomon Islands Ragerage
in the lateinnineteenth
the late nineteenth or early
or early twentieth encountered widely in the art traditions of the late nineteenth or early twentieth century twentieth century across
haliotisthe ancestor’s
(abalone) shellforehead and around the
eyes, subordinate
Wood, paint, shell, length 466
c. 500cmcm [to be checked] twentiethBuilt
century. century. Builtlarge
on a very on a very
scale,large scale,
ceremonial Sepik River, and in some cases evoke the Asei village (?), Lake Sentani, north coast of West Papua Ussiai people, Manus Island, Admiralty Islands, Papua haliotis
figures in(abalone)
profile toshell
the eyes, as well
right and left as
of the
Collected on 30 August 1865 by Julius L. Brenchley.
Brenchley
ceremonial
houses werehouses were onlytoaccessible
only accessible men and to heads and beaks of birds such as the hornbill. Wood and pigment, 312 × 50 × 60 cm Papua New Guinea
New Guinea subordinate figuresdefined
eyes, and sharply in profile to the
spiral right and
(rauponga)
Maidstone Museum, 1271 men and
often often sheltered
sheltered large warlarge
canoeswarorcanoes
smalleror Their distribution reflects the long interactions Collected by Paul Wirz in 1926.
1926
Wood, paint, height 74 cm left
and of the eyes,
linear and sharply
(whakarare) defined
patterning spiralthe
across
smaller used
vessels vessels in used
bonitoinfishing.
bonito fishing. Both
Both activities among peoples of the region, the mutual Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb 6669 Museum der Kulturen
Kulturen, Basel,
Basel, Vb11911
Vb11911 (rauponga)
whole surface andoflinear (whakarare)
the body, from knees patterning
to
Selected references: Brenchley 1873;
Reference: Brenchley 1873; Waite
Waite 1987
1987
activities necessitated
necessitated the help ofthepowerful
help of powerful
spirits and stimulus of distinct art styles, and the Selected Reference: Zurich 2002 across
cheeks,the whole surface
producing of the animated
a powerfully body, fromand
Selected references:
References:Greub
Greub1992;
1992;Webb
Webb2011
2011 Selected reference: Zurich 2002
spirits andwhose
ancestors ancestors whose reliquaries
reliquaries were sometimeswere borrowing of elements that acquired new knees to cheeks,
awe-inspiring producing
figure. a powerfully
The plain wahaika (hand
On 30 August 1865 the traveller Julius sometimes
kept kept and maintained
and maintained inside the
inside the houses. meanings in each setting. nt/pb animated
club) throws andthe
awe-inspiring
dynamism and figure. The plain
density of the
Manus and the neighbouring islands, known
Brenchley visited the island of Uki in the houses.Several house posts carved to depict Although the Melanesian people of Lake Manus and the neighbouring islands, known ancestor’s(hand
wahaika bodyclub)
into throws thethree-fingered
relief; the dynamism and
as the Admiralties, occupied a kind of
southeastern Solomon Islands, and was able, Several
ancestral andhouse posts
mythical carved
beings haveto depict
made their Sentani, like those elsewhere in New Guinea, as the Admiralties, occupied a kind of density
hands are of the ancestor’s
typical of earlierbody into relief; the
nineteenth-century
maritime crossroads between New Guinea,
with the assistance of a missionary known ancestral
way and mythical
into museums, butbeings have to
most seem made
be their did not make metal tools, they appear, unlike maritime crossroads between New Guinea, three-fingered
sculpture, though hands
thisare typical
work may of earlier
date from as
the Bismarck Islands, insular southeast
to the local people, to purchase this beam way into museums,
connected to the cultbut of most seem fish.
the bonito to beThis most Islanders, to have had access to them the Bismarck Islands, insular southeast nineteenth-century
late as the 1850s. nt/pb sculpture, though this
Asia and Micronesia. The art styles of the
from what he called ‘a public hall or council connected
post, to the
however, cult ofan
displays theunusual
bonito fish. This 76
017 through trade with the archipelagos that now Asia and Micronesia. The art styles of the work may date from as late as the 1850s.
archipelago seem to hint at many connections
house’. Upon the beam are mounted seven post, however,that
iconography: displays an unusual
of a couple intimately Decorated beam from a bai, men’s
men's meeting form part of eastern Indonesia, well before archipelago seem to hint at many connections nt/pb
across these regions, but have their own
frigate birds, two sharks and four bonito, iconography:
entwined, that ofidentified
recently a coupleby intimately
the house, early to mid-nineteenth century they interacted with Europeans. The region across these regions, but have their own
distinctiveness, closely associated with
all sculpted in the round. The reverse bears entwined, recently
anthropologist identified
Sandra Revolonbyasthea is renowned for remarkable figure sculpture, distinctiveness, closely associated with
Palau the systems of leadership and status that
engraved images of canoes and their crews anthropologist
malevolent andSandra Revolonspirit
androgynous as anamed Wood, paint, in
265two
cmsections, 265(in
and 271 cm cmtwo
andsections)
271 cm distinctive for its delicate forms devoid of the systems of leadership and status that
prevailed on the islands, the centrality
engaged in bonito fishing; lime has been malevolent
Matorua and androgynous
seducing spirit named
his or her victim. lc surface decoration, generally in the form prevailed on the islands, the centrality 82
087
Collected by the German ethnologist and animal ecologist of exchange and feasting (large circular
rubbed into the incised line to highlight the Matorua seducing his or her victim. lc Carl Semper.
Semper
of house-beams and finials, where figures of exchange and feasting (large circular Male deity figure known as Rao, before 1835
1835
bowls for offerings of food are numerous in
image. An archaeologist from the region, Staatliche
Museum für Kunstsammlungen Dresden,
Völkerkunde, Dresden, Museum
5518, 5519 für projected outward, into the lagoon, from both bowls for offerings of food are numerous in Mangareva, Gambier Islands
collections) and the prominence accorded to
Ben Wate, writes, ‘the beam may have been Völkerkunde Dresden, 5518, 5519 sacred tribal houses and ordinary dwellings
dwellings, collections) and the prominence accorded to Wood, height 106 cm
ancestors. House posts in the form of people,
from a taoha, a sacred house for bonito built on posts over the water. ancestors. House posts in the form of people,
On the island of Koror, and on neighbouring and freestanding figure sculptures, were Musée du quai Branly – Jacques
Branly-Jacques Chirac,
Chirac, Paris,
Paris, 72.53.287
72.53.287
fishing canoes, or a toohi, a chief’s lodge. When ethnographers first studied the and freestanding figure sculptures, were
On the island
islands makingofupKoror, and on neighbouring
the Palauan archipelago, relatively naturalistic, typically stained a bright Selected References: Kerchache and Bouloré 2001; Paris
Selected references: Kerchache and Bouloré 2001;
[The art of the area features] sea
the, spirits
sea spirits peoples of the region, cultural exchanges relatively naturalistic, typically stained a bright 2009; Laval 2013
islands making up
bai, ceremonial the Palauan
houses, associatedarchipelago,
with reddish brown, and featuring incised and Paris 2009; Laval 2013
and bonito fishing… in recent times young 74
335 were taking place, bringing larger, conical reddish brown, and featuring incised and
bai, ceremonial
various houses,inassociated
ranked groups with
the hierarchical painted patterns that evoked body decorations
men still proved their manhood at a bonito Finial sculpture, mid-twentieth century sacred houses in the style of Humboldt Bay to painted patterns that evoked body decorations
various ranked
social order, groupsextensive
featured in the hierarchical
incised, low- and ornaments. Although double figures Like many Polynesian sculptures collected in
fishing ceremony, malaohu’.
malaohu.’ The fact that Lake Sentani, where structures had previously and ornaments. Although double figures Like many Polynesian sculptures collected in
Gaikarobi village, Wosera-Gaui area, East Sepik Province, social order, featured
relief images on their extensive
façades and incised, low-
on interior and mother and child figures are common the early nineteenth century, this figure was
one of the four canoes is upturned implies Papua New Guinea featured level roof lines. Male cults focused and mother and child figures are common the early nineteenth century, this figure was
relief
beams. images on their facadeswere
The representations andrelated
on interior
to across a range of Oceanic art traditions, this sent to Europe by missionaries as evidence
that a narrative or myth of misadventure is Wood, height 171 cm on sacred flutes and ritual knowledge were across a range of Oceanic art traditions, this sent to Europe by missionaries as evidence
beams. The representations
well-known myths, as well asweremorerelated
specificto work is unusual within the corpus from the of Islander conversion and repudiation of
represented, but the story is not known. nt/ ‘bought’ and imported around this time by work is unusual within the corpus from the of Islander conversion and repudiation of
Musée du quai
quai Branly – JacquesChirac,
Branly-Jacques Chirac,Paris,
Paris,72.1963.5.12
72.1963.5.12 well-known myths, aswith
narratives associated well particular
as more specific
groups. Admiralty Islands. The small figure presumably ‘idolatry’ – and of latent missionary interest
nt/pb
pb Sentani men, who gave drums and beads in Admiralty Islands. The small figure presumably ‘idolatry’ – and of latent missionary interest
reference: Paris
Selected Reference: Paris2015
2015 narratives associated
Although houses with particular
documented in the groups.
late represents the woman’s child, and the in salvage ethnography and pre-Christian
return. Much of this activity was suppressed represents the woman’s child, and the in salvage ethnography and pre-Christian
Although
eighteenthhouses documented
century in the latecrew
by the shipwrecked sculpture as a whole affirms her fecundity, but Polynesian history. The most thorough account
by missionaries in the early decades of the sculpture as a whole affirms her fecundity, but Polynesian history. The most thorough account
eighteenth century by the shipwrecked
of the East India packet the Antelope featured crew the particular context and identification of the of those subjects is a book by Father Honoré
Sculptures of this kind, mounted on the twentieth century. Some sculptures were the particular context and identification of the of those subjects is a book by Father Honoré
of the East
designs andIndia packet sculpture,
associated the Antelope ironfeatured
tools sculpture are not known. nt/pb Laval, who arrived with two companions as
72
343 apex of a men’s house, showed birds seizing hidden, submerged in lake waters to forestall sculpture are not known. nt/pb Laval, who arrived with two companions as
designs and associated
later appear sculpture,
to have enabled iron tools of
an elaboration the first missionaries in Mangareva in 1834.
Tutulu, ceremonial house post, late women or men in their claws at the very their destruction, but subsequently retrieved the first missionaries in Mangareva in 1834.
later appear
pictorial to have
imagery, enabled
which oftenan elaboration
featured scenes Two years later, Father François Caret sent
nineteenth or early twentieth century moment they soar skyward with their prey. for the traveller, writer and friend of the Two years later, Father François Caret sent
of
of imagery,
Europeanwhich often
contact featured
as well scenes of
as traditional a crate of sculptures to their sponsoring
Buliali, Emira Island, Bismarck Archipelago, This example is one of a pair, featuring slightly Surrealists Jacques Viot, who made them a crate of sculptures to their sponsoring
European
history. contact as well as traditional history. organisation, the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and
Papua New Guinea dissimilar male figures, one larger than the famous in the West. This post, featuring a organisation, the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and
This
This substantial
substantial rafter
rafter from
from thethe interior
interior of
of Mary, in Paris. The shipment contained eleven
Wood, pigments, height 261.5
371 cmcm other, and therefore probably represents painted figure mounted on top of a fish, was Mary, in Paris. The shipment contained eleven
aa house,
house, cut
cut into
into two
two sections,
sections, waswas the
the first
first items, including several deity figures, among
Collected by the colonial administrator and anthropologist the abduction of an elder and younger collected slightly earlier, in 1926, by the items, including several deity figures, among
example
example of of Palauan
Palauan architectural
architectural art art to
to be
be 236
81 them this remarkable image identified as the
anthropologist E. W. P. Chinnery.
E. W. P. Chinnery brother, perhaps the founding ancestors Russian-born Swiss anthropologist and them this remarkable image identified as the
brought
brought back
back to
to Europe,
Europe, by by the
the zoologist
zoologist andand Poupou, wall carving, 1840–60 God Rao. Little is known about Rao. He was
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of of an enemy group. In this setting, birds of photographer Paul Wirz. It came from one of god Rao. Little is known about Rao. He was
University
Cambridge,of1927.1932
Cambridge, 1927.1932
ethnologist
ethnologist Carl
Carl Semper,
Semper, whowho visited
visited Palau
Palau thought to be a minor deity, perhaps local to
various species exemplify the community’s the larger, conical-form sacred houses, most Te Arawa, Māori, New Zealand thought to be a minor deity, perhaps local to
and
and undertook
undertook research
research there
there inin the
the early
early Wood, inlaid eyes of haliotis shell, 145 × 71 × 6 cm Mangareva. ‘To him was dedicated a plant
Selected reference:
Reference:Chinnery
Chinnery1927
1927 aggressive capacity to undertake headhunting likely in Asei village. nt/pb Mangareva. ‘To him was dedicated a plant
1860s.
1860s. Among
Among thethe stories
stories the
the beam
beam featured
featured called ranga [turmeric] whose yellow flower
raids and otherwise prey upon neighbouring British Museum, London, Oc1894,0716.2 called ranga [turmeric] whose yellow flower
was
was aa comic
comic one
one of
of aa dissatisfied
dissatisfied wife,
wife, who
who Selected Reference: Starzecka, Neich and Prendergrast has a very powerful smell. Young people used
populations. nt/pb Selected reference: Starzecka, Neich and Prendergrast has a very powerful smell. Young people used
‘In one village of the Buliali [district, Emira sent
sent her
her husband
husband in in search
search ofof aa man
man with
with anan 2010 to wear tapas dyed yellow with this flower
2010 to wear tapas dyed yellow with this flower
Island] I found a carved post and crossbeam extraordinarily
extraordinarily elongated
elongated penis,
penis, shown
shown herehere during days of debauchery’ (cited in Sylviane
during days of debauchery’ (cited in Sylviane
… said to be the sole remaining portions (and
(and in
in many
many other
other works)
works) toto extend
extend right
right Jacquemin in Kerchache and Bouloré, 2001,
012
79 Māori chiefs’ houses and meeting houses, Jacquemin in Kerchache and Bouloré, 2001,
of a large ceremonial house that had once across
across aa lagoon
lagoon toto reach
reach her.
her. nt/pb
nt/pb Māori chiefs’ houses and meeting houses, p. 309).
House post, late nineteenth or early known as wharenui (great houses) or whare p. 309).
belonged to a chief named Saiamoli,’ wrote E. known as wharenui (great houses) or whare The sculpture itself has a powerful
75
334 twentieth century whakairo (carved houses), were incarnations The sculpture itself has a powerful
E.
W.W. P. Chinnery
P. Chinnery in in 1927.
1927. TheThe circular
circular form formnear whakairo (carved houses), were incarnations presence. While clearly anthropomorphic, it is
Yipwon figure, nineteenth or twentieth Doyo village, Lake Sentani, north coast of Papua of ancestors (tupuna); both externally and presence. While clearly anthropomorphic, it is
near theoftop
the top theofpost
the represents
post represents the moon,
the moon, and of ancestors (tupuna); both externally and also highly abstracted. Its head and ‘topknot’
century Wood, height c. 250 cm internally they featured a proliferation of also highly abstracted. Its head and ‘topknot’
and the crescents
the crescents above above and below
and below it, itsit,phases.
its internally they featured a proliferation of are reduced to plain geometric forms with a
sculpted embodiments of ancestors, as are reduced to plain geometric forms with a
phases. Lowerinclude
Lower motifs motifs the
include thea ribs
ribs of pig andof a the
pig Korewori River, Angoram, East Sepik Province, 77
009 Collected by Carel Maria A. Groenevelt in 1952.
1952 sculpted embodiments of ancestors, as single vertical ridge defining its face. Its body
Papua New Guinea Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands, modern and contemporary tribal houses single vertical ridge defining its face. Its body
and
seedstheofseeds of breadfruit.
breadfruit. nt/pb nt/pb Gable
Gable sculpture
sculpture with
with emaciated
emaciated figure
figure and
and modern and contemporary tribal houses is elongated and flares into a beautifully
Wood, height 184 cm TM-2202-101 continue to do today. Within the porch and is elongated and flares into a beautifully
hybrid
hybrid bird,
bird, late
late nineteenth
nineteenth or
or early
early continue to do today. Within the porch and rounded stomach and two short legs. Pairs of
Musée du quai
quai Branly – JacquesChirac,
Branly-Jacques Chirac,Paris,
Paris,70.2007.41.1
70.2007.41.1 Selected reference:
Reference:Greub
Greub1992
1992 the house interior, poupou were originally rounded stomach and two short legs. Pairs of
twentieth century
twentieth century the house interior, poupou were originally lozenges, carved in relief, mark its ears and
structural supports, which alternated with lozenges, carved in relief, mark its ears and
reference: Kaufmann
Selected Reference: Kaufmann2003
2003 Asei
Asei village,
village, Lake
Lake Sentani,
Sentani, north
north coast
coast of
of West
West Papua
Papua
structural supports, which alternated with hips. In place of its shoulders and arms is a
woven panels (tukutuku) bearing geometric hips. In place of its shoulders and arms is a
Wood
Wood and
and pigment,
pigment, 197
197 ×
× 99 ×
× 28
28 cm
cm Larger chiefs’ houses in Lake Sentani were woven panels (tukutuku) bearing geometric curious structure, the form of which Catherine
designs, made by women. Houses and curious structure, the form of which Catherine
73
020 supported by substantial posts of this kind, designs, made by women. Houses and Orliac associates with that of canoe
Yipwon figures are renowned for their Collected
Collected by
by Paul
Paul Wirz
Wirz in
in 1926.
1926 carvings of this kind certainly date back to the Orliac associates with that of canoe
Attributed to Karibwongi Ragerage Museum
Museum derder Kulturen
Kulturen Basel,
Basel, Vb
Vb 6665 made from the inverted buttress roots of carvings of this kind certainly date back to the outriggers. Most likely it was used to secure
reduction of an anthropomorphic form to 6665 pre-European contact period, but introduced outriggers. Most likely it was used to secure
(b. c. 1860) Pometia pinnata, a hardwood tree that could pre-European contact period, but introduced tapa flaps or wrappings when Rao was
a profile: the head, lower leg and foot, the iron tools and the growing need for inter-tribal tapa flaps or wrappings when Rao was
House post, nineteenth or early twentieth approach 50fiftymetres
metresininheight.
height.The
Thecurvilinear
curvilinear iron tools and the growing need for inter-tribal displayed in a god house on a marae.
suggestion of a hand supporting the chin, Collected by Paul
Also collected Wirz, this
by Wirz, this gable
gable sculpture
sculpture diplomacy led to an elaboration of houses over displayed in a god house on a marae.
century
and a set of opposed hooks, which apparently designs on the backboard also appeared in diplomacy led to an elaboration of houses over According to Father Caret, Rao and the
featuring
featuring anan emaciated
emaciated figure
figure ‘riding’
‘riding’ behind
behind the first half of the nineteenth century: they According to Father Caret, Rao and the
Makira (San
(also Cristobal),
known as SanSolomon IslandsSolomon Islands
Cristobal), represented the vital organs, i.e. the lungs and painted form on maro, decorated barkcloth the first half of the nineteenth century: they other items had been preserved from the
aa hybrid
hybrid bird,
bird, part
part heron,
heron, part
part cassowary,
cassowary, became larger, and greater artistic energy was other items had been preserved from the
Wood, height 211 cm
heart. Yipwon spirits assisted men in hunting worn and used around grave sites. In this work became larger, and greater artistic energy was destruction of religious objects that
extended
extended fromfrom the
the horizontal
horizontal roof
roof line
line of
of a dedicated to their elaboration as increasingly destruction of religious objects that
Collected by the art dealer Pierre Langlois in the 1960s.
1960s and warfare. In Alamblak myth, they were and some others, the upper boards and the dedicated to their elaboration as increasingly accompanied Mangarevan conversion. Similar
‘traditional’
a ‘traditional’Sentani
Sentanidwelling
dwelling, in also
Asei in
village. vital expressions of the power of particular accompanied Mangarevan conversion. Similar
Musée du quai
quai Branly – JacquesChirac,
Branly-Jacques Chirac,Paris,
Paris,70.1999.5.3
70.1999.5.3 created by the Sun, who originally lived on openwork lizard-like creatures rose through vital expressions of the power of particular iconoclasms had already occurred in the
The
Aseiidentity
village. of
Thetheidentity
emaciatedof thefigure is not
emaciated tribes and subtribes. iconoclasms had already occurred in the
Earth, inhabiting the men’s house with them. slots in the floor, and were thus present within tribes and subtribes. Society Islands, the Cook Islands and the
Selected reference:
Reference:Paris
Paris2014
2014 known,
figure isbut
notfood
known,– itsbut
provision,
food – its abundance,
provision, This poupou is an outstanding example Society Islands, the Cook Islands and the
Yipwon, however, betrayed the Sun by killing the house. Though not acquired until the This poupou is an outstanding example Tuamotus as Christianity spread rapidly
scarcity,
abundance, lossscarcity,
and theftloss
– looms
and theftlarge– in
looms of the work of Ngati Pikiao sculptors, of the Te Tuamotus as Christianity spread rapidly
one of his relatives; in anger, he ascended 1950s, this example was most likely created of the work of Ngāti Pikiao sculptors, of the Te throughout central and eastern Polynesia. Our
This post originally supported a ceremonial sociality and mythology in
large in sociality and mythology inmany parts
many of parts
the Arawa people of the central part of the North throughout central and eastern Polynesia. Our
into the heavens, and left them in the world in the late nineteenth or early twentieth Arawa people of the central part of the North discomfort with the radicality of Christian
house in the village of Funakuma on Makira in region. nt/pb nt/pb
of the region. Island of New Zealand. It features carved discomfort with the radicality of Christian
with people. century. nt/pb Island of New Zealand. It features carved conversion, however, should not occlude the
kōwhaiwhai patterns, better known in their conversion, however, should not occlude the

292 293
Polynesian character of the transformation. It connoisseurs, curators and scholars of the arts paraphernalia – or their surrender to 338
87 081
89 at the same time as Hoa Hakananai’a, its more
was typicallywas
Conversion ledtypically
by Polynesian
led by chiefs who
Polynesian of Oceania. Whereas sculptures of gods and missionaries. Indeed, Polynesians were key Sculpture of the god Lono, Female figure, early nineteenth century famous counterpart at the British Museum.
were familiar
chiefs who werewithfamiliar
destroying
with representations
destroying ancestors were created on many islands, none agents in the
key agents in events of Christian
the events of Christian late eighteenth century Amaile village, Aleipata district, Upolu, Samoa By the late 1860s the Rapanui were a
of their gods in shifting
representations of their their
gods allegiance
in shifting to new
their bears close stylistic affinities with Nukuoro transformation. The Rurutan chief Au’ura, for Hawaiian Islands Wood, shell, height 69 cm devastated people. ‘Blackbirders’ (slavers) had
allegiance to new ones.
ones. Iconoclastic Iconoclastic acts
and transgressive and figures, even though the social institutions of example, having heard about the new religion, Wood, height 89 cm Heath
Collected in 1839 by the Revd Thomas Heath.
abducted most of the male population to work
transgressive acts typically
typically conformed conformed
to a Polynesian to
seasonal chieftainship, ancestral cults, rites and belief travelled from Rurutu to Ra’iatea, which had Musée du quai Branly
Branly-Jacques
– Jacques
Chirac,
Chirac,
Paris,
Paris, British Museum, London, Oc1841,0211.52 on guano mines in Peru; the indigenous
acalendar and seasonal
Polynesian had theircalendar
own ritual efficacy
and had that on Nukoro were broadly similar to those of become the base of the London Missionary 71.1879.10.11.1 religion, centred on megalithic statuary, had
References:Davidson
Selected references: Davidson1975;
1975;Mallon
Mallon2002
2002
their
madeownthemritual efficacy that
meaningful. And made them
the new order other Polynesian and Micronesian societies. Society, in 1821. He was interested to learn recently collapsed; smallpox had ravaged the
meaningful. And the new
installed by Christianity order
was installed
in many ways a These beautifully austere works are about the missionary god, the new technology island as well; and the new world of
by Christianity was
reinterpretation in many
of the ways a and social
transcendent characterised by a head with a rounded of writing, and to find some answer to the Hawaiian culture was pervaded by opposition This compelling female figure is one of Catholicism and artefact trade was
reinterpretation of the of
and political purposes transcendent and
the old. nt/pb conical chin; some have small perforated lugs devastating effects of disease in his island. and hierarchy, juxtaposing chiefs (ali’i) and only two figurative carvings in existence existentially disorienting.
social and political purposes of the old. nt/pb for ears, and a protrusion on the back When he returned to Rurutu, it was with two people and the principles associated with the originating from pre-colonial Samoa. Despite These circumstances lend an ironic
representing hair; the chest is typically made Ra’iatean missionaries, resulting in the gods of war (Ku) and peace (Lono), each of its seemingly anomalous status, however, resonance to the collection of Moai Hava.
up of two planes with a clear line of conversion of Rurutans en masse. Returning whom assumed diverse, more specific forms the figure was associated with significant According to the officer Richard Sainthill,
demarcation across the breasts, which is again to Ra’iatea, Au’ura took A’a with him, and identities. Lono was associated with pre-Christian Samoan funerary practices and Rapanui guides led his expedition party to a
83
252 angled in profile; broad shoulders taper emptied of its ancestral relics and denuded of peace and genealogy but also specifically with ways of venerating ancestors. As explained by burial site at Mataveri and a half-buried
Facade
Façade sculpture representing Dilukai, towards the waist. Genitals are understated its sacred wrappings, and surrendered it to rain, agriculture and the fertility of the land; Janet Davidson, in August and October 1836, ‘almost featureless’ ‘lump of stone’ they called
late nineteenth or early twentieth century and ambiguous, but some figures bear incised the missionary John Williams. In Ra’iatea, A’a he was thought to be incarnated in dark cloud two sets of missionaries – London Missionary ‘Moai Hava’. The archaeologist Jo Anne Van
marks representing tattoos on the shoulders or was shown to the congregation of local and winter storms. He arrived annually, with Society and Methodist – separately visited Tilburg, translateshava
Tilburg translates havaasas‘dirty’,
‘dirty’,‘rejected’
‘rejected’or
or
Palau
upper thighs, indicating male or female converts as a sign of the repudiation of the rainy season, and presided over a period the village of Amaile in Aleipata district on the ‘repudiated’; also as ‘to be lost’. Although its
Wood, height 61.5 cm
gender respectively. There is some doubt as to ‘idolatry’ and then sent along with other of peace and rejuvenation. southern coast of Upolu. They were curious naming may have referred to a specific
Collected by the German naturalist and ethnographer The arc above the head of this image of
Augustin Krämer in 1910–11.
1910–11 whether the name of this god was accurately ‘idols’ to London to be displayed in the London to verify reports of a mortuary display of two personage, as most moai do, or associations
recorded; the largest tino aitu, in the Auckland Missionary Society Museum. There A’a the god is a prolongation of his backbone and important chiefs, a father and son of the with burial – Van Tilburg speculates that Moai
Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 76310
73310
War Memorial Museum, is female and is also remained until 1890 when it was transferred an expression of the fundamental principle of Sa Mata’afa line, lying in state beneath a Hava’s upturned head may have imitated the
Selected references:
References:Krämer
Krämer1917;
1917;Krämer
Krämer1919;
1919; Krämer
known as Kawe. to the British Museum, its current home. nt/ genealogy and connectedness. The akua (god specially constructed canopy. Their preserved keening of a mourner – it may also have
Krämer
1926 1926
In their original setting, these deity pb
nt/pb image) was probably installed outdoors among bodies were described as lying together tied referred to the statue’s repudiation as a
figures were decorated with headdresses and other figures and shrines on a heiau (temple with sinnet and covered with tapa cloth on an symbol of the old religion or its loss to the
Bai, ceremonial houses, frequently featured precinct) dedicated to Lono and to agricultural inclined wooden platform, like the platforms
flowers. This example bears an oily residue, island in being transported to England. nt/pb
representations of Dilukai, whose promiscuity rites. nt/pb found on double-hulled canoes. Accounts
suggesting that it was regularly anointed over
is said in some myths to have prompted her differed as to how long they had lain there.
many years. nt/pb
angry father to tie her up, publicly exposed
085
86 Aaron Buzacott of the London Missionary
in the manner of the sculpted figure. But the Society speculated about fifty years while the
Ancestor figure named Popua,
exposure of her genitals was also said to Methodist missionary Peter Turner thought
late nineteenth or early twentieth century
frighten away harmful spirits, thus rendering about twenty years for the father and ten for
her a protective goddess; while a further Nukumanu, Papua New Guinea
108
88
III S PI RISPIRIT
THE T O F T HE GI FT GIFT
OF THE
076
85 Wood, fibre, shell, height 275 cm his son. Their bodies had been excavated and
interpretation suggests that the sculptures Model of Waiet, c. 1905 filled with hot stones to dry them out, then
Deity figure known as A’a, Collected by Captain Karl Nauer in 1913
1913.
alluded to the presence of mongol, women refilled with stones and clay to preserve their
late sixteenth or seventeenth century GRASSI Museum
Staatliche für Völkerkunde
Kunstsammlungen zu Leipzig,
Dresden, GRASSI 1913-58
Museum
Mer Island, Torres Strait
who would travel to a village distant from Wood, shell, turtle shell, cassowary feathers, feathers, forms. At the lower end of the platform was
Rurutu, Austral Islands für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, Me 10903 065
91
their own to obtain wealth by engaging in a pigments, height 34
32 cm
the female figure, described by Buzacott as
Sandalwood, height 116.8 cm Double-figure hook, late eighteenth or early
form of customary prostitution. This seeming Numerous smaller islands in western and Commissioned by the anthropologist Alfred Haddon.
Haddon ‘lying down disgraced’. By the mid-1830s, nineteenth century
confusion points to the way Islanders with Presented to the missionary John Williams by Rurutu Numerous smaller
southwestern islands
Oceania in western
– within and
the ‘culture Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
Islanders in 1821
1821. many villagers in Amaile had been converted Fiji or Tonga
varying perspectives, as men or women, young southwestern
areas’ Oceaniareferred
conventionally – withintothe ‘culture
as Micronesia Cambridge, Z 9453
British Museum, London, Oc,LMS.19 to Christianity and missionary preaching Whale ivory, glass beads, fibre, height 12.5 cm (without
people or elders, and those with differing areas’
and conventionally
Melanesia – werereferred
settled tobyas Micronesia
speakers of against ‘idolatry’ may well have prompted cord)
moral views, could offer quite different Selected References: Williams1837;
references: Williams 1837;Babadzan
Babadzan1993;
1993; Gell and Melanesia
Polynesian – werewho
languages settled by speakers
migrated westwardof
1998; Hooper
Gell 1998; 2007;2007;
Hooper Sissons 2014;2014;
Sissons Adams, Hooper
Adams, and
Hooper Waiet is a legendary figure who visited many them to ‘disgrace’ the figure in this manner. Collected by Sergeant Tevita Madigibuli, presented by
explanations of an art form that without doubt Polynesian
at languages
various times in the who
latermigrated
prehistoric westward
Nuku 20162016
and Nuku islands across the Torres Strait before he came But while this may be so, the villagers clearly him to Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon in 1876
1876.
dramatised sexuality and fecundity, as well as at various
period. times
These in the laterare
communities prehistoric
referred to as to the tiny islet of Waier, off the shores of Mer. continued to venerate their ancestral chiefs. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
moments of revelation and shame. nt/pb period. These
Polynesian communities
‘outliers’ are referred
and include to as
the Tikopia, Cambridge, 1955.247
His effigy, composed of numerous plates of Sean Mallon reports an intriguing
A’a was originally carved as an ancestral Polynesianstudied
famously ‘outliers’ andanthropologist
by the include the Tikopia,
turtle shell, was placed high up in the cleft of suggestion by the ethnologist Roger Neich Selected References: Gell1993,
references: Gell 1993,pp.
pp.58–70;
58–70;Norwich
Norwich2016,
2016,
deity or atua, local to the island of Rurutu famously studied
Raymond Firth, asby theasanthropologist
well the people of a rock, where he was the focus of a fearsome that the woman may have been a figurehead pp. 200–02
in the Austral Islands. The figure, hollow Raymond Firth,
Nukumanu, as wellofas
a cluster the that
atolls peoplenowof forms
warrior cult. from a canoe belonging to the chiefs, an idea
with a removable rear panel, most probably Nukumanu,
part a cluster
of the nation of atolls
of Papua New thatGuinea,
now forms
but The original effigy of Waiet stayed at that would make sense of the structure that In the myth and art of Western Polynesia
84
089 functioned, as Steven Hooper has persuasively part
is of the almost
situated nation of 450Papua
milesNew Guinea,
northeast of but Waier until the 1920s, when it was stolen by supported their bodies on display. Villagers and Fiji, twinned deities and Siamese-
Tino aitu, male deity figure known as Ko argued, as a reliquary containing the bones is situated
New almost
Ireland, near 450 milesofnortheast
the atoll of a
Ontong Java, the schoolteacher A. O. C. c. Davis
Davisand
andgiven
giventoto declined initial missionary requests to twinned goddesses were extraordinarily
Kawe (Kave), nineteenth century of a revered chief. It is carved in the form of New Ireland,
related outliernear the atoll
culture, which of isOntong Java, a
administered the Queensland Museum in Brisbane. The purchase the figure, but it was eventually sold sacred, powerful and dangerous; they were
an erect penis, its head imitating the shape of related
by outlier culture,
the Solomon Islands.which is administered
Nukuoro, Caroline Islands figure continues to command awe and can to the Revd Thomas Heath in 1839. Heath associated with the origins of tattooing,
Wood, height 163 cm the glans, its buttocks doubling as a scrotum, by theLike
Solomon Islands.
many other Polynesian peoples, only be visited at the museum with the intended to send it to the London Missionary warfare and political relationships. Just three
while its entire body is covered with smaller thoseLike many othercreated
of Nukumanu Polynesian peoples,
sculptures of
Collected by the Polish ethnographer and collector authority of Meriam elders. Society Museum as evidence of the success of double-figure hooks, made of whale ivory
atua figures. In this respect, A’a exemplifies thoseand
gods of Nukumanu
ancestors. created sculptures
This figure, named of Popua
J. S. Kubary in 1877.
1877 Stylistically this wooden model is the proselyting effort in Samoa, but changed in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth
Museum für Völkerkunde, Hamburg, EE1894
1894 a generally Polynesian conception of the godssaid
and andtoancestors. This figure,
be pre-eminent among named
the Popua distinctly different from the effigy and his mind and gave it instead, along with other centuries, are known, representing doubled
generative power of ancestral deities. Its and said to befounding
community’s pre-eminent among thewas
ancestor-gods,
Selected reference:
Reference:Kaufmann
Kaufmannand
andWick
Wick2013
2013 resembles Meriam ancestor figures (ad giz). ‘curiosities’, to Queen Victoria in 1840. The female deities. The works were made in Tonga
form is comparable to that of a Rarotongan community’s
situated withinfounding ancestor-gods,
a cult-house at the centrewasof a
The figure has a typically painted face with figure was passed on to the British Museum but were evidently gifted, no doubt through a
staff god or Māori meeting house, both of situatedincorporating
shrine within a cult-house
two similarat thebutcentre
much of a eyes of pearl shell and an elaborate headdress the following year. nt/pb succession of hands, to peoples of the upland
Nukuoro is a Polynesian ‘outlier’ in the which comprise a principal ancestor figure shrine incorporating
smaller figures, said to twobesimilar but muchhe
his attendants;
Caroline Islands, now near the southern of cassowary feathers with a turtle shell interior of the Fijian island of Viti Levu. This
incorporating subsidiary ancestors as parts of smaller
wore figures,
fine wovensaidmats,to be
andhis attendants;
a shell necklace,he
extremity of the territory of the Federated ornament. Waiet is shown wearing an example, the finest of the set, and the only
its own body. However, whereas the smaller wore fine like
arranged woven mats,on
a crown andthea head.
shell necklace,
The work
States of Micronesia. The island was not much imitation pearl-shell pendant and a groin shell, one of the three to feature a cord made of
figures at first appear to be miniature replicas arranged
was like abycrown
acquired Captainon Karl
the head.
Nauer,The who work
much
visitedvisited
beforebefore the 1870s,
the 1870s, when when J.
J. S. Kubary and he holds an hourglass drum (warup) and glass beads, was obtained by Sergeant Tevita
of the whole, they in fact exhibit distinct was acquired
served by Captain
on commercial Karl Nauer,
vessels within who
German basket. ah 077
90 Madigibuli and given by him to Sir Arthur
S. Kubary
made two made
visits,two visits,
studied studied
social social
organisation postures, some with buttocks that have been servedGuinea
New on commercial
between 1903 vesselsandwithin German
1913 and Moai Hava, c. 1100–1600 Gordon in 1876. Referred to as the ‘Nadi Devil’
organisation
and beliefs, and andcollected
beliefs, and collected
around, or probably rotated so as to be thrust forwards, in an New Guinea
collected betweenfor
extensively 1903
theand 1913 and
Übersee-Museum
around
more than,ten ten
examples
examplesof aofmagnificent and
a magnificent expression of defiance or contempt. collected
in Bremenextensively
and a number for the Übersee-Museum
of other German
Rapa Nui by Madigibuli, a Christian Islander, the work
highly distinctive
and highly genregenre
distinctive of sculpture,
of sculpture, Basalt, 210 × 106.5 × 94 cm was
worksaid
wastosaid
represent Nalilavatu,
to represent ‘the double
Nalilavatu, the
tino aitu,
tino The figure of A’a came into European in Bremen and
institutions. a number of other German
nt/pb
figures of deities,
aitu, figures whichwhich
of deities, werewere
kept within
kept within possession during a time of revolutionary institutions. nt/pb British Museum, London, Oc1869,1006.1 wife’
‘doubleof wife’
the chief godchief
of the of the
godtribe; shetribe;
of the was
amulau, large sacred buildings within marae, change in central Polynesia following the Reference:Van
Selected reference: VanTilburg
Tilburg2004
2004 kept within
she was kepta model
within woven-fibre spirit house
a model woven-fibre
ritual precincts. The genre – encompassing conversion to Christianity of powerful chiefs within the temple,
spirit house within and was saidand
the temple, to move
was
both relatively large figures such as this like Pomare II, who led the symbolic around, speakaround,
said to move in a squeaky
speak voice and have
in a squeaky
one and smaller works around 35–60 cm in Officers on the HMS Topaze, commissioned by the
voicecapacity
and have to detect thieves.
the capacity to The arrival
detect of
thieves.
desecration of temple sites and iconoclastic
height – has since become renowned among the British Admiralty to survey Easter Island in Christianity
The arrival ofdeprived the work
Christianity of mana,
deprived but
the work
destruction of god figures and religious
1868, collected the statue named Moai Hava

294 295
 figurebut
themana,
of wasthe figurebeneath
hidden was hidden beneath
a house- pointed out that the shaping of these figures specialised products, but also invariably had 132
98 The party arrived at Portsmouth in May 101
315
apost
house-post byfor
by a priest a priest for abefore
a period periodbeing
before of Fijian wooden figure
closely resembles that in social and ceremonial dimensions. In 1920 Flax cloak with tāniko border, eighteenth 1824 and settled in London. Tragically, before Le Ageagea o Tumua,‘ie tōga, fine mat,
being surrendered
surrendered to Madigibuli.
to Madigibuli. nt/pb nt/pb sculptures. the ethnographer Bronislaw Malinowski century they were able to meet King George IV, nineteenth century
The Fijian history and ownership of the announced what appeared to be the Māori, New Zealand members of the delegation contracted Samoa
necklace, presumably a work of exceptional sensational discovery of ‘the Kula ring’, Muka fibre from harakeke, flax (Phormium tenax), dye,
dye measles and both the King and Queen died in Pandanus leaf, feathers, 2.28
228 ×× 226
2.26cm
m
value, are unknown. It may have been several a system of exchange involving a host of [LoW: 2.55
width flax, dog
m skin and hair], width 236 cm July. The surviving members of the group Collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
decades old at the time it passed into communities across the Massim region. Collected during the voyage of the Endeavour, 1769–70.
1769–70 returned to Hawai‘i with the coffins of the Tongarewa, Wellington, FE011716
European hands in the 1870s; the back is Men gave and received gifts both locally Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of King and Queen on board HMS Blonde, and a
heavily patinated, the result of oiling and and further afield, gaining renown as they Cambridge, D 1924.84 state funeral was held in May 1825. It is likely
92
063 smoking in the course of its manufacture, and presented and received elaborate shell that the various ‘ahu‘ula and other gifts were In Samoan culture, the expression of remorse
Selected Reference:
reference: Thomas
Thomasetetal.
al.2016,
2016,pp.
pp.102–09
102–09.
Necklace with seventeen fish, of contact with the oiled bodies of high-status valuables of two kinds: soulava necklaces, distributed, either by Kamehameha II and for serious transgression is formalised in a
late eighteenth or early nineteenth century wearers over many years. nt/pb made from varied shells, glass beads, seeds Kamāmalu before their deaths, or by the ritual known as ifoga. It requires the offender,
Māori textiles enacted rich homologies or a titled representative of the offender’s
Fiji
Fiji (but
(but possibly
possibly made
made inin Tonga)
Tonga) and leaves; and mwali, armshells of Conus chiefs who accompanied them afterwards.
millepunctatus, and shell and fibre elements. between the activities of weaving and family or village, to sit on the ground of the
Whale
Whale ivory,
ivory, shell,
shell, coconut
coconut shell,
shell, fibre,
fibre, 28
28 cm
cm (length
(length of
of This cloak features a unique barkcloth lining
longest
longest pendant)
concepts of whakapapa, genealogy, through offended party’s village with his head covered
pendant) Extensive practical and magical preparations on the inside of the cloak, across the area that
which lines were drawn together and by an ‘ie tōga (fine mat) for an indefinite
Acquired
Acquired by
by Sir
Sir Arthur
Arthur Hamilton
Hamilton Gordon
Gordon or
or Lady
Lady Gordon
Gordon were made for major Kula voyages, which would have covered the shoulders and neck of
94 interwoven. Their creation, involving the length of time in the hope of forgiveness.
in
in 1875–76.
1875–76 156 saw soulava move clockwise, and mwali the wearer. The kapa, barkcloth, is decorated
Museum
Museum ofof Archaeology
Archaeology and
and Anthropology,
Anthropology, University
University of preparation and weaving of many hundreds In 2002, adapting this ceremony to a
of ‘Head’ of money, early
early twentieth
twentieth century
century anti-clockwise, around the vast ‘ring’ that with two bands of semicircles filled with black
Cambridge,
Cambridge, ZZ 2770
2770 of threads, entailed complex technical, ritual relation between two nation-states, indeed
Houaïlou (?),
Houaïlou (?), New
New Caledonia
Caledonia connected many communities and thousands and red geometric motifs. This cloth exhibits
Selected and customary understandings. Cloaks, reversing its protocol (although keeping its
Selected references:
References:Herle
Herleand
andCarreau
Carreau2013;
2013; Norwich Flying fox fur, lizard bones, shells, fibre, height 19 cm of exchange-partners. considerable wear; it has been repeatedly
Norwich
2016 2016 Flying fox fur, lizard bones, shells, fibre, height 19 cm
Malinowski’s ethnography and analysis often highly important gifts and heirlooms, essential purpose of expressing remorse and
Collected by the missionary and ethnologist Maurice stitched back together and even patched up
Collected exemplified ancestral mana, spiritual power. forgiveness), Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese Efi, a
Leenhardt.by the missionary and ethnologist Maurice have been debated and refined by generations with a piece of yellow European cloth.
Leenhardt of anthropologists, but his core arguments Of thousands of historic cloaks now aformer
formerSamoan
SamoanPrime
primeMinister
ministerwho
whowould
would
This unique necklace features seventeen Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, Paris, 71.1934.2.89 Kamehameha’s ‘ahu‘ula is an
Musée du quai Branly-Jacques Chirac, Paris, 71.1934.2.89 distributed across museums in New Zealand later become head
Head of state,
State,and
andthe
theTamasese
Tamasese
fish, as if caught on lines of hibiscus fibre, Selected references: Leenhardt 1930; Paris 2013 – that the Kula created social relationships exceptionally poignant artefact of an
Selected References: Leenhardt 1930; Paris 2013 and in many other countries, this is one of family gifted to Helen Clark, prime
Prime minister
Minister
bearing white shell and coconut-shell
coconut shell disks. and that exchange systems of this kind were encounter missed: what would have been a
weremerely
not merely concerned with economic those first acquired by Europeans; it was of New Zealand, the ‘ie tōga known as Le
The work is broadly comparable to other not concerned with economic utility historic meeting between the King and King
Across New Caledonia, the Kanak made use obtained by participants in Captain Cook’s first Ageagea o Tumua in acceptance of her formal
high-status articles of chest and neckwear, Across New Caledonia, the Kanak made –utility
have–become
have become axiomatic
axiomatic for thefor the George IV. Whether this cloak was worn
of ‘money’ in a diverse range of social voyage, which circumnavigated both the apology for the injustices of the New Zealand
but its particular significance and history are use of ‘money’ in a diverse range of social understanding of gift-giving, exchange and personally by Kamehameha, or whether it was
transactions. The valuables were intricately North and South Islands of New Zealand in administration in Samoa from 1914 to 1962.
unknown, although it was among prestigious transactions. The valuables were intricately value across Pacific societies. nt/pb brought as a diplomatic gift with George IV or
composed artefacts, made up of woven fibre, 1769 and 1770. It is an exceptionally long Those injustices included the fateful decision
shell and ivory valuables presented or sold composed artefacts, made up of woven fibre, anyone else in particular in mind, cannot now
flying fox fur, lizard bones, shells, introduced cloak, of a type that would have been that allowed the 1918 influenza pandemic
to Fiji’s first governor,
Governor, Sir Arthur Hamilton flying fox fur, lizard bones, shells, introduced be determined. The cloak is, however, a potent
red wool and other elements. Some, like this wrapped around the front of the body, under into Samoa, decimating its population, and
Gordon, or to Lady Gordon. Presumably red wool, and other elements. Some, like this relic of Polynesian royalty, and a compelling
example, had a head and arms; others 97 the arms, and then crossed over the shoulders the fatal shooting of Tui Atua Tupua’s grand-
obtained from a Fijian, it may well have been example, had a head and arms; others 127 expression of the long, global history of
featured a carved wooden face. They were and secured at the front. The fabric is soft, uncle during a peaceful march by the Mau,
made in Samoa or Tonga and perhaps gifted featured a carved wooden face. They were Barkcloth, nineteenth century
century Polynesian efforts to reach out and engage
used, not to make once-and-for-all payments light and pliable; it bears a panel of elegant a movement for Samoan self-government,
a number of times among chiefly families used, not to make once-and-for-all payments Aitutaki, Cook
Aitutaki, Cook Islands
Islands with Europeans diplomatically. lc
for commodities or services, but in economies Barkcloth, pigment,
pigment, c. 1.66 ×× 338
3.38cm
m
tāniko design, made up of threads dyed a dark in 1929.
undertaking multiple voyages, before reaching for commodities or services, but in economies Barkcloth, c. 166
of kinship and clan affairs at the time of birth, purple-red, possibly from tanekaha bark. Its The name of the ‘ie tōga references a
the European collector. nt/pb of kinship and clan affairs at the time of birth, Collected by
Collected by Bishop
Bishop John
John Richardson
Richardson Selwyn
Selwyn of
of the
the
marriage and death; to the mother’s relatives, tribal or regional origin within New Zealand is story of transgression, guilt, death, friendship
marriage and death; to the mother’s relatives, Melanesian Mission.
Melanesian Mission
at the time of the major feasts and ceremonies Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
not known, but it was doubtless a garment of and forgiveness that united two polities in
at the time of the major feasts and ceremonies
known as pilou; as part of a flow of gifts Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
University of Cambridge, E 1901.123 University of exceptionally high value. It must have been western Polynesia: Tonga and Samoa. It
known as pilou; as part of a flow of gifts Cambridge, E 1901.123 129
100
during a period of mourning; and to make presented, a deliberate and significant gift, to involves the adultery of one of two sons of the
during a period of mourning; and to make Selected reference: Appel and Pureariki 2017 Masi, barkcloth,
peace. Those who had been taken as war Selected Reference: Appel and Pureariki 2017 a senior member of the expedition such as Tui Tonga (the Lord of Tonga, a ruling dynasty),
peace. Those who had been taken as war mid- to late nineteenth century
captives could secure full membership of a Cook himself, Joseph Banks, or Tupaia, who Lautivini, who had sex with his older brother’s
captives could secure full membership of a Barkcloth from Aitutaki is exceptionally rare. Matuku or Moala, eastern Fiji
group through the presentation of these was perceived by many Māori as leader of the wife. Filled with remorse when his affair was
93
062 group through the presentation of these Barkcloth from Aitutaki is exceptionally rare. Barkcloth, dyes, 440
3.31 ×× 350
4.44cm
m
valuables, which could also be used to Though there are smaller examples in the visiting mariners. nt/pb discovered, he offered successive gifts of
Necklace of eight anthropomorphic figures, valuables, which could also be used to Though there are smaller examples in the
purchase magical formulae, ceremonial British Museum, this complex painted cloth is Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, reconciliation but they were all spurned,
nineteenth century purchase magical formulae, ceremonial British Museum, this complex painted cloth is University of Cambridge Z 5064
artefacts, and even a person’s silence. the finest piece extant. The pa’oa, cloth, has driving him to offer his life in a solitary act of
artefacts, and even a person’s silence. nt/pb the finest piece extant. The pa’oa, cloth, has
Fiji
Fiji nt/pb been stained orange with turmeric, yellow ritual suicide. Unaware of this, when his
Whale
Whale ivory,
ivory, fibre,
fibre, length
length 49
52 cm
been stained orange with turmeric, yellow
cm with extract from the roots of noni (Morinda Barkcloth (masi) was long made by women father and brother realised their kinsman was
with extract from the roots of noni (Morinda
Museum
Museum of of Archaeology
Archaeology and
and Anthropology,
Anthropology, University of citrifolia), and black with candlenut (tuitui 325
99 from a range of Fijian communities, in the missing, they went in search of him. Their
citrifolia), and black with candlenut (tuitui
University
Cambridge,ofZCambridge,
2752 Z 2752 or Aleurites moluccana), which was also ’Ahu’ula, feather cloak, form of both comparatively small pieces (now search took them to the islands of Samoa and
or Aleurites moluccana), which was also
Selected
Selected references:
References:Herle
Herleand
andCarreau
Carreau2013;
2013; Norwich used as ink in tattooing, and for many other early nineteenth century sold through retail outlets to tourists) and vast a chief named Tui Atua Leutele, who told them
95
251 used as ink in tattooing, and for many other
Norwich
2016 2016 purposes. Barkcloth was notably used in rites lengths for presentation at major ceremonies their son and brother was in Tonga, ‘under his
Mwali, armshell, early twentieth century purposes. Barkcloth was notably used in rites Hawaiian Islands
marking the birth of children, but also in other Feathers, fibre, painted barkcloth (on reverse), width 270 involving the highest ranking aristocrats in catamaran’ – where indeed they discovered
Trobriand Islands,
Islands, Papua
Papua New
New Guinea
Guinea marking the birth of children, but also in other
Trobriand contexts. cm 2.27 m
width the archipelago. Cloth was painted freehand his dead body. Moved to reciprocate this
In the period preceding contact with Pandanus leaf,
leaf, glass,
glass, fibre,
fibre, cone
cone shell,
shell, cockleshell,
cockleshell, contexts.
Pandanus In recent years the work has been
Europeans and over the first century of diameter of
of shell:
shell: 6.5
6.5 cm
cm In recent years the work has been Belonged to King Kamehameha II (Liholiho), brought by or more commonly decorated using stencils poignant prophesy, the Tui Tonga instructed
diameter
viewed and studied by indigenous researchers 1824
him to Britain in 1824. or design tablets to create large fields of his search party to return to Tui Atua Leutele
encounter, Fijians, Tongans and Samoans Collected by
by Bronislaw
Bronislaw Malinowski
Malinowski between
between 1915 and viewed and studied by indigenous researchers
Collected from Aitutaki, including Ngaa Kitai, who took Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of dynamic, optically engaging pattern. The in Samoa with the finest of his fine mats,
interacted extensively. Their societies were not 1915 and 1918.
1918 from Aitutaki, including Ngaa Kitai, who took
various elements of the designs to represent Cambridge, 1934.1159 present work, constituted of two main design which he named Le Ageagea o Tumua (the
localised, but made up of complex hierarchies. British Museum,
British Museum, London,
London, Oc,M.333
Oc,M.333 various elements of the designs to represent
holding hands, principles of unity, ranges of fields, was probably employed, hung over substance of Tumua).
Aristocrats intermarried and sought to sustain Selected Reference:
reference: Malinowski holding hands, principles of unity, ranges of
Selected Malinowski1922
1922 hills in ancestral lands, the juxtaposition
alliances and mobilise the support of subject hills in ancestral lands, the juxtaposition Part of a 1934 transfer from the Victoria a beam, as a room divider in a large chiefly Today the ‘ie tōga bearing that title, and
between ao (the world of the living and light) and Albert Museum, this cloak was long house. Its particular history is unknown, but it representing the legacies and inheritances of
peoples, who would periodically offer up between ao (the world of the living and light)
and po (night, darkness and the afterlife). He associated with Kamehameha I, who unified was most likely made by women from Matuku 32 generations – from Tui Atua Leutele to Tui
gifts, and support chiefs in war. High-status and po (night, darkness and the afterlife). He
also sensed tension in the interplay between the Hawaiian Islands in the early nineteenth or Moala Island in eastern Fiji, formerly a Atua Tupua Tamasese Efi – is in the collection
artefacts were associated with the sea and also sensed tension in the interplay between
96
047 designs, and wondered whether the work century. It has recently been established that centre for the production of large textiles of of Te Papa Tongarewa, where it is a symbol of
widely traded. The most prestigious material designs, and wondered whether the work
Soulava, necklace, early twentieth
twentieth century reflected social conflicts among clans at the it was in fact brought to England by his son, this kind. nt/pb the friendship between the two countries.
was whale ivory, which before contact would century reflected social conflicts among clans at the
time of its creation. The two central panels to Kamehameha II, also known as Liholiho, who nt/pb
have been obtained rarely, from beached Trobriand Islands,
Trobriand Islands, Papua
Papua New
New Guinea
Guinea time of its creation. The two central panels to
Shells, seeds,
seeds, glass
glass beads,
beads, pandanus
pandanus leaf,
leaf, length
length 75
75 cm
cm the right featuring twelve and seven canoes was famous for his repudiation of the ‘aikapu
whales. From the early nineteenth century Shells, the right featuring twelve and seven canoes
respectively are likely to have evoked system of taboos and religious observances,
onwards, Tongan and Fijian craftsmen began Collected by
Collected by Bronislaw
Bronislaw Malinowski
Malinowski between
between 1915 and respectively are likely to have evoked
narratives of particular voyages or naval enabling conversion to Christianity. In 1823,
to procure sperm-whale teeth from whalers 1915 and 1918.
1918 narratives of particular voyages or naval
British Museum,
Museum, London,
London, Oc,M.332
Oc,M.332 expeditions. nt/pb anxious to strengthen the diplomatic ties
and traders, and made ivory figures, ivory British expeditions. nt/pb
and pearl-shell
pearl shell breastplates, and necklaces, Selected Reference:
Selected reference: Malinowski
Malinowski1922
1922 between the Kingdom of Hawai‘i and the
typically of split sections of teeth. The present British Empire, he led a delegation including
necklace, made of eight figures and nine Across Melanesia, exchange between islands his wife, Queen Kamāmalu, and other high-
and regions was a prominent feature of
pendants, is unique. Although many Tongan- ranking Hawaiians to England. They brought a
made necklaces were in circulation in Fiji in indigenous life. It involved, in some cases, number of ‘ahu‘ula, feather cloaks, and other
the movement of localised raw materials or
the nineteenth century, Steven Hooper has high-status artefacts for presentation as gifts.

296 297
102
130 purchased
support theinMelanesian
the early 1900s to raise
Mission, funds to
an Anglican [responsibility]. Under their gaze, slung on ainpole
bedecked thelike
verya best
pig, and
shellthe
jewellery.
bride 109
352 ashell
humancontrasts withsmooth
face. The the luminous pearl-shell
and lustrous
Siapo mamanu, painted barkcloth, late support to
mission thethe
Melanesian Mission,and
Solomon Islands anNew
Anglican we are compelled to ask ourselves, bedecked
The 23
in rondelles
the very best
of clam
shellshell
jewellery.
and century
Club, eighteenth century eyes, the
turtle shellwafting
contrastscassowary
with theplumes,
luminous thepearl
nineteenth or early twentieth century mission tont/pb
Hebrides. the Solomon Islands and New ‘Are we doing enough for our fretworked
The 23turtle
rondelles
shell,oftermed
clam shell
koiyuandin Roro, Balade Harbour, New Caledonia fibrous
shell fringes
eyes, and goa cassowary
the wafting nuts, whichplumes,
also
Samoa Hebrides. nt/pb family, our ancestors, our could
fretworked
be worn
turtle
by shell,
men andtermedwomen.
koiyuIninaddition
Roro, Wood, length 64 cm provide
the an auditory
fibrous fringes and dimension.
goa nuts, which also
1.8 ××2.36
Barkcloth, ochre, 180 236 m
cm community, our nation?’ I feel such to being
could be valuable
worn by menfineryand
theywomen.
were deployed
In addition
in Collected during the second voyage of
provide Theanmask embodies
auditory the riches of the
dimension.
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
sentiments emanating from these diverse
to beingsocial
valuable
contexts
finerytothey
confer
wereprestige
deployedandin Captain James Cook.
Cook TorresTheStrait
maskandembodies
valued trade goods.ofItthe
the riches is
Cambridge, Z 30709 ancestral works, as though each protection.
diverse social
At contexts
one end of to the
confer
spectrum,
prestige and Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, made from
Torres Straitcarefully
and valued moulded
trade plates
goods.fromIt is the
104
079 was an elder who watches your promised brides
protection. At one wore
endthem
of theonspectrum,
their arms. At University
UniversityofofCambridge,
Cambridge,1922.986
1922.986 carapace
made fromofcarefully
the hawksbill
moulded turtle withfrom
plates insetthe
Akua hulu manu, feathered god image, behaviour with a set of expectations the other, brides
promised men wereworegranted
them onthe their
rightarms.
to At Selected reference:
Reference:Thomas
thomasetetal.
al2016:
2016:pp.
pp.160–63
160–63 pearl shellofeyes,
carapace and decorated
the hawksbill turtle with
with inset
The barkcloth of Samoa was diverse and late eighteenth century that we need to rise to, individually display
the other, menonwere
koiyu theirgranted
headdress theinright
a particular
to cassowary
pearl fathers
shell eyes, from
and New Guinea,
decorated with ochre
became more so over the course of the and collectively. To bring these mannerkoiyu
display only when
on theirthey had committed
headdress their
in a particular from Cape York
cassowary andfrom
fathers red New
strands of European
Guinea, ochre
Hawaiian Islands During James Cook’s second voyage, the crew
nineteenth century. Decorative techniques waiwai ali’i [chiefly treasures] home first homicide
manner duringthey
only when a raiding party. el their
had committed cloth.Cape
from The features
York andofred thestrands
mask areof European
Fibre, feathers, human hair, pearl shell, seed, dog teeth,
that continue to this day included rubbing of the Resolution enjoyed a cordial visit with
height 62 cm is to generate exactly these kinds of first homicide during a raiding party. el accentuated
cloth. with incised
The features designs
of the mask arehighlighted
over design tablets, but siapo mamanu were Kanak people at Balade, on the northwest
British Museum, London, Oc,HAW.78 conversations and dialogues. with lime. with incised designs highlighted
accentuated
painted freehand, some with botanical motifs, coast of New Caledonia, in September 1774.
Turtle shell masks were used in harvest
with lime.
others with optically dynamic, irregular Kahanu and Andrade’s encounter with Local people and men in particular engaged
festivals,
Turtleinitiations
shell masksandwere
funerary
usedceremonies.
in harvest
geometric grids and designs. nt/pb these feathered gods raises an important keenly in barter and the mariners received
While theinitiations
festivals, exact useand andfunerary
meaningceremonies.
of this mask
question for British and European museums considerable numbers of clubs, presumably
122
107 is uncertain,
While the exacttheuse
juxtaposition
and meaning of the
of human
this mask
105
078 too: how will they, as caretakers of these because warriors carried them with them,
1912
Necklace, before 1912 is
anduncertain,
crocodilethe juxtaposition
heads alludes toofthe thestory
human of
Akua hulu manu, feathered god image, waiwai ali‘i, contribute to and support such and thus had them available for traffic. While,
Tobi Island, Palau Ubericrocodile
and Kuberi, aheads
crocodile kepttoasthe
alludes a pet
storybyofa
probably Ku the god of war, conversations and dialogues? nt/pb during the nineteenth century, clubs were
Sea urchin spines, fibre, diameter c. 30
30 cm
cm youngKuberi,
Uberi girl. One day the girl
a crocodile keptwent
as afishing
pet bywitha
103
164 late eighteenth century most commonly wrapped with fibre bindings
Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 12.43.184
her father
young girl.and
Onehe daydisappeared.
the girl wentWhen fishing shewith
Tivaevae ta‘orei, patchwork quilt, c. 1900 and strips of red and blue European fabric,
Hawaiian Islands called
her his name
father and hethe crocodile appeared
disappeared. When she on the
Fibre frame, human hair, pearl shell, seeds, dog teeth, eighteenth-century examples are of plain
Cook Islands surfacehis
called of name
the water, having eaten
the crocodile her father.
appeared on the
2.23 ×× 289
Cotton, 223 2.89cm
m feathers, height 81 cm Tobi is a small, isolated atoll at the wood, which is often beautifully patinated,
Crocodiles
surface are water,
of the important totem
having animals
eaten in the
her father.
British Museum, London, Oc,HAW.80 southernmost extremity of the archipelago presumably having been oiled and polished.
Collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Torres Straitare
Crocodiles and the masktotem
important also refers
animals to in
thethe
Te Papa Tongarewa,
Tongarewa, Wellington,
Wellington, FE011982FE011982 forming the modern nation of Palau. Its This one is of a rare type, of which fewer than
reference: San
Selected Reference: SanFrancisco
Francisco2015,
2015,pp.
pp.19–20
19–20 close affiliation
Torres Strait andbetween
the maskparticular
also refersIslanders
to the
references: Küchler
Selected References: Küchlerand
andEimke
Eimke2009;
2009; Brunt and
IV PE R F OR MA NCE population is now believed to number just ten examples are known to exist in collections.
and their
close totem.between
affiliation ah particular Islanders
Brunt and
Thomas Thomas
2012, 2012, p. 322.
p. 322.
AND C ER EMONY thirty; like other atoll peoples across Oceania, nt/pb
and their totem. ah
These feathered god images were gifted to they are threatened by the prospect of rising
Captain Cook by Kalani‘ōpu‘u, paramount sea levels, as there is little land on the island
Textiles made from barkcloth were of chief of the island of Hawai‘i, in January over three metres above sea level.
enormous significance across Polynesia. Their 1779. Altogether, seven such god images, 106
140 This rare type of necklace, made of sea
importance
value led Islanders
led Islanders to value to value introduced
introduced forms about seventeen feathered cloaks and capes, Headdress, early twentieth century urchin spines, was unique to the island.
forms
of of which
cloth, cloth, which were eagerly
were eagerly soughtsoughtfrom and sixteen feathered helmets, among other Roro people, Yule Island, Papua New Guinea Nearly all extant examples were collected in 112
109
from European
European visitors visitors
from from the earliest
the earliest phases offerings, were given to Cook in extraordinary 240 ×× 200
Fibre, feathers, shell, c. 240 200 cm
cm 110
172
the years before the First World War by Mawa mask, nineteenth century
phases
of of cross-cultural
cross-cultural contact contact
onwards. onwards.
Some ceremonial circumstances associated with Koka dance ‘shield’, late nineteenth century
NationaalVolkenkunde,
Museum Museum vanLeiden,
Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
RV-1999-550 German ethnographers and merchants. nt/pb
Some of
forms forms of customary
customary barkclothbarkcloth
were usedwereas the god Lono. Much has been written about Saibai Island, Torres Strait Islands
RV-1999-550 nt/pb Buin, Autonomous Region of Bougainville, 77 × 55107
Wood, pigment, shell, feathers, height × 25
cmcm
used as
ritual ritual wrappings
wrappings, and closelyand associated
were closely with the nature and meaning of this encounter, Papua New Guinea
associated
deities; with deities;and
on Rarotonga, on probably
Rarotonga, and
elsewhere and the gifting of these sacred objects in In many parts of New Guinea feather Wood, chalk, ochres, height 100 cm The National
National Museum
Museum of Ireland,
of Ireland, Dublin,
Dublin, AE:1887.62
AE:1887.62
probably
in the Cook elsewhere in themaking
Islands, their Cook Islands,
appearstheirto In many partswere,
headdresses of New andGuinea
continue feather
to be,
particular. Their power, when confronted in British Museum, London, Oc1900,-65
Oc 1900.65
making
have beenappears
abandoned to havearound
been abandoned
the time people headdresses
worn were,onand
for dancing continueceremonial
important to be,
an exhibition, remains unabated and brings The distinctive wooden mawa mask,
around the
adopted time people
Christianity, adopted
in the 1820s.Christianity,
New fabrics worn for dancing
occasions. on important
This headdress, around ceremonial
a century
the past dramatically into the present. Such 121
108 characterised by an elongated human face,
in thenew
and 1820s.
forms New fabricstook
of dress andtheir
newplace;
formsthe occasions.
old, was made This on
headdress,
Yule Island around
by peoplea century
of the The coming of age of young boys in
contemporary encounters raise important Necklace, before 1909
1909 pearl-shell
pearl shell eyes, prominent nose, extended
of dress
novel formstookincluded
their place;brightthe‘quilts’,
novel forms
some, old, was
Roro made on
language YuleFor
group. Island
Rorobypeople
peopletheseof the the coastal communities of Buin, at the
questions about the nature of their meaning. chin and a grimacing mouth is attributed to
included
like bright ‘quilts’,
this, featuring some,patchwork,
geometric like this, Roro language
large group. For Roro
feather headdresses werepeople
a formtheseof clan Wuvulu, Papua New Guinea southeastern end of Bougainville Island, was
Is it to be found in the uses, intentions and Shark vertebrae, shell (Cassis rufa), glass beads, fibre, the northern island of Saibai. Such masks
featuring
others geometric
appliqué patchwork,
imagery, often withothersprominent large feather
‘badge’, headdresses
meaning were adesigns
that particular form ofwere
clan Shark vertebrae, shell (Cassis rufa), glass beads, fibre, marked by unu ceremonies, during which
conditions that circumscribed their existence diameter c. 35 cm were made of wood imported from New
appliqué imagery,
botanical motifs and often withHawaiian
(in the prominent Islands) ‘badge’, meaning
reserved for the use thatof particular
clan members. designs Thewere
clan diameter c. 35 cm dances dramatised a contest between the
in the historical past? Or is their meaning Guinea and it is possible that they were made
botanical
flags motifs andof(in
and emblems the Hawaiian
Hawaiian royaltyIslands)
and reserved
name wasfornot
therecorded
use of clan members.
for this headdressThe clan
but Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 09-599 sun and the moon for possession of the
inextricably connected to their existence – Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 09.599
in the Fly River region and refashioned in
flags and emblems of Hawaiian royalty and
sovereignty. name
the was not
fan-like recorded
shape suggestsfor this
a linkheaddress
with the but morning star. This very rare dance implement
and relation to us, whoever we are – in the the Torres Strait. When viewed from the side
sovereignty.
By the second half of the nineteenth the fan-like
crested shape
pigeon as asuggests
totem. a link with the Shell necklaces were and continue to be of represented the crescent moon and was
present? What is the connection between Shell necklaces were and continue to be of these masks have a pronounced bow shape
century, these
By the textiles
second halfwere widely
of the made in
nineteenth crested pigeon
Large as aheaddresses
feather totem. were only major significance across Oceania. Although held and manipulated with the hole and grip
past and present? And how and where are we major significance across Oceania. Though reminiscent of the curve of a canoe. Their use
century, Polynesia.
eastern these textiles The were
formswidely made in
are commonly placed in that continuum of time? worn Large
by morefeather headdresses
prominent people.were only
Historic often described as a form of ‘adornment’, beside the incised design in the lower section.
worn byshow morethat
prominent often described as a form of ‘adornment’, has been likened to a form of thanksgiving,
eastern
said Polynesia.
to have The forms
been taught are commonly
by missionary wives Two Hawaiian women – Maile Andrade photos within apeople.
community Historicdressed and though certainly intended to enhance nt/pb
photos show that within a community dressed and though certainly intended to enhance and the presence of a dancer wearing a
said
to to havewomen,
Islander been taughtthough bythe
missionary
location wives
and and Noelle Kahanu – faced these questions for dancing, only a few bore large a person’s appearance, necklaces carried
for dancing, only a few bore large feather a person’s appearance, necklaces carried costume of coconut leaves and a mawa mask
to Islander women,
chronology though the location
of their introduction are unclear.and It when viewing five akua hulu manu in a room headdresses; others wore smaller a range of significances and, as they were
headdresses;and others wore smaller feather a range of significances and, as they were at harvest time helped ensure good crops for
chronology
is possible thatof their
theyintroduction
were brought arefrom
unclear.
NewIt of the British Museum in 2014, including the headdresses ornaments. Although typically finely ground, cut or otherwise
headdresses and ornaments. typically finely ground, cut or otherwise the future.
is possible
England bythat they were
Protestants brought from
associated with Newthe two shown here. Kahanu writes of the primarily associated with men,Although
these images prepared, required great skill to create. Some
primarily prepared, required great skill to create. Some This mask is remarkable for having
England bymission
American Protestants associated
and later emulated with bythe experience: also showassociated
that, though with men, thesewomen
uncommon, images shells were rare or unavailable locally, and had
also show shells were rare or unavailable locally, and had retained most of its original decoration,
American
Society andmission and later emulated
Cook Islanders; it has alsoby been could wearthat,
largethough uncommon, women
headdresses. to be obtained through long-distance trade; 111
106
I was not prepared for their size, couldThe wear large headdresses. to be obtained through long-distance trade; including long strands of coir hair and red
Society andthat
suggested Cook Islanders;
textiles it has
offered alsoinbeen
earlier barter radiating struts were once covered in some constituted forms of ‘money’ or currency Gizu (dates?)
their intensity, or their magnitude, The which
radiating struts were once covered some constituted forms of ‘money’ or currency tufts of wool highlighting the eyebrows,
suggested
by sailors maythathavetextiles
playedoffered
a partearlier
in the in barter feathers, were fastened into place within vital to gifts at the time of marriage and other Krar, composite mask, late nineteenth
in numbers but also in sheer feathers, vital to gifts at the time of marriage and other mouth and chin. Multiple beaded strands of
by sailors mayofhave
development played
tivaevae anda part in the
related genres. the stringwhich
binding were
thatfastened
remains into place with
visible. major life-cycle rituals; some were associated century
presence. I was surrounded by the string binding that remains visible. major life-cycle rituals; some were associated coix seeds ornament the extended ears, which
development
While the term of‘quilt’
tivaevae and related
is often used togenres.
describe Weighted with shells near their tips, the struts with high social status; some had symbolic Nagir, Torres Strait Islands
them as they were unveiled in Weighted with high social status; some had symbolic refer to the once-common practice of slitting
While fabrics,
these the termand ‘quilt’
theyiswere
oftenused
usedasto describe would havewith shellsgracefully
swayed near theirastips, thethe struts
wearer values or were thought to protect wearers Turtle shell,
shell height 55 cm
storage cases throughout the room. would have swayed gracefully as the values or were thought to protect wearers the lobes and distending them with ear
these fabrics,tivaevae
bedspreads, and theywere werealso
used as hung
often danced. A stately grace, given that thewearer
weight from the malevolence of other peoples or Collected by Alfred Haddon in August
the anthropologist Alfred 1888.
Haddon in August
What I experienced was a profound danced. from the malevolence of other peoples or weights. Exceptionally, the top of the head has
bedspreads,
from the internal tivaevaewallswere
and also oftenofhung
ceilings and size Aofstately grace, given
the construction that theanweight
demands spirits. Unfortunately, early collectors mostly Museum
1888 of Archaeology and Anthropology,
sense, not of my looking at them, and sizebearing
of the construction spirits. Unfortunately, early collectors mostly has three
three detachable
detachable projections
projections withwith
from the internal
buildings and churcheswalls and ceilings
at the time of of upright and poise. demands an presumed that necklaces were simply University
Museum ofofArchaeology
Cambridge, and
1890.182
Anthropology, University of
but of them looking at me. It was as upright bearing andheaddresses
poise. presumed that necklaces were simply Cambridge, 1890.182 cassowary-feather plumes and oyster and
buildings and
ceremonies and churches at the time
public events. Like of
large Large feather are a expressions of women’s finery, and neglected
if they were asking me, ‘Who are Largeof feather headdresses are a expressions of women’s finery, and neglected mussel shells. ah
ceremonies
barkcloth and public
sheets, theseevents.
fabrics Like
werelarge composite feather and shell components to seek detailed information regarding This elaborate composite mask (krar), with a
you?’ ‘Why are we here?’ ‘What are composite of feather and shell components to seek detailed information regarding
barkcloth sheets,
prominent, public these fabricsofwere
expressions women’s that were themselves valuables that could be their particular values or associations. This elaborate
crocodile headcomposite
surmounted mask
by a(krar),
human with a
face,
you going to do about it?’ To be in that were themselves valuables that could be their particular values or associations.
prominent,they
creativity; public wereexpressions of women’s
gifts and media of used for socially significant transactions such Nothing appears to be known of the specific crocodile
is headcrafted
ingeniously surmounted by a human
to surprise face,
and captivate
the presence of sacred objects, used Nothing appears to be known of the specific
creativity;
familial andthey were gifts
collective and media
memory. The exactof as thefor socially
paying of asignificant
bride-price. transactions
A historic such significance of this Wuvulu necklace, though is ingeniously
audiences. crafted
When worntoupright
surpriseover
andthecaptivate
top of
created at a time so very different as the paying of a bride-price. A delivering
historic significance of this Wuvulu necklace, though
familial and
occasion for collective
which thismemory.quilt wasThe exactis
made account of a bridegroom’s party its compositional complexity suggests that it audiences.
the head onlyWhen
the worn upright
crocodile wouldoverbethe top of
visible,
from our own, is to ask ourselves, account oftoathe bridegroom’s party delivering its compositional complexity suggests that it
occasion for
unknown butwhich this quilt
it appears wasbeen
to have made is payment bride’s father describes was a piece of considerable value. nt/pb the head
but duringonly the crocodile
performance, thewould
bearerbewould
visible,
‘How have we changed?’ It always paymentvaluables
to the bride’s was a piece of considerable value. nt/pb
unknown but
purchased it appears
in the to have
early 1900s beenfunds to
to raise feather beingfather
carried, describes
not displayed, but during
abruptly tiltperformance, the bearerrevealing
his head downwards, would a
comes back to kuleana featheronvaluables
slung a pole like being
a pig,carried,
and the notbride
displayed,
abruptlyface.
human tilt his
Thehead downwards,
smooth revealing
and lustrous turtle

298 299
113
002 wild in thefrom
obtained forest
theorroot wasofcultivated
a vine thatingrewgardens. or wrapping
barkcloth bearing
turban anddistinct
a layered dyes and cloak
barkcloth were not merely high-status versions of more practically havethe
without risking been usedsplitting
stone to choporor cut leis over family photographs, brightly
Tupaia (c. 1725–1770) In some
wild in thecases theorfringes
forest were laterindyed
was cultivated gardens. patterns,
or wrapping in some
bearing instances
distinctbearing
dyes and a spotted utilitarian artefacts, but devices intended to without risking
shattering. the stone
Though splitting
presumably an or
elaboration patterned sheets on the furniture and woven
Untitled drawing of dancing woman and yellow
In somewith casesfresh
theturmeric.
fringes wereAlthough the
later dyed pattern
patterns,made
in some up ofinstances
stampedbearing human ablood, as
spotted be spun with the palms of the hands, thereby shattering. Though presumably
of a more functional adze or axean elaboration
– an pandanus mats on the floor transform the
chief mourner, June
June–August
– August1769
1769 textiles
yellow withfromfresh
the islands
turmeric. of Ambae,
AlthoughMaewo the well as various
pattern made upfibre ties and feather
of stamped tassels.asA
human blood, animating their owners’ faces and invoking of a more functional
instrument adze orOceania
that throughout axe – anwas featureless anonymity of a state house into a
Society Islands and Pentecost
textiles from the can look similar
islands of Ambae,to anMaewo
untrained longer
well asapron
various featured
fibre ties someand200 diskstassels.
feather of their mana. This sort of god image would, at instrument
embellishedthat
withthroughout
rigorously Oceania
structuredwas
woven distinctively Samoan place, where ways of
Pencil and watercolour, 28 × 39 cm (whole sheet) eye, there werecan
and Pentecost andlookstillsimilar
are many different
to an untrained coconut
A longer shell,
apronmostlyfeatured circular,
some but 200occasionally
disks of the time of the Wheelers’ visit, have been embellished
lashings thatwith rigorously
secured structured
blade to handle –woven
this being Samoan are performed everyday. nt/pb
Pencil and watercolour, 28 × 39 cm (whole sheet)
British Library, London, Add 15508, f.9
types, eachwere
eye, there withand a name andmany
still are distinguishing
different in the form
coconut shell,of amostly
sea turtle, a prestigious
circular, and
but occasionally considered idolatrous by Christian Islanders. lashings
Kanak formthatwas
secured
purelyblade to handle
ceremonial, an– this
British Library, London, Add 15508, f.9 formal characteristics
types, each with a name of size, selvage edge
and distinguishing sacred creature
in the form defined
of a sea turtle,byaitsprestigious
movementand The work was presumably created before the Kanak
awesomeformandwas purely expression
dazzling ceremonial,ofanstatus
and fringes,
formal as well asofin-weave
characteristics patterns
size, selvage edgeand between marinedefined
sacred creature and terrestrial realms.
by its movement Rarotongans adopted Christianity in the early awesome
and power.and dazzling expression of status
nt/pb
At the time of Cook’s extended 1769 visit, openwork
and fringes,decorative
as well asfeatures.
in-weave patterns and Participants
between marine and in the first voyage
terrestrial realms.of Captain 1820s, and carefully preserved by its owners and power. nt/pb
At the time of Cook’s extended 1769 visit,
Tahiti and the Society Islands were caught This textile
openwork was collected
decorative features. some time Cook Participants
witnessed the ceremony,
in the first voyage
heivaoftupapa’u,
Captain for at least fifteen years prior to its disposal 174
120
Tahiti and the Society Islands were caught
up in struggles between chiefly dynasties, around This1911 on Ambae.
textile Today itsome
was collected would be
time and
Cookwere astonished
witnessed by it. Joseph
the ceremony, heiva Banks, who
tupapa’u, through sale barter. nt/pb ‘U’u, club, early nineteenth century
up in struggles between chiefly dynasties,
which were themselves associated with recognised
around 1911as onaAmbae.
qana vivi, a kind
Today of textile
it would be covered
and werehimself
astonished with soot
by it.inJoseph
order to Banks, who
which were themselves associated with Marquesas Islands
competing ritual systems, and in particular used as a valuable
recognised as a qana in the
vivi,exchanges made at
a kind of textile participate,
covered himself was withentranced
soot inbyorderthe ‘fantastical’
to
competing ritual systems, and in particular Wood (toa, Casuarina equisetifolia), length c.
148150cmcm
the cult of ‘Oro, which had its centre on marriages and otherinimportant
used as a valuable the exchanges occasions.
madeThe at costume,
participate,which
was he had his by
entranced artists illustrate,
the ‘fantastical’ 344,
119 345
the cult of ‘Oro, which had its centre on Museum Fünf Kontinente, Munich, 94-264
the island of Ra‘iātea. Certain Tahitian term vivi refers
marriages to theimportant
and other short stubby fringe on
occasions. The because
costume,itwhich
was impossible
he had histoartists describe. But at
illustrate, Mark Adams (b. 1949)
the island of Ra‘iātea. Certain Tahitian
aristocrats were active in the importation Selected Reference: Norwich2006,
reference: Norwich 2006,p.p.163
163
aristocrats were active in the importation the
termtwovivilong
referssides
to the of the
short textile,
stubby which
fringe on this time itnowas
because Islander wouldtooffer
impossible a costume
describe. But atin 300
117 Chalfont Crescent, Mangere, South
of the rites of ‘Oro, challenging older rituals distinguishes
the two long sides it. In the early
of the twentieth
textile, whichcentury, exchange.
this time noIt Islander
was onlywould duringofferCook’s second in
a costume Tahi’i, fan, early nineteenth
nineteenth century
century tatatau:
Auckland. Jim Taofinu’u. Tufuga tatatau:
of the rites of ‘Oro, challenging older rituals
and the Tahitian chiefs who favoured them. when people still
distinguishes it. Inwore textiles,
the early this may
twentieth have
century, voyage,
exchange. whenIt was theonlymariners
duringwere Cook’sablesecond
to Su’a Sulu’ape Paulo II, 30 June 1985 Powerful in its overall form, distinguished by
and the Tahitian chiefs who favoured them. Marquesas Islands
Among those active in this drama were the been
whenusedpeople as still
a woman’s
wore such garment,
textiles,worn
this may present
voyage, Tahitians
when thewith red feathers
mariners were able theyto had a proliferation of faces on a variety of scales
Among those active in this drama were the Woven pandanus, coconut fibre, wood, bone, New Zealand
prominent woman Purea, and Tupaia, himself wrapped
have beenaround used as thea hips
woman’sand tied in place
garment, worn obtained in the Tongan
present Tahitians with red Islands,
feathersandtheywhichhad height 38.5 cm and in distinct styles, marked by arresting
prominent woman Purea, and Tupaia, himself C Type prints, 120 × 150 cm
from Ra‘iātea, a renowned priest and expert with
wrappedthe fringes.
around Either
the hips way andit is stencilled
tied in place Tahitians
obtained in considered
the Tongan exceptionally
Islands, andsacred whichand and intricate surface decoration, literally
from Ra‘iātea, a renowned priest and expert Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, S40592L Courtesy of the artist
navigator. More than any other Islander with the vule or moon
fringes. Eitherdesign.
way it is Onstencilled
Ambae only powerful, that any mourning
Tahitians considered exceptionallycostume could
sacred and weighty, dark and deeply stained, in some
navigator. More than any other Islander
encountered during the Endeavour’s visit to Selected Reference: Mallon,Brunt
reference: Mallon, Bruntand
andThomas
Thomas2010
2010
encountered during the Endeavour’s visit to women
with theplaitvuletextiles,
or moononly women
design. dye them,
On Ambae only be collected.
powerful, thatJustanyseven
mourning essentially
costume complete
could cases to near-black, and sometimes featuring
the Society Islands, Tupaia was intrigued by and
womenonlyplait
women present
textiles, onlythem
women at marriages,
dye them, costumes
be collected.areJustextant, fiveessentially
seven of which were complete Finely woven fans were prominent among the
the Society Islands, Tupaia was intrigued by finely woven sinnet around a grip, it is hardly
the Europeans and interested in associating laying
and only them out on
women the dancing
present them atground in
marriages, obtained
costumesduring
are extant,Cook’s fivesecond
of which andwerethird accoutrements of people of high status in the
the Europeans and interested in associating Since 1978 Mark Adams has documented the surprising that ‘u’u have long been sought
with them. He decided to join the ship and great
layingheaps,
them out demonstrating
on the dancing theirground
work and in the voyages.
obtained Theduring example
Cook’sshownsecondinand thisthird
exhibition Marquesas Islands. Though probably made
with them. He decided to join the ship and practice of Samoan tattooists (tufuga tatatau) after by connoisseurs and curators. Yet,
played a key role in guiding the vessel and strength
great heaps, of their contributiontheir
demonstrating to their
workfamilies
and the was obtained
voyages. in Tahiti shown
The example in 1791 in bythis
Francis
exhibition throughout the archipelago, those from the
played a key role in guiding the vessel and of the ‘aiga Sa Su’a – a titled tattooing given the density of the casuarina, known
acting as a go-between around the coasts of and communities.
strength In many senses,
of their contribution then,
to their this is
families Godolphin
was obtained Bond, first lieutenant
in Tahiti in 1791 by on the
Francis island of Tahuata were especially renowned
acting as a go-between around the coasts of family – in a series of portraits of tattooed in Marquesan as toa (also the word for
New Zealand; Māori presumed that he, not aand
textile that belongs
communities. to women.
In many senses,lb then, this is Providence,
Godolphin Bond, the ship firstcommanded
lieutenant on bytheWilliam and were gifted or traded elsewhere. These
New Zealand; Māori presumed that he, not men and ‘genre’ studies of the operation, warrior, as Steven Hooper has noted), their
Cook, was leader of the expedition. He also a textile that belongs to women. lb Bligh duringthe
Providence, theship
second voyage (following
commanded by William the were not only utilitarian, nor mere expressions
Cook, was leader of the expedition. He also set in domestic interiors. The project began making required sheer hard work, enviable
witnessed encounters on the east coast of mutiny on thethe
Bligh during secondseekingvoyageto(following
obtain the of rank, but bearers of ancestral power
witnessed encounters on the east coast of Bounty) with Adams’s chance discovery of tattooing dexterity and a high level of stylistic fluency
Australia, but was among many on board the breadfruit
mutiny on seedlings
the Bounty) forseeking
transplantation
to obtainto the embodied in sculpted handles of wood, whale
Australia, but was among many on board the among migrant Samoans in suburban on the part of the artist, manifest in the
ship who died of fever at Batavia, and was British colonies
breadfruit seedlingsin theforWest Indies. The to the
transplantation ivory and in this case human bone. Whether
ship who died of fever at Batavia, and was Auckland and his friendship with tattoo subtle and intriguing variations in motifs
thus deprived of the opportunity he sought to 326
115 costume’s layered
British colonies barkcloth
in the incorporates
West Indies. The the bone was that of a revered ancestor or a
thus deprived of the opportunity he sought to master Su’a Sulu’ape Paulo II, who agreed and design that render every ‘u’u a unique
observe European society. Heva tupapau, known as ‘theofCostume
‘the costume the chiefof the pieces thatlayered
costume’s have been stained
barkcloth dark, cut out
incorporates slain enemy is not known, but in either case
observe European society. to him photographing his work. Paulo had art object. These clubs were emphatically
In 1769 he spent a good deal of time in Chief Mourner’,
mourner’, eighteenth
eighteenth centurycentury with
piecesscissors,
that have andbeen attached
stainedto adark,
fabriccutground
out the artefact was highly charged with life
In 1769 he spent a good deal of time in immigrated to New Zealand in 1974 and was works of extraordinary mana and status for
company with Cook, Banks and Banks’s artists with an appliqué
scissors, andtechnique,
attached toreflecting
a fabric ground essence and an expression of the mana, the
company with Cook, Banks and Banks’s artists Tahiti, Society Islands one of two tattooists working in the country Marquesans, before they ever entered the
as they engaged with and observed Tahitian innovation in costume-making
with an appliqué technique, reflectingthrough the use spiritual power, of the bearer. nt/pb
as they engaged with and observed Tahitian at the time, who drew their clientele from a tournaments of value we associate with the
life. At an early stage, Tupaia emulated his Pearl shell, feathers, turtle shell, coconut shell, coconut
of implements
innovation obtained from European
in costume-making through the use growing population of migrant Samoans who world of tribal art.
life. At an early stage, Tupaia emulated his fibre, barkcloth, pigments, height 234 cm
British companions and began to produce mariners.
of implements nt/pb obtained from European had entered the country’s labour markets in While based on an older form, ‘u’u
British companions and began to produce
pencil and watercolour sketches, representing Collected by Lieutenant Francis Godolphin Bond in 1792
1792.
pencil and watercolour sketches, representing mariners. nt/pb the 1960s. featuring the complex engraved decoration of
marae, temple precincts, musicians, a young Royal Albert Memorial Museum and Art Gallery, Exeter,
Royal Albert Memorial Museum and Art Gallery, Exeter, Tatau is an ancient practice in Samoa, faces, radial lines around the main eyes, and a
marae, temple precincts, musicians, a young E1742, E1776, E1777, E1778a, b, E1779, E1781
woman dancing and the ‘chief mourner’, E1742, E1776, E1777, E1778a, b, E1779, E1781 118
333
woman dancing and the ‘chief mourner’, where it has continued unbroken – though not lower band of interlocking pattern are likely to
whose costume, and the mourning ritual with Ceremonial adze, nineteenth century
century
whose costume, and the mourning ritual with london only unchanged
not unchanged– by–European incursions,
by European incursions, have been an innovation of the 1770s to 1790s.
which it was associated, Banks had found Across Oceania, the passage into the 159
116 New Caledonia colonisation or Christian conversion. Over this period, the introduction of iron by
which it was associated, Banks had found
deeply fascinating and absorbing. In addition Across Oceania,
afterworld was athe passage
focus into the
for complex beliefs Fan, early nineteenth century Jadeite, wood, shell, plant fibre, bat (possibly
(flying fox?)
flying
fur, fox)
Traditionally, young men acquired the pe’a, a Cook in 1774 and subsequently by other
deeply fascinating and absorbing. In addition fur,
height
height
66 cm
66 cm
to these six sketches, made during the afterworld
and elaboratewasrituals,
a focusespecially
for complexwhen beliefs
those male body tattoo from the waist to the bottom mariners from the early 1790s enabled a
to these six sketches, made during the Rarotonga, Cook Islands
Endeavour’s three-month stay, Tupaia also and elaborate
who rituals,
had died were especially
chiefs, when those
who possessed Musée du quai
quai Branly
Branly-Jacques
– JacquesChirac,
Chirac,Paris,
Paris,71.1937.10.1
71.1937.10.1 of the knees, as a rite of passage into remarkable efflorescence of Marquesan art,
Endeavour’s three-month stay, Tupaia also Plant fibre, wood, 50 × 40.5 cm
drew a Māori chief and Banks exchanging a who had died were chiefs, who possessed
not only social status but great sanctity and manhood – a significance it still to some marked especially by new intricacy in work
drew a Māori chief and Banks exchanging a Collected by the Quaker traveller Daniel Wheeler in 1836
1836. Selected reference:
Reference:Paris
Paris2013
2013
crayfish for a piece of paper or barkcloth not only social status
(spiritual power).but In great sanctity
the Society and
Islands, extent retains (although submitting to the with wood and bone. nt/pb
crayfish for a piece of paper or barkcloth, a mana Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
(fig. 23), a view of Aboriginal people at Botany mana
the (spiritual
corpses power).ofInaristocrats
(tupapa’u) the Societywere Islands, Cambridge, Z 6102 ordeal is strictly voluntary today). Since the
view of Aboriginal people at Botany Bay The Kanak artefacts collected and described
Bay paddling canoes, and a chart of the the corpses
mounted on (tupapa’u)
biers shroudedof aristocrats were
in fine white end of the Second World War, waves of
paddling canoes, and a chart of the islands of Selected Reference: Thomasetetal.
reference: Thomas al.2016
2016 during the voyage of the French navigator
islands of Oceania (fig. 19). Tupaia’s chart mounted on
barkcloth, bierskinshrouded
while and otherin mourners
fine white out-migration have formed large communities
Oceania. Tupaia’s chart remains a unique early Bruni d’Entrecasteaux included a distinctive
remains a unique early expression of barkcloth, wept,
gathered, while and
kin and other themselves,
lacerated mourners of Samoans in New Zealand, Australia and the 113
121
expression of Indigenous geographical and impressive ceremonial ‘axe’ or ‘adze’.
Indigenous geographical knowledge, gathered,thewept and beneath
laceratedand themselves, In mid-August 1836 some people on the United States. Tufuga tatatau have followed
knowledge, extensively interpreted and littering ground around the These adzes comprised a large, luminous disk
Dance wand, late nineteenth century
extensively interpreted and reinterpreted over littering thetear-
ground beneath and around the island of Rarotonga welcomed a group from this diaspora as either migrants themselves or
reinterpreted over the last fifty years, in the body with and blood-stained pieces of of
disk
green
of green
nephritic
nephritic
stone,stone,
which which
had been
had Baining people, New Britain, Papua New Guinea
the last fifty years, in the context of the revival body with tear- and blood-stained pieces the Henry Freeling, a ship that had been itinerant tattooists
as itinerant providing
tattooists services
providing to ato a
services
context of the revival of voyaging and cloth. quarried,
been quarried,
cut and cutground
and ground
to a thickness
to a thickness
of Barkcloth, pigment over cane or wood frame, height
of voyaging and navigational knowledge. of cloth. acquired by English Quakers for the purpose global community. Among Samoans, the pe’a, 200 cm
height 286[check
cm dimension]
navigational knowledge. nt/pb The most dramatic phase of the ritual approximately
of approximately 12 12
mm,mm,thenthen
polished
polished to to
a high
c.
nt/pb of sending Daniel Wheeler, a minister of the malu (a female tattoo) and contemporary
cycle The
sawmost
the ‘chief mourner’,
dramatic phase aofsenior
the ritual degree
a high degree
of smoothness,
of smoothness,
creatingcreating
a precious
a Museum
Staatlichefür Völkerkunde Dresden,
Kunstsammlungen 1208X,
Dresden, 1208X für
Museum [check
the sect, to the Pacific and Australia. When forms of the tradition, like ‘sleeves’ and
relative,
cycle sawwearing a spectacular
the ‘chief mourner’, acostume
senior of this stone
precious
of an
stone
arresting
of an arresting
size; examples
size; examples
range
inventory
Völkerkundenumbers]
Dresden, 12085
the Islanders understood that their visitors ‘armbands’, have taken on renewed
kind, leadwearing
relative, a procession made upcostume
a spectacular of otherofkin,
this from
range20–30
from 20 cmtoin30diameter.
cm in diameter.
This wasThis mounted
was Selected references: Bateson 1931; Corbin 1984;
were interested in bartering for artefacts, significance as a link to tradition and a
126 their
kind, skins
lead ablackened
processionwith
made soot.
upThey would
of other kin, on
mounted
a wooden on ahandle,
woodeninhandle,
generalinwrapped
general in Fajansdescription
Add 1997 Add description Add
114 they responded immediately, and set about statement of ethnic identity.
Qana vivi, pandanus textile, early twentieth roam around
their skins the territory
blackened withofsoot.
the They
deceased,
would beaten
wrappedbarkcloth;
in beatenthe barkcloth;
binding thefeatured
bindingan description Add description mAdd description
Qana vivi, pandanus textile, early twentieth repairing some older, damaged works, and The double portrait is of Jim Taofinu’u,
century using pearl shell
roam around the clappers to the
territory of warn people to
deceased, Add description
century bringing wood to carve some new drums. On elaborate
featured an setelaborate
of tasselsset andof incorporated
tassels and a This dance wandAdd description
is one of a set ofAdd
four.
withdraw or conceal
using pearl-shell themselves,
clappers to warnaspeople
anyone to Paulo’s brother-in-law, taken in the tufuga’s
Ambae, Vanuatu this occasion, either Wheeler senior or his variety
incorporated
of shells.
a variety
Thereof areshells.
archaeological
There are description Addabout
Little is known description mAdd description
them beyond their use
Ambae, Vanuatu
Pandanus fibre, dye, 155 × 53 cm they met with
withdraw would themselves,
or conceal be attacked,as perhaps
anyone living room in Mangere, South Auckland, in
Pandanus fibre, dye, 155 × 53 cm son Charles obtained an exceptionally fine indications
archaeologicalthatindications
the stone was that prepared
the stonein a Add description
in Baining Addusually
dances, description Add with
associated
grievously
they met withinjured,
wouldwith
be aattacked,
sword edged with
perhaps 1985. Like other portraits in the series, its
Collected by Felix Speiser, c. 1911 fan. Similar to two examples in the British manner
was prepared
consistent
in a manner
with artefacts
consistentof this
withkind description
more famousAdd description
mask types such mAdd description
as kavat and
Collected der
by Felix Speiser, c. 1911. shark teeth.injured, with a sword edged with
grievously subject wears his tattoo with a beguiling
Museum Kulturen, Basel, Vb4472
Museum, the fan features a perfectly sculpted from
artefacts
a thousand
of this kind
yearsfrom
ago.a thousand years Add description
vungvung. Add description
The wands are made of Addbarkcloth
Museum der Kulturen Basel, Vb4472 sharkThe remarkable assemblage was made
teeth. matter-of-factness, a rebuttal to colonial
Janus face, forming the end of the handle, ago. Although colonial commentators description
sewn over caneAdd armatures
descriptionand mAddthendescription
painted,
up of The
exceptionally
remarkablevaluable elements:
assemblage was made narratives of cultural decline or nostalgic
In north Vanuatu, red-dyed pandanus textiles that is consistent with the heads of other, asserted that these
Although ‘adzes’
colonial were used to
commentators Add description Add
a time-consuming description
process Add have
that would
In north Vanuatu, red-dyed pandanus textiles tropicbird feathers, valuable
up of exceptionally a shell face mask above a
elements: ideals of ‘purity’. In many ways the portrait is
are highly prized. Plaited (not woven) from much larger Rarotongan carvings, generally dismember
asserted that thethese
bodies of slain
‘adzes’ were enemies
used tofor description Add description
taken extraordinary mAdddances
skill. Baining description
are of
are highly prized. Plaited (not woven) from wooden
tropicbirdcrescent
feathers,upon which
a shell facepearl
maskshells
above a as much about a place as it is about the
prepared pandanus leaf, the finished textiles identified with Tangaroa, the so-called cannibalistic
dismember the consumption,
bodies of slain thisenemies
was myth. for Add description
two broad types,Add description
performed in theAdd
day and the
prepared pandanus leaf, the finished textiles were
woodenmounted,
crescenta chest apron of
upon which intricately
pearl shells cut tattooed man in the centre. Or rather, it shows
were stencil-dyed with stencils cut from ‘fisherman’s god’. The stone blades
cannibalistic – also occasionally
consumption, madeThe
this was myth. of description
night, but theAdd description
exact use andmAdd description
meaning of the
were stencil-dyed with stencils cut from and
weredrilled
mounted,pearlashell
cheststrips,
aprontogether with acut
of intricately them to be inextricably related. Migrants
a banana spathe. Only red dye was used, In the Austral Islands and the Marquesas serpentine
stone blades – were
– alsodelicate and could
occasionally madenot of wands are unclear. nt/pb
a banana spathe. Only red dye was used, barkcloth
and drilledturban and astrips,
pearl-shell layered barkcloth
together withcloak
a remake foreign spaces into the culturally
obtained from the root of a vine that grew as well as the Cook Islands, elaborated fans practically
serpentine have
– were been used to
delicate andchop or not
could cut
familiar. Simple things like shell and plastic

300 301
122
350 varieties featured intricate surface decoration, 126
195 Governor
The paddle
Rudolf von
wasBennigsen,
collected bythe
Imperial
first wood and attached separately, possibly to reduced scale on arrows and other artefacts.
Carved figure known as Pepe, which in some cases echoed designs used headdress ornament,
Wenena gerua, headcrest ornament, governor
Governor ofRudolf
Germanvon New
Bennigsen,
Guinea,the
notorious
first permit their movement. Although the motifs appear to incorporate
nineteenth century in tattoos and in barkcloth painting and mid-twentieth century for
governor
severalofbrutal
German missions
New Guinea,
of ‘pacification’
notorious Gitvung means ‘initiate’ and these masks stylised birds’ heads, local people have told
New Britain, Papua New Guinea printing. This type of paddle-shaped club Siane people, Eastern Highlands, Papua New Guinea during
for several
his short
brutaltenure
missions
(1899–1901).
of ‘pacification’
He were either worn by initiates or presented to anthropologists working in this area as well
185 cm
Wood, pigment, fibre, length 190 (culacula) is thought to have been a more Wood, paint, height 104 cm undertook
during his short
surveying
tenurecruises
(1899–1901).
to Bougainville
He them in the course of a ceremony. Indeed, the as in the Papua New Guinea Highlands and
1880–90s.
Collected by Richard Parkinson 1880–90s
prestigious variety, owned by chiefs or priests. Wirz.
Collected by Paul Wirz
and
undertook
adjacent
surveying
islands cruises
in 1900.tont/pb
Bougainville mask might be said to reflect the initiate, who the Sepik that the designs have no specific
Staatliche
GRASSI Kunstsammlungen
Museum Dresden,
für Völkerkunde Museum
zu Leipzig, Me für
10903 This example is one of a group of forty or so Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands, and adjacent islands in 1900. nt/pb sees in its otherness his new self. Details like meanings. nt/pb
Völkerkunde Dresden, 08098 identified in collections and distinctive for TM-2670-548 the figure’s armbands, earrings, body
featuring elements of Māori design. As early reference: Sydney
Selected Reference: Sydney2014
2014 markings, youthful beard and blackened teeth
Tolai constituted and still constitute a large as the 1820s, Māori men, especially from mirror the body alterations and symbols that
Tolai constituted
population on theand still constitute
Gazelle Peninsula aoflarge
east the Bay of Islands in northern New Zealand, 128
319 will signify the initiate’s new identity. Even the
population
New Britain,onaround
the Gazelle Peninsula
the modern cityofofeast Sculpture is rare in the New Guinea
commonly joined European ships as crew and Shield, late nineteenth or the figure’s
figure’s gesture
gesture of astonishment
of astonishment or
or submission 132
030
New Britain,
Rabaul. As was around the modern
the case elsewherecityinofthe Highlands, where artistic expression has
in some cases left them to settle on islands early twentieth century –submission
the raised–arms
the raised armshands
and open and open hands
– expresses Aiaimunu mask, late nineteenth century
Rabaul. AsIslands,
Bismarck was theperformance,
case elsewhere in the
masking famously focused upon body adornment,
elsewhere in the Pacific instead of returning Mengen people, New Britain, Papua New Guinea – expressesofsomething
something of theofexperience of
the experience Gulf of barkcloth,
Wood, Papua, Papua
cane,New Guineaheight 245 cm
pigment,
Bismarck Islands,
traditions performance,
and associated masking
artefacts were particularly involving paint and feathers, as
home. While the history of this particular Wood, fibre, feathers, paint, height 172 cm transformation. Wood,
Gulf of barkcloth, cane,New
Papua, Papua pigment,
Guineaheight 245 cm
traditions
diverse and
and associated
prolific. artefacts were
This apparently smiling well as on the looped string bags known
club is not known, it may be one of a group This mask is now the Museum der
diverseinand
figure factprolific. This aapparently
represents malevolentsmiling
spirit, in Tok Pisin (Papua New Guinea pidgin) as Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 14323 1887.
Collected by the explorer Theodore Bevan in 1887
decorated by a Māori man who is thought to Kulturen Basel;
Kulturen, Basel;previously
previouslyititwas
wasininthe
the The National
National Museum
Museum of Ireland,
of Ireland, Dublin,
Dublin, AE:1890.351
AE:1890.351
figure in factwhich
Tabavaliliu, represents a malevolent
inhabited trees andspirit,
was bilums, and on war shields. Selected reference:
Reference:Beran
Beranand
andCraig
Craig2005
2005
have settled on the island of Nairai, probably collection of the Oeventrop Monastery in
Tabavaliliu,
said to appearwhich inhabited
in the dreamstrees andwho
of those was The Siane, however, did produce these references: Welsch,
Selected References: Welsch,Webb
Webband
andHaraha
Haraha2006;
2006;
between the 1820s and 1850s. nt/pb Germany, established in 1902 as a branch of a Craig 2010
said to appear
consumed in the dreams
an intoxicating of those
drink, pepe,whoderived essentially two-dimensional brightly painted In the Pacific, war shields were made only on missionary order active in German New
consumed
from an intoxicating
bark and betel nut. nt/pb drink, pepe, derived boards, which were worn as a headdress or mainland New Guinea, and in neighbouring Guinea until 1914, and was probably acquired
from bark and betel nut. nt/pb carried during performance, and displayed in Indigenous religions in the Papuan Gulf
areas of island Melanesia, including New by a missionary. Today among the Sulka, the
large numbers by groups of men in major Britain and the western Solomon Islands. They ordination of a local priest at a mission is focused on local spirits. Groups had different
125
193 ceremonies involving offerings of pigs. typically featured bold and arresting designs, occasion for celebration – using many of the ways of using ritual and art to influence them.
Pakipaki,
‘Akau tau,war
stellate-sectioned
club, 1790s war club, Essentially stylised human-like images, they realised through low-relief carving and same masking traditions as in the past, now However, peoples across the Papuan Gulf also
123
182 feature sun and moon imagery. Although also shared
shared cultural
cultural characteristics
characteristics suchsuch
as theas
early
Tonga to mid-eighteenth century paint, and, as in this case, fibre and feather adapted to Christianity. nt/pb
Apa’apai, rhomboidal
Apa’apai, rhomboidal club, 1770s
club, 1770s virtually all examples in museum collections the importance
importance of clan
of clan spirits,
spirits and the carvings
Hardwood, height 112 cm
Tonga accoutrements. Whereas many shields feature
Tongan islands
Tongan islands
Hardwood,
make use of imported paint, it is unclear complex or disrupted symmetry, those created that embodied them, and the use of masked
Wood, length
height 90.1
90.1 cm
cm Collected inheight 112the
1793 on cmvoyage of Bruni d’Entrecasteaux.
Wood, whether boards like these were an innovation by the Mengen people around Jacquinot Bay performances to control the spirit world.
Nationaal in
Collected Museum
1793 onvan
theWereldculturen,
voyage of Bruni Netherlands,
d’Entrecasteaux
Collected during
Collected during the
the second
second or
or third
third voyage
voyage of
of Captain
Captain TM-A-1628-a of the mid-twentieth century period, or had in east New Britain are exceptional for their Masks embodied spirits and in the
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
James Cook
James Cook.
TM-A-1628-a long been made. nt/pb paired, variously stylised faces. Like those of 130
179 Papuan Gulf they were the central focus of
Museum of of Archaeology
Archaeology and
and Anthropology,
Anthropology, University
University of
of Selected reference: Mills 2009
Museum
the neighbouring Sulka people, these shields Shield, late twentieth
20th century
century communal ritual. Through masked
Cambridge, 1925.830
Cambridge, 1925.830 Selected Reference: Mills 2009
also featured complex, apparently more performances something transcendental was
Central Highlands, Papua New Guinea
Selected Reference:
Selected reference: Andrew
AndrewMills
MillsininThomas
Thomasetetal.
al.2016,
2016, This Tongan pakipaki paddle club was abstract painted motifs on the back, which are Wood, paint, 160 × 71 × 10 cm
thought to occur – the masked dancer
pp. 156–59
pp. 156–59 collected
This Tongan on pakipaki
the mainpaddle
island club
of Tongatapu
was in temporarily took on the identity of the spirit.
otherwise seldom found in Melanesia. Kulturen Basel,
Museum der Kulturen, Basel, Vb
Vb 27276
27276
1793, during
collected visit ofisland
on the main the French explorerin
of Tongatapu 127
320 As has been argued for shields Drumming and repetitive singing accompanied
Out of
Out of the
the many
many encounters
encounters that that took
took place
place Bruni during
1793, d'Entrecasteaux.
the visit ofAt thethat moment,
French explorer Dance paddle featuring animals and elsewhere in New Guinea, what mattered in
references: O’Hanlon
Selected References: O’Hanlon1993;
1993;O’Hanlon
O’Hanlon1995
1995 dancing,and
the dancing andthetheexperience
experiencehas hasbeen
been
in various
in various parts
parts ofof the
the Pacific
Pacific over
over the
the three
three Tongand’Entrecasteaux.
Bruni wood sculptureAt wasthatin moment,
the process of European figures, late nineteenth century the aesthetics of these shields were not described as mesmerising by local people.
voyages of
voyages of Captain
Captain Cook,
Cook, those
those in
in the
the Tongan
Tongan undergoing
Tongan wooda profound
sculpture transformation
was in the process and of Autonomous Region
Bougainville, of Bougainville,
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea meanings that motifs may have possessed, Throughout the Papua New Guinea Highlands The responsibility of managing and
Islands during
islands during the the second
second and and third
third voyages
voyages complexification,
undergoing occasioned
a profound in part by and
transformation the height
Wood, paint, 100 cm100
[LoWcmc. 75cm] but their visual brilliance: a tale told by the battle shields were employed in fighting persuading the spirits, including masked through
featured the most intensive barter
featured the most intensive barter in artefacts:in artefacts: introduction
becoming of plentiful
more complex,steel tools twenty
occasioned in part Collected by Imperial Governor Rudolf von Bennigsen in neighbouring Sulka people indicated that between clan groups. Often heavy, the shields masked performance,
performance, felltolargely
fell largely to men.
men. However,
about one
about one fifth
fifth of
of all
all of
of the
the items
items collected
collected years
by theearlier during of
introduction theplentiful
Cook voyages. We can
steel tools in 1900.
1900 some warriors lost a battle because their bore vigorous incised and painted designs. However,and
women women
childrenandparticipated
children participated
as audience as
during the
during the voyages
voyages were
were Tongan
Tongan warwar clubs,
clubs, recognise
twenty thisearlier
years in the during
crispness the and
Cookcomplete
voyages. Linden-Museum, Stuttgart, 20706 shields were dull and unimpressively Motifs sometimes suggest birds’ beaks or audience members
members on these communal
on these communal occasions and
including both
including both examples
examples of of exceptional
exceptional quality
quality coverage
We of this pakipaki’s
can recognise this in the engraving
crispness– andquite painted. nt/pb parts of the body, but the anthropologist occasions
women anddanced
often womenbehind
often danced
or around behind
the or
presented as
presented as diplomatic
diplomatic gifts
gifts by
by men
men of of different tocoverage
complete the weaponsof thiscollected
pakipaki’sbyengraving
Cook’s Michael O’Hanlon has drawn attention to aroundofthe
masks masks
their maleofrelatives.
their maleHistorically,
relatives.
The last decades of the nineteenth century
high status
high status to to Cook
Cook himself
himself andand other
other senior
senior –crew.
quiteAsdifferent
the carvingto theof weapons
such weapons wasby
collected the reluctance of local artists and warriors Historically,
masked masked ceremonies
ceremonies occurred every occurred
few years
were marked by an intensification of colonial
officers, as
officers, as well
well asas many
many ofof the
the more
more standard
standard transforming
Cook’s crew. Asin these ways during
the carving of suchthe final
weapons to attach meanings to pictorial elements. everymonths
after few years after months
of careful of careful
preparation. They were
engagement in island Melanesia. British and
rhomboidal in
apa’apai, rhomboidal
apa’apai, in section,
section, which
which were
were decades
was of the eighteenth
transforming during the century, however,
final decades of However, shields were plainly meaningful in preparation.
times They were
of celebration andtimes of celebration
feasting, during
German traders and planters actively sought aimed
either plain,
either plain, or or as
as in
in this
this case,
case, bore
bore incised
incised militaristic
the eighteenthaspects of Tongan
century, however,culture were also
militaristic 129
272 the sense that the brightness and lustre of and feasting,
which during
the spirits whichwith
mingled the the
spirits mingled
community.
control of land,ofrecruited
to take control workers,workers,
land, recruited and sought
motifs in the upper section. In
motifs in the upper section. In this earlythis early becoming
aspects of profoundly
Tongan culture Fijianised.
were alsoThe becoming
distinctive Figure (mask attachment), c. 1914 paint, and the sharpness of design exemplified with the community.
Aiaimunu masks wereAiaimunu
part of the masks were
masking
and sought
various various commodities.
commodities. While theseWhile contacts
example, the
example, the engraving
engraving would
would have
have been
been relief-carvedFijianised.
profoundly zigzag motifs envelopingrelief-
The distinctive this the vigour and moral unity of a group of part of the
tradition of masking
the Puraritradition of theclan
Delta. Each Purari
would
theseintrusions
and contacts created
and intrusions created both
both challenges and Sulka, New Britain, Papua New Guinea
done with
done with aa sharktooth
sharktooth tool;
tool; the
the designs
designs evoke
evoke club, known
carved zigzagasmotifs
tavatava in Fijianthis
enveloping andclub,
nikoniko warriors. If a shield appeared dull or smudged, Delta. Each
provide one clan would
or more providefor
aiaimunu one or more
challenges andforopportunities
opportunities for Indigenous
Indigenous communities, Tree bark, wood, human hair, 45 × 46 × 14 cm
those of
those of woven
woven mats.mats. in Tongan,
known reflect this
as tavatava Fijianand
in Fijian influence,
nikonikoand that implied weakness or moral disorder aiaimunu for performances.
performances. These could be These couldsixbe as
as large
communities,
Islanders wereIslanders were also
also fascinated fascinated
by the Museum der Kulturen
Kulturen, Basel,
Basel, Vb
Vb 28155
28155
In the
In the late
late eighteenth
eighteenth century,
century, thethe club
club index
in a conceptual
Tongan, reflect thiswrapping in basketry
Fijian influence, and among a party, ominously forshadowing large sixinmetres
metres heightinand height
carriedanddistinctive
carried clan
by the exoticism
exoticism of Europeans,
of Europeans, and depictedand depicted
ships, Selected References: Corbin 1996; Meyer 1995
was displayed
was displayed in in the
the Holophusicon
Holophusicon or or Leverian
Leverian that insulated
index and displayed
a conceptual wrappingthe weapon’s
in basketry Selected references: Corbin 1996; Meyer 1995
misfortune in battle. nt/pb distinctiveparticipation
emblems; clan emblems; in participation in such
such rituals helped
ships, Europeans
Europeans and aspects
and aspects of European
of European life on a
Museum in
Museum in London,
London, which
which held
held around
around aa immanent
that insulatedmanaand ordisplayed
supernatural the efficacy.
weapons’The rituals
to bondhelped to bond the
the community community
while while
celebrating
life on of
range a range of artefacts.
artefacts. This dance Thispaddle,
dancecarved
thousand artefacts collected during
thousand artefacts collected during Cook’s Cook’s zonal organisation
immanent mana orofsupernatural
the decoration, however,
efficacy. The Like their neighbours the Baining, the celebratingclan
individual individual
identity.clan
el identity. el
paddle,
in carvedwood
lightweight in lightweight wood for swiftin
for swift manipulation Like their neighbours the Baining, the
voyages. After
voyages. After thethe museum
museum was was auctioned
auctioned offoff remains
zonal characteristically
organisation Tongan in its
of the decoration, however, Sulka people of New Britain are renowned
manipulation
the in the course of
course of performance, performance,
takes a customary Sulka people of New Britain are renowned
in 1806,
in 1806, the
the club
club entered
entered aa private
private collection
collection in
in complex characteristically
remains structure and concealed Tongan patterning.
in its for their spectacular masking traditions, 131
181
takes the
form; a customary
human form form; theahuman
with headdress formon for their spectacular masking traditions,
aa Devon
Devon country
country house.
house. nt/pb
nt/pb Similarly,structure
complex the representational
and concealed motifs depicting
patterning. in which masks are worn by dancers who Shield, mid-twentieth century
withtop
the a headdress
would have onbeen
the top would haveat the
conventional in which masks are worn by dancers who
human figures
Similarly, and a stingray are
the representational uniquely
motifs depicting animate other-worldly beings in the context 133
188
beenitconventional
time was made. The at the
bodytimeof itthe
was made.
paddle, animate other-worldly beings in the context Abau people,
Wood, Idam× or
paint, 162 58 Green
× 9 cmRiver valley, upper Sepik
Tongan figures
human featuresand thata stingray
we still understand
are uniquely of ceremonies and initiations. Among those Shield with inlaid shell, late nineteenth
The body features
however, of the paddle, however,
a plethora features
of images of a of ceremonies and initiations. Among those River region,
Abau people,Papua New
Idam or Guinea
Green River valley, upper Sepik
little about.
Tongan am that we still understand little
features traditions are so-called susu masks, worn century
plethora
dogs, dogsof copulating,
images of dogs, dogsbirds,
roosters, copulating,
and traditions are so-called susu masks, worn Wood,region,
River paint, Papua
162 × 58
New× 9Guinea
cm
about. am on a performer’s head with a skirt of leaves
roosters,pointing
settlers birds, and settlers
rifles, one of pointing
whom rifles,
carries on a performer’s head with a skirt of leaves Kulturen Basel,
Museum der Kulturen, Basel, Vb
Vb 21203
21203 Solomon Islands
Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands (wicker base), central or
124
158 covering his torso to form the mask’s body. Fibre, resin,
western paint, Islands
Solomon pearl shell, shell, 96and
(elaboration × 31shell
× 9 inlay)
cm
one ofa whom
both carries
pistol and boththrough
a knife a pistolhis andbelt.
a knife covering his torso to form the mask’s body.
The piece shown is a susu mask of a type reference: Craig
Selected Reference: Craig1980
1980 Fibre, resin, paint, pearl shell, shell, height 64.5 cm
Culacula, club,
Culacula, mid-nineteenth century
club, mid-nineteenth century through
The paddlehis also
belt.depicts
The paddle alsoknives
several depicts of The piece shown is a susu mask of a type National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, A 1948.425
called gitvung, although it is unusual for National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, A 1948.425
Fiji
Fiji several knives
European of European
manufacture manufacture
– likely to have been – called gitvung, although it is unusual for Selected references: Edge-Partington 1906; Somerville
its small size – most are about a metre in This shield is thought to come from people of
Wood, length
Wood, height 109.2
108.5 cm
cm likely toarticles
valued have been valued
of trade from articles of trade
the Melanesian its small size – most are about a metre in 1897; Canberra
Selected 2011 Edge-Partington 1906; Somerville
References:
height. Gitvung are overtly anthropomorphic, the Idam River or Green River, both tributaries
Museum of
Museum of Archaeology
Archaeology and
and Anthropology,
Anthropology, University of from the Melanesian
perspective perspective
– pigs, crocodiles and–apigs,
man height. Gitvung are overtly anthropomorphic, 1897; Canberra 2011
comprising a head or head and upper of the upper Sepik River near the border
University ofZCambridge,
Cambridge, 2970 Z 2970 crocodilesa and
smoking pipe.aWhile
man smoking a pipe. to
it is impossible While comprising a head or head and upper
body, and have uncannily individualised between Papua New Guinea and West Papua. Shields inlaid with delicate pieces of nautilus
it is impossible
recover to recover
the unknown theperspective
artist’s unknown body, and have uncannily individualised Shields
Selected Reference:
Selected reference: Norwich
Norwich2006
2006 personalities. Masks were constructed using The region is more sparsely inhabited than shell areinlaid
somewith delicate
of the piecesobjects
most iconic of nautilus
artist’sthese
upon perspective
subjects,uponit is these
hard tosubjects,
avoid the it personalities. Masks were constructed using shell are some of the most Very
iconicfewobjects from
the spongy pith of certain plants wound the Middle Sepik and lacks the large-scale from the Solomon Islands. survive
conclusion
is hard to avoidthat the
these representations
conclusion that these were the spongy pith of certain plants wound the Solomon Islands.
In western
In western Polynesia,
Polynesia, clubs
clubs were
were prominent
prominent tightly in parallel rows over a cane armature ceremonial houses so prominent in social life today, and most wereVery few survive
probably made intoday,
the
representations
intended were intended
to be comic, delightingtoinbethe comic,
oddity tightly in parallel rows over a cane armature and mostofwere probably made in theElliptical
first half
expressions of
expressions of male
male warrior
warrior identity,
identity, and
and and sewn into place, giving the figure its downstream. Drums from the region feature first half the nineteenth century.
delighting
of the meninand thetheir
oddity of the men and their
appearance. and sewn into place, giving the figure its of the nineteenth
were used
were used in
in finely
finely choreographed
choreographed warrior
warrior distinctive ‘skin’. Hands were carved from strong incised and painted motifs like those wicker shields withcentury. Elliptical
a rounded wicker
top were
appearance.
The paddle was collected by Imperial distinctive ‘skin’. Hands were carved from shields with a rounded top were
dance, as
dance, as well
well as
as in
in actual
actual fighting.
fighting. Many
Many on this shield; similar designs are found on a manufactured on the island of Guadalcanal

302 303
and what is now
manufactured on Central
the island Province. Some
of Guadalcanal John Webber RA ra captured
captured for
for posterity
posterity anan 136
152 311
138 Urewera as property,
of ownership the whole
disappeared obstacle
… If the of
land owns 140
145
werewhat
and traded to other
is now islands,
Central whereSome
Province. specialist intriguing formal offering in which a young girl 1888–90
Hiapo, painted barkcloth, c. 1888–90 Pennant flag of the Union of Tūhoe, ownership
itself, then disappeared
the land owns …theIf the landland
water, owns Attributed to Patoromu Tamatea
craftsmen
were traded applied
to other anislands,
overlay where
of blackspecialist
resin was presented to Cook wrapped in bulky Niue c. 1860s–1870s owns the
itself, thenminerals,
the land land
ownsowns the trees,
the water, landthe (fl. 1850–1870)
from the parinarium
craftsmen applied annut, painted
overlay certain
of black areas
resin layers of barkcloth with two such taumi 2.28 ×× 186
Barkcloth, pigments, 228 1.86cm
m Māori, New Zealand owns
birds, the minerals,
fauna andland
the owns the trees,
airspace.’ the
(Tāmati Whakapakoko,
Whakapakoko, Madonna and Child,
red, and
from the inset minutenut,
parinarium tesserae
paintedof certain
nautilusareas suspended from her outer skirts. James British Museum, London, Oc1953,+.3 Cloth, 5.72
572 ×× 105
1.05cm
m birds,
Krugerthe fauna and thewith
in conversation airspace.’ (Tāmati
Jim Bolger, c. 1840s
shelland
red, to create the design.
inset minute tesserae of nautilus Morrison, boatswain’s mate on the Bounty, Collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Kruger in conversation
Wellington with29
City Art Gallery, JimJune,
Bolger,
2017.) Māori, New Zealand
reference: Pule
Selected Reference: Puleand
andThomas
Thomas2005
2005
shell In
to this
createelaborated,
the design. dazzling form, the identified them as breastplates worn Tongarewa, Wellington, ME000796 Wellington
nt/pb City Art Gallery, 29 June, 2017.) 60cm
Wood, shell, height c. 60 cm
inlaidInshields were probably
this elaborated, too fragile
dazzling form, the to be principally ‘in War or Mourning’ and this was nt/pb Tāmaki Paenga Hira Auckland War Memorial Museum,
Selected references:
References:Binney
Binney1995;
1995;Binney
Binney2010
2010
employed
inlaid in combat
shields and were
were probably toomore likely
fragile to
to be borne out in a number of paintings by William The earliest extant examples of hiapo, Niuean Auckland
be used forinceremonial
employed combat andpurposes were more or tolikely
display
to ra, including
Hodges RA, including his
his Review
Review of
of the
the War
War barkcloth, date from around the 1850s and
reference: Neich
Selected Reference: Neich2001
2001
theused
be status forofceremonial
certain individuals.
purposesHistorical
or to display (fig.1777)
Galleys at Tahiti (c. 18) ininwhich
whichkey
keyfigures
figures feature linear designs and botanical motifs. In the nineteenth century Māori tribes and
sources
the status describe
of certainthem as important
individuals. valuables
Historical are depicted wearing taumi as they direct Styles changed over the second half of the subtribes adapted the style and symbolism 139
162
circulated
sources as partthem
describe of trade networks through
as important valuables preparations for a naval battle. The pictorial nineteenth century, a period marked by the of European flags and flagpoles, recognising Tene Waitere (1854–1931) Māori conversion to different forms of
the centralasand
circulated partwestern
of tradeparts of the through
networks evidence suggests that taumi were worn in growing dominance of the London Missionary their power to proclaim sovereignty and Tā Moko panel, 1896–99
1896–99 Christianity in the nineteenth century
archipelago.
the central and Their visual parts
western impact of impressed
the pairs, across the front and back of the chest Society, represented by Samoan missionaries. identity in the face of settler colonialism and New Zealand
prompted artists to adapt and reinvent
foreign visitors,
archipelago. Theirwho became
visual impacteager to collect
impressed and shoulders, so that the head appeared to Over a short period in the late 1880s, a increasing encroachments on tribal land. Flags Wood, shell, paint, height 78 cm architectural, carving and other artistic
them, resulting
foreign visitors, in who examples
becamefindingeager to their way
collect rise up and out of the jaws of a shark. Indeed considerable number of hiapo were painted also advertised new allegiances and social traditions to reflect new beliefs and practices.
Collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
into museums
them, resultingworldwide.
in examples finding their way this effect was exaggerated to dramatic effect in a new style, possibly for sale, to raise funds identities. During the land wars of the 1860s, Tongarewa, Wellington, ME004211 This ‘Madonna and Child’ represents the
While each
into museums inlaid shield is a unique
worldwide. in the central protagonist of the war party, for the church and community. Some featured for example, they symbolised counter-colonial mother of Jesus with a full-faced moko, a
Selected references:
References:Neich
Neich2001;
2001;Thomas,
Thomas,Adams,
Adams,
piece,While
certaineachelements of the iscomposition
inlaid shield a unique are whose head and neck, as well as being bound large circular forms; others were organised movements such the Kīngitanga (an alliance facial tattoo usually reserved for high-ranking
Schuster and Grant 2009
recurrent:
piece, an elongated
certain elements of figure with elaborate
the composition are around with breastplates, were raised ever by grids filled with botanical motifs and of several tribes in support of a Māori king) men, to indicate her status. It is said to have
ear ornaments
recurrent: stands infigure
an elongated the upper
with part of the
elaborate higher with the upward-reaching fau – a images associated with cross-cultural contact, and the Hauhau (‘rebel’ tribes that fought been carved by Patoromu Tamatea for a
composition,
ear ornamentsarms standsraised.
in theSmall
upperheads
partare of the towering helmet similarly constructed from such as European men and women, ships against government and British forces and Tene Waitere was arguably the most important Catholic Church in Maketū in the Bay of Plenty
depicted below
composition, armsits raised.
feet andSmallsometimes
heads are on the shark teeth, feathers and fibre and topped and compasses. These imaginative, quirky, their Māori tribal allies or ‘loyalists’, who Māori sculptor of the late nineteenth and early in 1845, but was rejected by the priest as
side (highly
depicted stylised
below here)
its feet andand could be on the
sometimes with a dazzling spray of tropicbird tail feathers. dynamic freehand paintings were purchased had their own flags). Flags also signified twentieth centuries. He acquired his skills in likely to disturb its European parishioners. The
interpreted
side (highly as ancestors,
stylised here)or trophy
and couldheads
be Encircled by rows of white shark teeth, the by visitors to Niue, including the writers new religious identities based on Māori a customary manner, under the mentorship of story, however, is probably apocryphal and the
captured during
interpreted headhunting
as ancestors, expeditions,
or trophy heads a lustre of polished pearl shell and groomed Robert Louis Stevenson and Louis Becke, as interpretations of Old and New Testaments older carvers, and had a profound knowledge carving’s attribution to Patoromu Tamatea is
practice brought
captured to an end by expeditions,
during headhunting the British a sections of dog hair, warrior-priests took on well as by missionaries, eventually reaching such as Pai Marire and the Ringatū church, of carving traditions, but he worked in new doubted by the late Roger Neich, ethnologist
administration
practice brought in totheanlate
endnineteenth
by the British the ferocious and powerful qualities of the museums in Australia, New Zealand, Britain founded respectively by Māori prophets Te Ua times, in the decades following the New at the Auckland Museum, on stylistic grounds.
century. lc in the late nineteenth
administration gods from whom they descended. The and elsewhere. The art form appears to have Haumene and Te Kooti Rikirangi. Zealand wars, an epoch that saw Māori ways In fact it is not known who carved the figure,
century. lc transformative aspects of this dramatic been abandoned soon afterwards; though The pennant illustrated here, nearly six of life profoundly and permanently changed. when or where. Yet the work’s anonymity and
armature were clear and explicit: each there have been occasional revivals, bark cloth metres in length and featuring the bust of a He responded to these novel circumstances by rarity – there is only one other like it – have
material signalling control and domain was not continually produced or painted on black man and a red cross on a white ground becoming something of a professional artist – given it a certain power of its own. That is
exercised over land, sky and sea. mn the island after the 1890s. nt/pb with thin red edging, is a Tūhoe flag he supported himself and his family through reflected in the wary way it is regarded by
associated with an organisation called Te his carving. But more importantly he produced some Māori; in the fact that the stories have
134
143 Whitu Tekau, or the Seventy, formed at new kinds of work, new styles underpinned stuck; and in the way the carving has been
Taumi, gorget, late eighteenth century Ruatahuna in June 1872 in the immediate by new concepts, intended for audiences that used in recent times to bridge Māori and
aftermath of the land wars. (Tūhoe is a tribe in included local Māori, but embraced a host European, religious and secular, contexts. In
Society Islands
7360cmcm
Fibre, feathers, shark teeth, dog hair, height c. V E NCOU NT E R 137
312 the Urewera ranges in New Zealand’s North of outsiders too. These works communicated 1986, it held pride of place at the Auckland
A N D E M PIRE Painted barkcloth representing Island.) Inspired by the teachings of Te Kooti, notions different to, and demanded forms Museum when Pope John Paul II was
Museums Liverpool,
World Museum, Liverpool, RI
RI 57.73
57.73
the Titikaveka church, c. 1842–46 whose image may be represented on the different from, those long produced by his welcomed to Aotearoa by Māori people, while
pennant (or it may be that of Michael the ancestors. While many Māori artists, before in 2001 it was exhibited at the entrance of a
Rarotonga, Cook Islands
One of the most complex of Tahitian artefacts Archangel who appeared to him in a dream), and since, were innovators, Tene Waitere took major exhibition of contemporary Māori art at
1.31 ×× 226
Barkcloth, pigments, 128 2.21cm
m
was the taumi, described in the literature as 135
310 Te Whitu Tekau was a collective of chiefs carving to places it had never been before. the Auckland City Art Gallery as a forerunner
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of The Tā Moko panel was commissioned by
a feather gorget. These typically comprised Ngatu, barkcloth, late nineteenth century organised on the principle of providing of innovation across cultures. nt/pb
University of2017.25
Cambridge, Cambridge, 2017.25
a foundational crescent-shaped framework ‘shelter’ by presenting a united front against Augustus Hamilton, author of an important
Tonga
of twisted cane, several bands of woven 2.74 ×× 590
Barkcloth, pigments, 274 5.9 m
cm relentless government efforts to alienate and early compendium, Māori Art (1896–1901), and
coconut-fibre sinnet supporting alternating Across Oceania, tapa cloth was transformed control their land. As historian Judith Binney founding director of what became the
Manchester Museum, 0.9322/469 over the colonial period: textiles not only
bands of neatly trimmed iridescent black and explains, ‘Their purpose was to recover their National Museum in Wellington. In one sense 141
337
green feathers and rows of small, perfectly featured new motifs but were created in new confiscated lands, to prevent the sale and no more than a sculptural illustration of male Crucifix, early twentieth century
shark teeth.
graded shark’s teeth.Polished
Polishedpearl-shell
pearl shelldisks, Barkcloth in Tonga was and still is made forms as people abandoned ancestral religion lease of their remaining lands, and to block and female tattoos, this carving has
Solomon Islands
surrounded
disks, with black
surrounded with feathers, are bound
black feathers, are to form exceptionally large fabrics, dozens and made Christianity a new focus for sociality the building of roads, knowing that roads led extraordinary presence. There is a complex Wood, pigments, height 116 cm
into theinto
bound topthe
section of eachofside
top section eachsoside
as tosorest
as or even hundreds of metres in length, over and the imagination of history and identity. to access and ultimately ‘conquest’. They also balance in the work, between the flat relief,
Branly – Jacques
Musée du quai Branly-Jacques Chirac,
Chirac, Paris,
Paris,
onrest
to the on
shoulders of the wearer,
the shoulders and theand
of the wearer whole
the which dignitaries would walk during major On Rarotonga, precolonial cloth bore asserted their control over all the roads which with its heavily decorated, conventionally 71.1934.188.1892
is edged
whole with sections
is edged of grey-white
with sections dog hair,
of grey-white ceremonies. While there are significant dark and dense zigzag patterns and was used led to their borders, and allotted the authority schematised forms, and the fully-sculpted
reference: Neich
Selected Reference: Neich2013,
2013,pp.
pp.320–39
320–39
which
dog hang
hair, down
which in adown
hang fringeinalong its lower
a fringe along continuities in the way the cloth is made to wrap sculpted wooden ‘staff’ gods, many of to guard these to the different chiefs. Tūhoe Tuhoe naturalistic heads; between the steady gaze of
border.
its lower border. and how it is decorated through rubbing which were destroyed or offered up to also refused to allow any public officers or the two men and the closed eyes of the
The intricate construction was testament over tablets with reddish brown ochres and missionaries in the 1820s. This painted textile, resident magistrates into their district’ district.’(Binney woman; between the stylised predatory action Little is known about this crucifix. Presented
to the ability of the chiefly class that subsequently finished with fine lines and in an entirely different style, is one of very few (Binney
2010, p. 2010
469). pp.
At stake
469) At in stake
this struggle
in this struggle
for of the biting manaia figure, and the stillness to the Musée de l’Homme in Paris by the
commissioned taumi, who had to manage spots of black paint, motifs were highly varied, extant from the mid-nineteenth century. It for control,
control, whichwhich
hashascontinued
continuedintointo
thetherecent and composure of the (double) male and Marist priest and anthropologist Patrick
access to networks of valuable resources and and new figures were introduced at various depicts the facade of the newly-built church at recentwith
past, past,many
withlosses
many of losses
landofandlandlifeand
for life (single) female faces alike. Contemporary O’Reilly, it is one of very few undocumented
skilled labour. White dog hair and disks of times as they became fashionable. This textile, Titikaveka on Rarotonga’s south coast. No for Tūhoe,
Tūhoe, was,was,
andand
remains,
remains,a fundamental
a fundamental Māori sculptor Lyonel Grant has suggested pieces, suggesting that it was not collected
pearl shell were imported to Tahiti from the featuring Union Jacks and originally 50 metres doubt loosely inspired by the images in printed cultural difference in understanding what land that when carvers such as Waitere worked for during O’Reilly’s fieldwork in Bougainville,
neighbouring islands of the Tuamotu in length, was presented to the Governor of missionary literature, or possibly by sketching is for the people who live on it. Pākehā (non-Māori New Zealanders) they Papua New Guinea, in the 1930s. It has been
Archipelago, while many hours of preparation Fiji (either Sir William Allardyce or Sir Henry undertaken by European men and women On 9 September 2017 the New Zealand were often working over smaller expanses of suggested that the sculpture came from
were required for the capture of sharks in Jackson) in 1902. It was presented intact by associated with the mission, the Government or Crown issued a formal apology timber – and consequently had a singular the Solomon Islands and may have been
order to extract their teeth, alongside the to the Victoria and Albert Museum by Lady representational element is fully assimilated to the people of Tūhoe for a long history of chance to concentrate. The point is surely presented to O’Reilly by a colleague.
gathering and grading of feathers from Sargood, the widow of a colonial Australian within an indigenous aesthetic: the linear unjust and illegal misappropriations of its land valid and the Tā Moko panel is its proof: on This large crucifix may have been a
specific species of bird. The successful politician, but subsequently cut into sections designs, reminiscent of tattoo motifs, imply and killing
land, and killing
and mistreatment
and mistreatment of its people.
of its The this occasion the artist could focus his central piece on a church altar. It exemplifies
manipulation of exchange networks was for display and distribution to regional vitality and sanctity, while plants evoke the apology The
people. followed
apologya formal
followedsettlement
a formalunder energies to an unusual degree, his experiment the ‘cohabitation’ of introduced and local
therefore key if chiefs were to acquire the museums. This is, in fact, consistent with botanical adornment of houses, ritual sites the terms ofunder
settlement the Treaty
the termsof Waitangi
of the Treaty
basedofon with oblique perspective is, perhaps for the styles in Christian imagery, which many
necessary quantities of rare and valuable the Tongan practice of dividing a large cloth and the person, which was (and is) part of the the unprecedented
Waitangi based on the recognition,
unprecedented
now legislated first time, fully successful, and the results are European missionaries actively encouraged or
items, which visually embodied their mana into sections in order to share it out among aesthetic of the environment and daily life recognition,
into New Zealand now legislated
law, of theintolandNew as aZealand
person. spectacular. Waitere’s name was carved on tolerated. As the new faith spread further and
and prestige. communities. nt/pb across Polynesia. The early label refers to the In theofwords
law, the landof Tūhoe leaderInand
as a person. thesettlement
words of the back, the hallmark of individual artistic became more deeply embedded in
The significance of these complex bound cloth as a ‘flag’ made by a ‘boy’ for a Christian negotiator
Tūhoe leaderTāmati
and settlement
Kruger, ‘When negotiator
we crossed
Tāmati identity. nt/pb Melanesian communities over the early
assemblages was not lost on the earliest celebration; it may be that paintings of this over the‘When
Kruger, psychological
we crossed barrier
overofthe
not viewing decades of the twentieth century, Islanders
European visitors to Tahiti. A 1777 drawing by kind were held up during public ceremonies the Urewera asbarrier
psychological property,of not
theviewing
whole obstacle
the produced a wide range of indigenous Christian
that brought the community together. nt/pb

304 305
images, liturgical
images, furnishing
liturgical and architectural
furnishing and 160
144 313
146 visualisation of the potential purchaser’s in the late nineteenth century as colonial of the past but a hybridisation of old patterns
designs, which
architectural drew on
designs, theirdrew
which cultural and
on their Aqo (fl. 1890–1910) Figure, 1880s concept of how the human form should be contact and trade stimulated an intensification and symbols and a new iconography of
artistic traditions.
cultural and artisticnt/pb
traditions. nt/pb Figure of a woman, c. 1900 Fiji executed. Perhaps the model is something as of local political ambition and conflict, but figurative images and words appropriated
Simbo, western Solomon Islands Fern wood, whale’s tooth, shell, fibre, height 103 cm simple as a doll, or again the artist may have they did not practise cannibalism. The Roviana from sources like newspapers, comic strips,
Wood, pigment, fibre, height 34 cm Nationalmuseet,
National MuseumCopenhagen,
of Denmark, Ia.75(d)
Copenhagen, Ia.75(d)
studied human anatomy through photographs chief Ingava repeatedly insisted to a colonial advertising and the product labels of cans and
Collected by the colonial administrator Arthur Mahaffy Selected Reference: Larsson 1960 to create this hybrid work that appears to have officer that ‘they never eat men from the packages. As Michael O’Hanlon has noted,
Selected reference: Larsson 1960
between 1896 and 1904
1904. two distinct sets of references, Asmat and trough’, though heads that had been taken this contemporary imagery from the everyday
142
323 National Museum
The National of Ireland,
Museum Dublin,
of Ireland, AE:1923.225
Dublin, AE:1923.225 Western. The kawé couple inhabit an Asmat might have been displayed alongside it. nt/pb world of Wahgi modernity represented less
During the late nineteenth century,
century, Islanders
Islanders
Paddle inscribed ‘ATOPA 1846’, 1846 world, but the wow-ipits (carver) leads them the marginalisation of ‘traditional’ designs by
from the Solomon Islands andand Vanuatu
Vanuatu were
Ra‘ivavae, Austral Islands out into another realm where naturalism has exogenous elements than the assimilation of
In many parts of Oceania, an intensification of recruited extensively
were recruited as labourers
extensively for for
as labourers
Wood, height 97.5 cm pride of place. ns those elements to the meanings and values
contact, and the extension of formal colonial plantations in Queensland, New Caledonia
Caledonia
of Wahgi culture. Consider, for example, the
National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, Ib.116 rule over the 1880s and 1890s prompted and Fiji. While relationships between
between Fijians
Fijians
155
150 the Phantom,
image of The Phantom, which
which appears
appears on
on
artists to produce new kinds of work, both and indentured Melanesian workers were were
European figure, late nineteenth many Wahgi shields from the 1980s. Phantom
Ra‘ivavae, in the Austral Islands, was a for customary milieux and for sale. In some sometimes awkward, some of the the latter
latter
or early twentieth century comics were first introduced to New Guineans
renowned centre for carving and in particular instances, European photographs, engravings integrated into local communities, and and
Caroline Islands
Babelthuap, Palau by American soldiers during the Second World
for the production, with introduced iron and other printed material stimulated cross-cultural borrowing followed. Before this this
Wood, paint, height c. 100
100 cm
cm War. In the 1970s they were published locally,
tools, of intricately decorated paddles. These Islanders to depict European vessels such as period, there is no evidence
evidence that
that Fijians
Fijianseverever
149 translated into tok pisin (the lingua franca),
appear not to have been made before 1820, paddle steamers, which they are unlikely to made ancestral images out of of tree
tree fern.
fern.This
This GRASSI Museum
Staatliche für Völkerkunde
Kunstsammlungen zu Leipzig,
Dresden, GRASSI MiMuseum
2285
Feast trough in the form of a crocodile, für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, Mi 2285 sold in trade stores, and avidly read by a
but were created in large numbers over the have personally seen, as well as other aspects work is one of aa group
group that
thatappears
appearstotohavehave
late nineteenth century literate generation of modern Highlanders.
subsequent twenty years in response to the of European dress and life. been inspired by artefacts brought
brought to to Fiji
Fijifrom
from
Kalikongu village, Roviana lagoon, Solomon Islands As ‘the man who cannot die’, ‘the ghost
interests of mariners in acquiring ‘curiosities’ Aqo appears unique in this context, in north Vanuatu, where fern waswas andand still
stillisis
Carved wood, shell inlay, pigment, length 692 cm who walks’, a fighter for justice, and a hero
as souvenirs and for sale in their home ports. that he produced a substantial corpus of extensively employed in sculpture. nt/pb 151
161 with many forebears, the Phantom was an
Over a thousand examples are known to exist sculptural works that reflect considerable British Museum, London, Oc1903,1007.1
European figure, late nineteenth especially meaningful figure to the Wahgi,
in museum collections. While they typically familiarity with the naturalist European Selected reference:
Reference:Waite
Waiteand
andBurt
Burt2013
2013 century
or early twentieth century whose ideals of warrior virtue and ancestral
feature a rounded grip with a set of sculpted tradition. These include individual male and
Sorol
Wa’ab,Island,
Yap Yap power made his image easy to adopt. The
faces, this work is unique for featuring a female figures, portrait busts cut off as if 167
147 In September and October 1891 HMS Royalist, Wood, fibre, paint, height 51 cm revival of shield-making for fighting, however,
rectangular panel and four women in full- designed for a mantlepiece, couples Female figure,
figure, 1950s
1950s
Female under the command of Captain Edward H. Collected by the botanist GeorgCologne,
Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum, Volkens in 1899–1900.
40584 was short-lived as the introduction of guns
length missionary-style dresses, together with embracing, a model canoe with a set of
Keenakap, central
Keenakap, central Asmat,
Asmat, Papua
West Papua W. Davis, undertook a sustained punitive Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum, Cologne, 40584 in the late 1980s made them functionally
the word or name ‘atopa’, the meaning of paddlers, and even an injured warrior in a Wood, paint,
paint, fibre,
fibre, height
height 56
56 cm
cm
Wood, campaign in the western Solomon Islands, a obsolete. Indeed, as O’Hanlon further noted,
which is not known, and a date, 1846. pose reminiscent of the Dying Gaul (British The late nineteenth century also saw an
National Museum
Museumofvan
World Cultures, Netherlands, response to the killing of a white trader and The late nineteenth guns posed a dilemma for the Wahgi: to
The paddle was collected during the Museum, London). All were of Islanders, they Nationaal
TM-2541-23
Wereldculturen, Netherlands, escalation of Germancentury saw aninescalation
engagement
TM-2541-23 two Islanders, crew members on a British of German engagement open the door to the level of carnage they
expedition of the Galathea, a Danish scientific incorporate the shell-inlaid decoration that is a Micronesia. The visits of in Micronesia.
merchant ships,
trading ship, two years earlier. While the The visitswith
of merchant ships, togethertowith would make possible, or to continue to
and diplomatic mission of 1845–47, which hallmark of the art of the region and also together ambitious approaches
operation ranged across several islands, the ambitious approaches fight in the old way, with spears, bows and
made extensive collections of natural and include or represent body adornments that collecting on the part oftoGerman
collecting on the
museums,
most sustained attack was on the villages part arrows, axes, and shields? The complexity
ethnographic specimens. Records attribute it were customary on Simbo and its led toofextensive
German museums,
acquisitions ledoftoolder
extensive
artefacts
168 around Roviana lagoon, where most houses acquisitions of older artefacts over the of Papuan modernity took a further turn in
to Bora Bora in the Society Islands; the neighbouring islands. How Aqo came to 148 over the period, but also prompted Islanders
Male figure,
figure, 1950s
1950s appear to have been destroyed, though people period, but new
also prompted Islanders to the 1990s when the shields became iconic of
decorative style is fully consistent with work produce these works, and why he was Male to produce work. Ethnographic artefacts
had withdrawn from the locality and taken produce new work. Ethnographic artefacts ‘Melanesian pop’, their imagery circulated
from Ra‘ivavae, but it may have been made by motivated to do so, remain puzzling. There is Keenakap, central
Keenakap, central Asmat,
Asmat, Papua
West Papua became economically significant exports from
their war canoes away into safety – these became economically significant back to the West in exhibitions in art galleries
a Ra‘ivavae carver resident in Bora Bora, or no evidence that he travelled beyond the Wood, paint,
Wood, paint, fibre,
fibre, height
height 59
59 cm
cm colonial territories, certain tradersexports
becamefrom
Davis particularly hoped to destroy, as he saw colonial territories, and museums. nt/pb
taken to that island by either an Islander or a Solomon Islands (some men in the period did, National Museum
Nationaal Museumofvan
World Cultures, Netherlands,
Wereldculturen, Netherlands,
well-established ascertain traders
middlemen, and became
back
the vessels as enabling ‘most of the trouble well-established as middlemen,
European traveller. nt/pb to undertake plantation labour); even if he had TM-2541-22
TM-2541-22 in Europe, museums sought not and only back
to
at this end of the group’. At the same time in Europe,
done so, recruited men typically had no access Selected reference:
Reference:van
vanDuuren
Duurenetetal.
al.2011
2011 build their museums soughtbut
own collections, nottoonly to in
engage
Selected a number of ancestral relics, shell and other build their own
to colonial education or cultural life. The artist exchanges with,collections,
and even sell butartefacts
to engage onin
valuables and ritual objects were looted. exchanges with, andIneven sell artefacts
was in contact with a few resident planters to, other museums. response, on manyon
This pair
pair ofof male
male andand female
female sculptures,
sculptures, Although the artefacts were acquired in the to, othersuch
museums. 4153
143
151 and traders, and a colonial officer, Arthur This islands as Yap,Incarvers
response,
began ontomanyproduce
said to
to represent
represent ancestors,
ancestors, appearappear to to have
have context of a naval operation, Davis evidently islands Lisa Reihana (b. 1964)
bamboo, [LoW: water bottle?],
Engraved bamboo Mahaffy, who acquired this work and others said work forsuchsale.asBuyers
Yap, carvers beganmiddlemen
were mainly to produce
been cut from the same piece of wood.
wood. considered them his personal property and work forartefacts
sale. Buyers were mainly middlemen [infected], 2015–17
in Pursuit of Venus [Infected],
late nineteenth century now in Dublin. We can only assume that one been cut from the same piece of seeking for these European markets,
Both are
Both are from
from thethe Keenakap
Keenakap area area in in central
Central later catalogued the collection for sale; he seeking artefacts for these European markets, New Zealand (Ngā Puhi, Ngāti Hine, Ngāi Tu)
among these Europeans had an interest in rather than travellers purchasing souvenirs.
New Caledonia Asmat, which
which in in the
the 1950s
1950s was was thethe base
base for
for did sell the pieces, some of which reached rather thancreated
travellers purchasing Single-channelHD
Multi-channel video, UltraHD,
video colour,
projection, 64 7.1 sound,
minutes
Bamboo, ochre, height 111.7 cm
sculpture, and perhaps even possessed busts Asmat, The works included smallsouvenirs.
figures of
the exploratory
exploratory operations
operations of of the
the Dutch
Dutch oiloil the British Museum directly, others later via The
64 minutes
or models, and provided Aqo with access to the localworks
men andcreated included
women, oftensmall
bearingfigures
tattooof Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, Auckland, 2014/24
British Museum, London, Oc1913.1115.369 company NNGPM.
company NNGPM. It It is
is likely
likely that
that the
the works
works dealers. local menandandarticles
women, often bearing tattoo Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, gift of the Patrons of
those or to images, as well as encouragement designs of dress, or in dance Selected References: Auckland 2015; Venice 2017
were made
made for for sale
sale toto company
company employees.
employees. The most spectacular of these seized designs the Auckland Art Gallery, 2014
and some level of patronage. nt/pb were positions.and articles
Yapese wereof dress, or in dance
also prompted to
This was
was aa period
period of of feverish
feverish activity.
activity. Dutch
Dutch artefacts is a unique long food trough. Food positions. Yapesemen,werewhoalsomust
prompted
Across a number of Pacific archipelagos, This represent white still attothis Selected references: Auckland 2015; Venice 2017
personnel expelled
expelled from from Indonesia
Indonesia rushedrushed vessels, including very large bowls, are a represent In a number of art museums and decorative
bamboo was used for flutes, headrests and personnel time have white
appearedmen,oddwho andmust still Whether
exotic. at this
to develop
develop the the newly
newly emergent
emergent West West Papua.
Papua. prominent feature of the art of the Solomon time arts collections in Australia, France and the
as staffs expressing status, and featured to thesehave appeared
figures odd and mainly
were produced exotic. Whether
for their In a number of there
art museums and decorative
These included
included civilcivil servants,
servants, teachers,
teachers, Islands, and are typically stained dark, against these figures wereorproduced United States, are sections to be found
engraved and stained decoration. In New These own amusement for sale ismainly
difficultfornowtheirto artsancollections in Australia, France
soldiers, missionaries,
missionaries, traderstraders and,and, ofof course,
course, which patterns made from iridescent shell own amusement of extraordinary expression of theandEuropean
Caledonia, artists created elaborate figurative 111
145 soldiers, ascertain. nt/pb or for sale is difficult now to the UnitedofStates, there
employees of
employees of large
large extractive
extractive corporations.
corporations. inlay stand out brilliantly. This trough is ascertain. nt/pb imagining Oceania, Lesaresauvages
sectionsdeoflaanmer
imagery, particularly later in the nineteenth Moai papa, female figure, c. 1850–70 extraordinary expression of the European
The period
The period fromfrom 1953
1953 whenwhen the the Dutch
Dutch distinctive for its straight form, its great Pacifique, a 20-panel wallpaper designed by
century. Some works showed customary Rapa Nui imagining of Oceania, Les sauvages de la mer
re-established control
re-established control of of the
the south
south coast
coast ofof length, the polychrome staining of the wood, Jean-Gabriel Charvet and printed by Joseph
houses and their architectural carvings, others Mimosa
Toro mirowood,
woodobsidian,
(Sophora bone, height
toromiro), 64.5 cmbone,
obsidian, Pacifique, a 20-panel wallpaper designed by
height 64.5 cm Papua to
Papua to 1963
1963 when
when theythey left
left was
was aa time
time when
when and the imagery associated with the colonial Dufour around 1804–06 – a panorama of the
gardens and irrigation channels. Depictions of Formerly owned by Prince Titaua of Tahiti Jean-Gabriel Charvet and printed by Joseph
every departing
every departing colonial
colonial sought
sought mementos
mementos to to violence of the period, notably including 152 peoples, costumes, customs and environments
ships, French soldiers and images associated 189 Dufour arounda1804–06
National
Formerly Museums of Scotland,
in the possession Edinburgh,
of George DarsieA.1895.373
and his wife
take home, so creating a huge new market for representations of warriors with pistols as well Shield of the Pacific, luminous–evocation
a panorama of of the
with colonial contacts were common; some Princess Titaua of Tahiti. take home, so creating a huge new market for Shield with
with image
image of
of the
The Phantom,
Phantom, peoples, costumes, customsritualand environments
National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, A.1895.373 local curios.
local curios. These
These kawé figures are
kawé figures are very
very likely
likely as customary
well as customary
shields.
shields.
The head
The head
in thein the late voluptuous foliage, bodies, garb and
works appear to have been intended to be late twentieth
twentieth century
century of the Pacific,
Rapa Nui figure sculptures included relatively to have been expressions
to have been expressions of the moment.of the moment. crocodile’s jaws – the shell inlay on the face regalia, it is anaovert
luminous evocation ofLisa
romanticisation.
comic or satirical. Though probably made for
Reihana saw the wallpaper at thegarb
voluptuous foliage, bodies, ritual and
Wahgi
Wahgi Valley,
Valley, Papua
Papua New
New Guinea
Guinea
naturalistic male, female and occasionally The shape
The shape of of the
the head
head with
with itsits ‘hat-like’
‘hat-like’ represents standard face-painting patterns – National
sale to a French soldier or colonial official, Wood,
Wood, rope,
rope, pigment,
pigment, plastic,
plastic, height
height 161
161 cm regalia, of it is an overtinromanticisation.
Rapa Nui figure images.
hermaphroditic sculptures included
During relatively
the nineteenth crown is
crown is typical
typical ofof the
the region,
region, and and the
the breadth
breadth asserts the prowess of the group and its cm
Gallery Australia 2008 and soon Lisa
the sexual imagery on this work may have naturalistic male, Reihana saw the wallpaper at the National
century, what hadfemale and occasionally
been ancestor figures of the
of the feet
feet isis also
also characteristic.
characteristic. But But thethe rest
rest formidable history of successful headhunting, Pitt
Pitt Rivers
Rivers Museum,
Museum, University
University of
of Oxford,
Oxford, 2002.22.1
2002.22.1 afterwards began thinking towards work
been sensitive or poignant, given that Kanak hermaphroditic images. During the nineteenth Gallery of Australia in 2008 andpossibilities’
soon
began to be made for sale for visitors. This of the
of the human
human form form obeys
obeys none
none of of the
the rules
rules of
of a practice vital to the accumulation of spiritual Selected
Selected references:
References:O’Hanlon
O’Hanlon1993;
1993;O’Hanlon
O’Hanlon1995
1995 that responded to ‘the myriad
were said to resent the liaisons between century, what
example had been
was owned ancestor
by the Tahitianfigures
Princess Asmat design.
Asmat design. Whereas
Whereas humans humans are are normally
normally energy. itafterwards
offered. She began thinking towards
subsequently workedwork
local women and colonists. Together with the began to be was
madefirst
formarried
sale for to
visitors. This that responded to ‘the myriad possibilities’
Titaua, who John Brander, shown with
shown with angular
angular matchstick-like
matchstick-like limbs limbs Davis asserted in his list that the vessel In intensively over nearly a decade to develop
widespread appropriation of Kanak lands, the In the
the 1980s
1980s the
the return
return of
of warfare
warfare among
among thethe it offered. She subsequently worked
aexample
Scottishcame from the
merchant. home
After his of the Tahitian
death, she encompassing aa plain
encompassing plain cylindrical
cylindrical body,
body, both
both ofof was used in cannibal feasts, typical of efforts Wahgi several realisations of In Pursuit of Venus, an
disruption of Indigenous sexuality was cited Princess Titaua, who was first married to home
John Wahgi also
also saw
saw the
the return
return of
of war
war shields,
shields, intensivelydigital
over nearly a decade to develop
married George Darsie and moved to his these figures
these figures have
have fleshy
fleshy torsos
torsos andand limbs
limbs with
with in the period on the part of those selling which animated, recreation, uncannily precise
among the causes of violent conflict in the late Brander, a Scottish merchant. which had
had more
more or
or less
less disappeared
disappeared after
after in Pursuit of Venus,
in Scotland. The moai papa wasAfteronehis
of adeath, attention to the configuration of
attention to the configuration of the chest and the chest and Oceanic artefacts to add value through ‘pacification’
several
in realisationsofofthe
its reproduction panorama’s palette,
1870s. nt/pb she married George Darsie and moved to his ‘pacification’ under
under Australian
Australian administration
administration an organisation
animated, digital recreation, uncannily
number of their artefacts that were later sold an abdomen
an abdomen with with prominent
prominent umbilicus.
umbilicus. WhatWhat association with the most atrocious of savage between its through theatrical vignette,
home between thethe 1930s
1930s and
and the
the 1970s.
1970s. The
The new
new precise in its reproduction of the panorama’s
to the in Scotland.
National nt/pb of Scotland. nt/pb
Museums we are
we are probably
probably seeing
seeing is is the
the carver’s
carver’s practices. The people of the New Georgia shields, its elaborate distribution of near and distant
shields, however,
however, were
were not
not aa revival
revival of
of shields palette,and its organisation
an intriguingthrough theatrical
shields
group did headhunt aggressively, particularly scenes conjuncture

306 307
 of ostensibly
vignette, naturalistic
its elaborate depiction of
distribution andnear and 157
298 261
159 Korwar, spirit figure of an adopted son of the 67
160 258
162
stagy artificiality.
distant scenes andBut anReihana’s
intriguingpanorama
conjunctureis Fiona Pardington Mayalibit Bay altar group, head
of theofhead
the altar
of thegroup,
altar group
early twentieth Fish malangan, early twentieth century ornament eighteenth
Hei tiki, anthromorphic ornament,
inhabited
of ostensiblyby living actors,depiction
naturalistic living performance
and Portrait of a life cast of Kakaley (painted),
(painted), early twentieth century century
Wood, cloth, skull, height 43 cm New Ireland, Papua New Guinea century
Māori (people), Cape Terawhiti area, New Zealand
and heterogeneous
stagy artificiality. Butencounter,
Reihana’sand animated
panorama is Solomon Islands, 2010 Mayalibit Bay, Waigeo Island, West Papua Wood, cloth, skull, height 43 cm Wood, paint, fibre, shell, 98 × 261 × 56 cm Nephrite
Māori, (greenstone),
Cape haliotis
Terawhiti area, Newshell, resin, height 9.5 cm
Zealand
With thanks Musée de l’Homme (Muséum National TM-573-43
by a set ofby
inhabited soundscapes,
living actors,atliving
timesperformance
by a Nephrite
Collected (greenstone), haliotis Forster
by Johann Reinhold shell, resin,
duringheight 9.5 cm
the second
d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris Acquired by the ethnologist J. c.
C.van
vanEerde
Eerdeinin1929
1929from
from TM-573-43 Museum für
Staatliche Völkerkunde, Dresden,
Kunstsammlungen 32953
Dresden, Museum für
disorderly
and hubbub, atencounter,
heterogeneous other times by pure,by
animated the colonial administrator A. L. Vink
Vink. voyage of by
Collected Captain
JohannJames Cook,Forster
Reinhold 1773–74during the second
Völkerkunde Dresden, 32953
ahaunting song.
set of soundscapes, at times by a disorderly Selected Reference: Gunn and Peltier 2006, p. 200 Pitt Rivers Museum, University
National
NationaalMuseum
Museumofvan World Cultures, Netherlands
Wereldculturen, Netherlands voyage of Captain James Cook,of1773–74.
Oxford, 1886.1.1167
Selected reference: Gunn and Peltier 2006, p. 200
hubbub,Theat work wasbycreated
others through song.
pure, haunting Pitt RiversReference:
Selected Museum, Yate
University
1835 of Oxford, 1886.1.1167
Selected Reference: Corbey2017;
reference: Corbey 2017;Theodore
TheodoreP.P.van
vanBaaren
Baaren
collaborations
The work with performance
was created throughgroups, many in Greub 1992, p.17ff Of the many works of Oceanic art that are Selected reference: Yate 1835
of which camewith
collaborations to Auckland
performancefor the annualmany
groups, Of the manywith
associated workstheofdead,Oceanic art thatareare
malangan
Pasifika
of whichFestival.
came toThe artist engaged
Auckland in
for the annual Korwar, spirit figure
Korwar, spirit figure of
of aa wife
concubine
of theofadopted
the associated with the dead, malangan are The hei tiki is the most famous genre of Māori
famous, extraordinarily numerous in museum
extendedFestival.
Pasifika conversations
The artistandengaged
negotiations
in with adopted
son of theson of the
head head
of the of the
altar Mayalibit Bay
group famous, extraordinarily personal
The hei tikiornament.
is the most Thisfamous
example, genrewhich lacks
of Māori
collections, and visuallynumerous in museum
and conceptually
participants,
extended was responsive
conversations to their interests
and negotiations with 158
299 altar group, early twentieth century collections, and visually and conceptually the fibre cord
personal and bird-bone
ornament. toggle,which
This example, is onelacksof
Wood, cloth, height 20 cm complex. The works were associated with
and impulseswas
participants, andresponsive
gave muchtoconsideration
their intereststo Fiona Pardington Mon, spirit figure of the son
oldest son complex. earliest
the fibre cord collected. The stone,
and bird-bone toggle,nephrite,
is one of was
Wood, cloth, height 20 cm
TM-573-45 secondaryThe works–were
funerals associated
ceremonies with
occurring
the ethical
and impulses andandpolitical issuesconsideration
gave much that a to Portrait of a life cast of Faustino-Tchargualoff of the head of the altar group secondary obtained
the earliestfrom quarriesThe
collected. situated
stone,primarily
nephrite,onwas
Wood, cloth, height 55 cm TM-573-45 some yearsfunerals
after death,– ceremonies
marking the occurring
final
cross-cultural
the ethical andproject onissues
political this scale
thatinevitably
a (painted), Mariana Islands, 2010 some the west coast
obtained of the South
from quarries Island,
situated and widely
primarily on
Wood, cloth, height 55 cm stage years
of theafter
passagedeath, marking
of the deceasedthe finalfrom
raised. If this was
cross-cultural in part
project a matter
on this scale of care and
inevitably With thanks Musée de l’Homme (Muséum National TM-573-39 stage of the traded
the west from
coastthere. There
of the Southis no consensus
Island, and widelyas
TM-573-39 this world topassage
that of the of the deceased
spirits. Individual from
protocol,
raised. it was
If this wasalso
in more
part aprofoundly an and
matter of care d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris
this world to to whether
traded fromthe ornaments
there. There is represented
no consensusdeities as
sculptures didthat
notofrepresent
the spirits. theIndividual
dead person,
exemplification
protocol, it was of themore
also forms of Oceanic
profoundly an sculptures or whether
to specific ancestors,
the ornaments though the missionary
represented deities
Cats 154–158: Archival photographic inkjet print on Korwar, spirit figure of the adopted son of but carrieddid not represent
attributes, motifs,the dead and
designs person,
sociality, which of
exemplification historically
the formsand pervasively
of Oceanic Korwar, spirit figure of the second wife of but carried attributes, William
or specificYate believed though
ancestors, them tothe be missionary
closely
New Zealand
Hahnemuhle paper mounted onto 5 mm Kapa, the head of the altar group combinations of figuresmotifs,
that weredesigns and
associated
sociality,
have beenwhich historically
constituted out ofand pervasively
encounter, Archival photographic inkjet print on Hahnemuhle paper the second son of the head of the altar combinations connected
William Yatewith mourning.
believed themHe to wrote:
be closely
146 × 110 cm
mounted onto 5 mm Kapa, 146 × 110 cm
spirit figure
Mon, spirit
Mon, figure of
of the
the head
head with the clan’sofmyths figuresofthat
origin.wereEachassociated
person’s
have been constituted
negotiation, exchange and out of encounter, Les
performance. Wood, cloth, height 23 cm
group with the clan’s myths connectedThis ornament
with mourning. is madeHeuse of to ‘This
wrote: put the
Courtesy of the artist and Starkwhite, New Zealand of the
of the altar
altar group
group particular ancestry andofkinorigin. Each person’s
associations
negotiation, exchange and
Sauvages incorporated performance.
Oceania into an Les Courtesy of the artist and Starkwhite, New Zealand TM-573-44 particular ancestry wearer in remembrance
ornament is made use ofoftosome put the person
wearer in
Wood, cloth, height 71 cm Wood, cloth, height 23 cm identified them withand kin associations
certain images, which
expressionincorporated
Sauvages of EuropeanOceania
culture. into an of
In Pursuit Selected reference: Baker and Rankin 2011
Selected Reference: Baker and Rankin 2011 Wood, cloth, height 71 cm
TM-573-36 identified thembywith certainand images, which recently slain, of
remembrance butsome
whose bodyrecently
person they have no
slain,
TM-573-44 were recalled sculptors realised for a
expression of European
Venus [Infected] culture; inemissaries,
makes European Pursuit of were recalled by sculptors and realised for a hopewhose
but of everbody more beholding.
they have no When hope ofa ever
friend
TM-573-36 particular commemorative event.
Venus
European[infected]
sciencemakes Europeanart,
and European emissaries,
parts of a In 2007 Fiona Pardington first became aware particular commemorative arrives,
more from whom
beholding. When theya have
friendbeen some
arrives, fromtime
In 2007 Fiona Pardington first became Individual figures wereevent. carefully
European science
Pacific story, andstory
a global European art parts of a
of Oceanic that the Musée de l’Homme in Paris held life This ‘family’ of ten sculptures of gods and Individual figures were carefully absent,they
whom the have is taken
hei tikibeen somefrom timethe neck, and
absent,
aware that the Musée de l’Homme in Paris organised, typically symmetrically, within a
Pacific story,nt/pb
encounter. a global story of Oceanic casts of her Kai Tahu ancestors, among an ancestors originates from a village on organised, other
the heifriends are called
tiki is taken fromin;thethe ornament
neck, and other is
held life-casts of her Ngai Tahu ancestors, This ‘family’ of ten sculptures of gods and ceremonialtypically
structuresymmetrically,
made of woven within
leaves,a
encounter. nt/pb extensive series made by the phrenologist Mayalibit Bay, Waigeo Island, to the north ceremonial then laidaredown
friends called upon a clean
in; the leaf, orisathen
ornament small
among an extensive series made by the ancestors originates from a village on flowers, feathers and other of
structure made woven leaves,
materials for the
Dumoutier during Dumont d’Urville’s second of the Bird’s Head Peninsula that forms the flowers, tuft of
laid downgrass,
upon anda placed in the
clean leaf, or centre
a smalloftuft them.
phrenologist Dumoutier during Dumont Mayalibit Bay, Waigeo Island, to the north occasion,feathers
which was and contrived
other materials
to create for the
Pacific voyage of 1837–40. The scientific spirit figure
Mon, spirit figure of
of the
the second
son western end of the New Guinea landmass. It isgrass,
of calledand by placed
the name of the
in the person
centre whom it
of them.
d’Urville’s second Pacific voyage of 1837–40. Mon, son of the Bird’s Head Peninsula that forms the occasion,
spectacular which
visualwas contrived
impact: to create
the music of drums
parties on most voyages of exploration of the
the head
head ofof the
the altar
altar group
group This was a region of interaction between spectacular visual andimpact: the music is is
It intended
called bytothe represent;
name ofthen the wept
personover whom and
The scientific parties on most voyages of of western end of the New Guinea landmass. – the instruments players out of of view drums
VI
VI M E M ORY
MEMORY included artists who depicted Islanders Melanesian cultures and those of the – the instruments andentrancing
players outthe of view itcaressed
is intendedwithtoapparent
represent; affection;
then wept andoverall
exploration included artists who depicted Wood, cloth,
Wood, cloth, height
height 64
64 cm
cm This was a region of interaction between haunted the scene,
with more or less attention to physique, but Moluccas; the islands were within the sphere –audience.
hauntedThe the arresting
scene, entrancing present
and cut themselves
caressed with apparent deeply and severely,
affection; and all
Islanders with more or less attention to TM-573-42z Melanesian cultures and those of the nature ofthe the
d’Urville had special interests in physical TM-573-42z of influence of the Sultanate of Tidore, prior audience. Thecompounded
arresting nature of the as a token
present cutofthemselves
the regarddeeplyand love andwhich they
severely,
physique, but d’Urville had special interests Moluccas; the islands were within the sphere performance the challenging
anthropology and phrenology that generated to their incorporation into the Dutch East performance compounded bore
as to theofdeparted.
a token the regard Thisandcustom is carried
love which theyon
in physical anthropology and phrenology that of influence of the Sultanate of Tidore, prior optical and formal dynamicsthe of challenging
the individual
this unique and haunting group of voyage Indies. The people of the area maintained optical and informal to a great
bore to theextent
departed. among Thisthe females
custom of Newon
is carried
generated this unique and haunting group of to their incorporation into the Dutch East sculptures, whichdynamics
internal of andtheexternal
individual
154
260 relics; the series included casts of the shrines representing remote mythical deities, sculptures, Zealand.
to a great extent among the females of New
voyage relics; the series included casts of the spirit figure
Korwar, spirit figure of
of aa wife
wife Indies. The people of the area maintained relationshipsinare which internal and
ambiguous, and external
fish, birds,
Fiona Pardington (b. 1961)
1961, of Māori [ navigator himself and his family. The product Korwar, distant ancestors, and more recently deceased relationships are ambiguous, and fish, birds, Zealand.’This account probably represents an
navigator himself and his family. The product of the
the head
head of
of the
the altar
altar group
group shrines representing remote mythical deities, snakes and human figures consume and are
New Zealand,
Kai Tahu, of Māori
Kati Waewae(Kai Tahu,
andKati Waewae and
Ngāti of a colonial, racial science, these works of family members. This set of figures, consisting snakes and human figures consume and are extrapolation
This account from probably
particularrepresents
uses of theanhei
of a colonial, racial science, these works distant ancestors, and more recently deceased transformed into each other.
Ngāti Kahungunu); Scottish (Clan Cameron of Erracht);
Kahungunu]; Scottish [Clan Cameron of also carried the personal identities, even the Wood, cloth,
cloth, height
height 35
35 cm
cm of three larger images of male deities with transformed tiki, rather than
extrapolation fromaccurately
particular reflecting
uses of the full hei
MacDonald and O’Niell descent also carried the personal identities, even the
Wood, family members. This set of figures, consisting Michaelinto Gunn each hasother.
reported that
Erracht]; MacDonald and O’Niell descent) life forces, of real ancestors. Each individual upraised arms and seven smaller male Michael Gunn hasfrom reported range
tiki, of itsthan
rather values.accurately reflecting the full
life forces, of real ancestors. Each individual
TM-573-37
TM-573-37 of three larger images of male deities with ‘Malangan specialists Tabar that
as well as
Portrait of a life cast of Matoua Tawai, was named, and in some cases names are and female figures, is unique in museum ‘Malangan specialists from Tabar as awell as rangeDuring the twentieth century, hei tiki
of its values.
Portrait of a life cast of Matoua Tawai, was named, and in some cases names are upraised arms and seven smaller male from the mainland identified this as
Aotearoa, New Zealand, 2010 accurate, if mistranscribed; in other cases collections, representing a complete altar from the mainland identified thiswith
as a the were During
widely the reproduced
twentieth ascentury,
plastic souvenirs
hei tiki
Aotearoa, New Zealand, 2010 accurate, if mistranscribed; in other cases and female figures, is unique in museum big-mouth fish [known as lakau]
With thanks Musée de l’Homme (Muséum National
the phrenologist, or someone else, imposed group. It was acquired during a period of rapid big-mouth fish [known as lakau] and otherwise
were as emblems
widely reproduced as of Newsouvenirs
plastic Zealand.
With thanks Musée de l’Homme (Muséum National the phrenologist, or someone else, imposed collections, representing a complete altar figure attached to the front of thewithtonguethe
d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris
names such as ‘Faustino’ or ‘Sambo’ which cultural change in northwest New Guinea, figure attached to the front This otherwise
and appropriation and commercialisation
as emblems of New Zealand.
d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris names such as ‘Faustino’ or ‘Sambo’ which group. It was acquired during a period of rapid representing someone in theofprocess
the tongue of
were clearly not derived from the culture marked both by administrative efforts to representing cameappropriation
This to be widely and debated, and censured; the
commercialisation
were clearly not derived from the culture cultural change in northwest New Guinea, death’. nt/pbsomeone in the process of
spirit figure
Korwar, spirit
Korwar, figure of
of aa second
concubine
wifeofofthe repress some local rituals, and by Indigenous production
came to be of the figures
widely debated, hasandbeen largely the
censured;
of those who had been persuaded to sit. marked both by administrative efforts to death’. nt/pb
of those who had been persuaded to sit. headhead
the of the
of altar group
the altar group interest in new rites and cults, in some cases reclaimed byofindividual
production the figuresMāori artists.
has been nt/pb
largely
Occupying an uncertain situation between repress some local rituals, and by Indigenous
Occupying an uncertain situation between Wood, cloth, height 37 cm prompting communities to reject or give away reclaimed by individual Māori artists. nt/pb
portraiture and physical anthropology, Wood, cloth, height 37 cm interest in new rites and cults, in some cases
296 portraiture and physical anthropology, TM-573-38 customary practices and artefacts.
between the commemorative and the clinical, prompting communities to reject or give away 161
115
Fiona Pardington between the commemorative and the clinical, TM-573-38
The largest figure has long been
155 the life casts are irreducibly disturbing, but customary practices and artefacts. Kobbu, mourner’s hood, early twentieth
Portrait of a life cast of Ma Pou Ma Tekao the life casts are irreducibly disturbing, but identified as Manseren Nanngi [Nangi?], the
Fiona Pardington nevertheless susceptible to being reclaimed The largest figure has long been century
(painted), Gambier Islands, 2010 nevertheless susceptible to being reclaimed, creator of the world, but Raymond Corbey, 019
163
Portrait ofMusée
a life decast of Ma(Muséum
Pou Ma Tekao through Pardington’s imposing photographs. identified as Manseren Nanngi, the creator of Yei-Anim
With thanks l’Homme National through Pardington’s imposing photographs. following F. c. Kamma, more persuasively Yei-Anim or
or Marind-Anim
Marind-Anim people,
people, south
south coast
coast, ofWest
Papua
Reliquary in the form of a crocodile,
(painted), Gambier Islands, 2010 The artist has written: ’Initially it was quite a the world, but Raymond Corbey, following F. Fibre,
Papuabarkcloth, 195 × 30 cm
d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris The artist has written: identifies him with Korano Wammurni, ‘the mid-twentieth century
With thanks Musée de l’Homme (Muséum National shock to see so many long rolling cupboards C. Kamma, more persuasively identifies him Fibre, barkcloth, 195van
× 30Wereldculturen,
cm
Initially it was quite a shock to see so main mediator between human beings and Nationaal Museum Netherlands,
full of casts, everyone was mixed up in a way spirit figure
figure of
of aa wife
concubine Porapora, Angoram, East Sepik, Papua New Guinea
of theofoldest
the with Korano Wammurni, ‘the main mediator
d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris Korwar, spirit RV-1718-12
many long rolling cupboards full of casts, Korwar, the paramount deity, Lord of the Sky’, that is, Museum Volkenkunde, Leiden, RV-1718-12
Vegetal fibres, shells, length 114 cm
we wouldn’t expect in New Zealand: death oldest
everyone was mixed up in a way we wouldn’t son of son of theofhead
the head of thegroup
the altar altar group between human beings and the paramount
Manseren Nanngi. He is accompanied by his Mortuary rituals were of major
and life casts, children, criminals, the insane, deity, Lord of the Sky’, that is, Manseren Branly-Jacques
Musée du quai Branly Chirac,
– Jacques Paris,
Chirac, Paris,
expect in New Zealand: death and life casts, Wood, cloth, height 40 cm
Wood, cloth, height 40 cm deputy, his concubine, his first and second Mortuary rituals
significance were of majorassignificance
for Marind-Anim well as other
people afflicted by extreme medical ailments... Nanngi. He is accompanied by his deputy, his 72.1966.12.14
children, criminals, the insane, people afflicted TM-573-41 sons, the former with his deputy and for Marind-Anim
south-coast as well
peoples. Theas other
body south-coast
would be
walking down the rows to find my tipuna, TM-573-41 concubine, his first and second sons, the Reference:Peltier
Selected reference: Peltierand
andMélandri
MélandriininLe
LeFur
Fur2009,
2009,
by extreme medical ailments... walking down concubine, and an adopted son and two peoples. The body
painted, then buried would be in
swiftly painted,
a gravethen
Piuraki and Takatahara, was a revelation... former with his deputy and concubine, and an p. 224
the rows to find my tipuna, Piuraki and associated women. The adopted son is buried swiftly
carefully clearedin aofgrave
plantscarefully
or roots,cleared
together
297 one of the most intense moments of my adopted son and two associated women.
Takatahara, was a revelation... one of the most represented by a commemorative korwar, of plants
with someorimplements
roots, togetherand with some
personal
Fiona Pardington life.’ nt/pb The adopted son is represented by a
156 intense moments of my life. nt/pb incorporating the skull, in the style of Biak, implements Concealment and revelation were vital to
Portrait of a life cast of Tou Taloa (painted), commemorative korwar, incorporating the possessions,and personal
as well possessions,
as plants as well
from gardens
Fiona Pardington implying that he originated from that area. The as plants from sacredness, power and social organisation
Samoa, 2010 spirit figure
figure of
of aa second
wife of the maintained by gardens maintained
the deceased. by the
After the burial,
Portrait
With thanksofMusée
a life decast of Tou
l’Homme Taloa National
(Muséum (painted), Korwar, spirit
Korwar, wifehead of
of the skull, in the style of Biak, implying that he
central figure’s headdress resembles European deceased. After thewith
a widow, together burial, a widow,
other female together
kin,
across the Sepik region. Within prominent
Samoa, 2010 the altar
oldest songroup
of the head of the altar group originated from that area. The central figure’s men’s houses, relics of various kinds were
d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris helmets of the sixteenth and seventeenth with
wouldother
wearfemale kin,with
a kobbu, would wear
other a kobbu
mourning
With thanks Musée de l’Homme (Muséum National Wood, cloth,
cloth, height
height 43
43 cm
cm headdress resembles European helmets of the preserved, some displayed publicly, others
Wood, centuries. The outstretched arms of two of the along withand
garments other mourning
artefacts suchgarments and
as fibre armlets
d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris TM-573-40 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The hidden and made accessible only to initiated
TM-573-40 figures are associated with the feeding of artefacts such as
and leg-bands, fibrebodies
their armlets and leg-bands,
rubbed with white
outstretched arms of two of the figures are men of appropriate status on special
heaven, the making of offerings during their bodies rubbed with white clay, for
clay for the duration of a period of segregation
associated with the feeding of heaven, the occasions. In some cases, these sacred
ceremonies, which preceded the feasts in the
and duration
fasting. of a period of segregation and
nt/pb
making of offerings during ceremonies, which artefacts were natural or modified stones
which the wider community could partake, fasting. nt/pb
preceded the feasts in which the wider and appeared nondescript to outsiders; in
intended to propitiate the creator and obtain
community could partake, intended to other cases they were elaborate, intricate
his help in hunting, agriculture, fishing and
propitiate the creator and obtain his help in assemblages such as this.
trade. nt/pb
hunting, agriculture, fishing and trade. nt/pb

308 309
 Many such works were sequestered in acquired this mask. His collection of Kanak 166
259 359, 168
167, 360 temples. The other,ofoniconic
gods, in particular the right,
workscarries many
of Oceanic
houses and left to disintegrate over the period artefacts, now housed at the Museum of Yuki Kihara (b. 1975) Taloi Havini (b. 1981)
1981, Nakas clan, Hakö images of gods, inmasks
art – sculptures, particular of iconic
and figures fromworks
of cultural change and conversion to Archaeology and Anthropology in Cambridge, Siva in Motion, 2012 people
and Stuart
of north-eastern
Miller (b. 1983)Buka) and Stuart of Oceanicmany
Polynesia, art – sculptures, masks and
of them well-known figures
pieces
Christianity. Assemblages of this kind are is significant for the detailed documentation Samoa/New Zealand MillerBuka
Jedi, (b. 1983 Jennifer,
andSydney, Buka from the
Australia) from Polynesia,
Tahiti, Hawai‘imany, Fiji
of them well-knownsome
and elsewhere,
particularly rare, there being just one other he kept. In his notes Montague describes Single channel high-definition video, Jedi, Buka
series ‘Bloodand Jennifer, Buka
Generation’, 2009from the pieces
exhibited fromin Tahiti, Hawai‘i, But
this exhibition. Fiji and
these elsewhere,
gods,
example known to exist in a museum purchasing the mask for 20 francs from an old silent, 8 minutes 14 seconds series ‘Blood
Havini: Nakas Generation’,
clan, 2009
Hakö people of north-eastern Buka, some
or worksexhibited in this
of art, are exhibition.inBut
transformed these
scale:
collection today. man on 27 September 1914. The old man Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, Auckland, 2012/25/7 Autonomous Region
Autonomous Region of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea
of Bougainville, gods,
what areor works
in factofmainly
art, aresmall
transformed
pieces becomein scale:
As is the case elsewhere in the Sepik, informed him that, in the Hienghène district at Miller: New
Papua Sydney, Australia
Guinea; Australia what are in fact
monumental. mainly small
Moreover, they arepiecesshownbecomenot in
the crocodile is considered a founding that time, the mask had no particular religious Digital prints,
Digital prints, Edition
Edition 10,
10, 80 × 120
80 × 120 cm
cm monumental.
static situations, Moreover, they are shown
being worshipped, not in
but being
ancestor, the first to settle a particular significance and ‘was used solely as a Yuki Kihara’s video work Siva in Motion was static
held up situations,
by crowdsbeing whoworshipped,
seem to transport but being
Taloi Havini
Taloi Havini c/o
c/o Andrew Baker Art
Andrew Baker Dealer
Art Dealer
territory. This crocodile is wrapped in seashells fancy-dress’. ja made to memorialise a devastating tsunami held
them,upparticipating
by crowds who seemmysterious
in some to transport
which demonstrate the reach of the village that killed more than 189 people in Samoa, them, participating in some mysterious
procession.
American Samoa and Tonga in 2009. Siva is The island of Bougainville has exceptional
and its prosperity, built through trade with procession.
John Pule has observed with respect to
the Samoan word for dance and the specific mineral reserves
mineral reserves and and was,
was, from the 1970s
from the 1970s
coastal peoples. It is a container that conceals John Pule
the painting thathas observed
during with respect
the invasion of Iraqtohe
siva performed by Kihara is a unique rendition onwards, the
onwards, the location
location of of the largest open-cut
the largest open-cut
a wooden club. This bludgeon of black the
waspainting
struck bythat theduring the invasion
proliferation of images of Iraq
of he
of a traditional dance called the taualuga. mine (for
mine (for copper)
copper) in in the
the world. During the
world. During the
palm-wood is said to have been carried by one was struck by‘beautiful
destruction, the proliferation
architectureof images
in ruins,of
Typically performed by a high-ranking female 1980s this
1980s this massive
massive resource extraction
resource extraction
of the ancestral warriors of the group. The 165
105 destruction,
icons, ancient‘beautiful
texts andarchitecture
ancient symbols in ruins,
lost
and/or male as the final dance after an project collided
project collided withwith local interests in
local interests in self-
self-
assemblage is composed of an extraordinary Rambaramp, mortuary effigy, icons,
forever’.ancient texts
Not that heandwasancient
unconcernedsymbolsbylost
important village ceremony or feast, the determination, leading
determination, leading to to aa decade
decade of of war,
war,
variety of materials, including shells, feathers, early twentieth century forever’.
‘invasionNot andthat he wasBut
brutality’. unconcerned
it is loss that bygives
taualuga is often accompanied by other which came
which came to an end
to an end only with aa peace
only with peace
pieces of pottery, fibre, bone and body South West Bay, Malakula, Vanuatu ‘invasion
him pause; and brutality’.
loss But it is loss of
as the consequence thatthegives
dancers whose broader movements and vocal treaty in
treaty in 1998.
1998. TheThe Australian
Australian Government
Government
ornaments. As commemorative feasts took Skull, wood, fibre, paint, pig tusks, turtle shell, height him pause;
current epochlossofasviolence
the consequence
is the issueofthat thehe
calls counterpoint the contained rhythms and has estimated
has estimated that that 20,000 people were
20,000 people were killed
killed
place, these elements were successively height
c. c. 170 cm
170 cm current epoch of violence
has to acknowledge, is the dramatise
represent, issue that he and
gestures of the taualuga. In her rendition, over the
over the period,
period, and and that
that aa third
third of
of the
the island’s
island’s
added. As Philippe Peltier and Magali Collected by the anthropologist Arthur Bernard Deacon in has to acknowledge,
reveal, precisely because represent, dramatise
it is ‘forever’, notand
created as a digital work for exhibition in population of
population of 200,000 suffered displacement
200,000 suffered displacement
Mélandri have noted, ‘the envelope serves as in 1926.
1926 reveal, precisely
susceptible because
to redress it is ‘forever’, Hence
or recuperation. not
public art galleries, Kihara performs the dance from their
from their homes.
homes.
a kind of keepsake of the life of the village. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge, susceptible
his juxtapositionto redress
is notor recuperation.
between Hence
destruction
1927.2174 alone. Taloi Havini
Taloi Havini was was born
born in in Bougainville
Bougainville and and
Isolating powerful and dangerous objects from his
andjuxtaposition
creation, norisisnot betweenwar
it between destruction
and peace.
Like the work of many Pacific artists for has been
has been intimately
intimately associated
associated with the
with the
the outside world, the wrapping offered references: Deacon
Selected References: Deacon1934;
1934;Herle,
Herle,Elliott
Elliottand
and and
He hascreation,
written,nor‘Inisthe
it between
fourth panel war andI havepeace.
Empson 2009 the global contemporary art world today, Siva generation that
generation that experienced
experienced the the conflict. She
conflict. She
protection.’ nt/pb He hasfamous
drawn written,Polynesian
‘In the fourth panel
gods, placedI have
in
in Motion is a translation between two worlds. lives and
lives and works
works in in Melbourne
Melbourne and has
and has drawn
differentfamous Polynesian
situations. The namesgods,ofplaced
someingods
On the one hand, its significance is deeply produced aa remarkable
produced remarkable body body of internationally-
of internationally-
Rambaramp, ancestral effigies, different situations.
are not known... youTheare names
correctoftosome view gods
these
embedded in the place, culture and history exhibited installation, photography and
exhibited installation, photography and video
video are
twonot known...
panels you are correct
as destruction of modernto view these
commemorated the most prominent men that inspired its creation. It tells the story of work that
work that ranges
ranges over over customary culture,
customary culture,
among people of southern Malakula. two panels vs
civilisation asstored
destruction
culturesof modern
[but] I didn’t
the tsunami, etched in the memory of those history and
history and environmental
environmental change. change. A A
Societies of the region were hierarchical, civilisation
want to show vs stored
our gods cultures
safe in[but]
nice,I didn’t
clean,
who lived through it, and who shared their collaboration with
collaboration with thethe photographer
photographer Stuart Stuart
164
107 with status gained through the exchange want to show our gods safe instorage
dark, temperature-controlled nice, clean,
rooms in
experiences with the artist. Its length Miller, the
Miller, the ‘Blood
‘Blood Generation’
Generation’ series takes its
series takes its
Mask, early twentieth century and sacrifice of pigs, not themselves dark, temperature-controlled
world-famous museums. I wanted storage rooms in
to show
replicates the duration of the destruction. It name from
name from thethe term
term given
given byby older
older people
people to to
Hienghène,
Houaïlou NewNew
Valley, Caledonia
Caledonia ordinary animals, but creatures subjected world-famous
these taonga out museums. I wanted
in the open worldtoasshow part of
uses a ‘high’ form of dance to honour, those born
those born during
during the the conflict. Taloi Havini
conflict. Taloi Havini hashas
Wood, coconut fibre, European cloth, human hair, to particular body modifications, their upper these taonga out
the conflict.’ nt/pb in the open world as part of
remember and pay respect to the dead and written that
written that thethe landowners
landowners ‘remain
‘remain
195 cm
feathers, height c. 195 cm
incisors being knocked out, so that lower the conflict.’ nt/pb
injured as it attempts, like the traditional disheartened, displaced,
disheartened, displaced, and and dissatisfied.
dissatisfied. TheThe
1914.
Collected by the zoologist Paul Montague in 1914 tusks might continue to grow, forming full dance, to reaffirm the social bond of Samoan land issues
land issues remain
remain unresolved
unresolved and we ask
and we ask
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of circles. Only men who had achieved the community, despite such disasters. It is a ourselves –– who
ourselves who is responsible for
is responsible for the Blood
the Blood
Cambridge, 1917.118.131
highest statuses were represented through dance of personal significance to Kihara as a Generation?’ nt/pb
Generation?’ nt/pb
references: Kasarhérou
Selected References: Kasarhérou2013;
2013;Montague
Montaguen.d.
n.d. effigies, which incorporated the skull of the Samoan person, still connected to the country
deceased, and were attached to a wooden and the culture.
This mask was collected in Hienghène, on the ‘skeleton’, covered with tree-fern and clay, On the other hand, the work is also
northeast coast of New Caledonia’s Grande fashioned into a portrait of the man, which created as part of her practice as a
Terre, in the early years of the twentieth incorporated a variety of ornaments, motifs contemporary artist. The siva is performed in 169
222
century. Like other masks of its type, it and accoutrements that reflected particular the appropriated persona of an anonymous John Pule
John Pule (b.
(b. 1962)
1962)
consists of a carved wooden face with an accomplishments. This example bears model nineteenth-century Samoan woman, Kehe tau
Kehe tau hauaga
hauaga foou
foou (To
(To all
all new
new arrivals),
arrivals),
exaggerated nose and grimacing mouth, the human heads with pig’s tusks on the figure’s photographed in a Victorian mourner’s dress 2007
2007
narrow opening of which provides the only shoulders, which together with the numerous by colonial photographer Thomas Andrew. The Niue/New Zealand
Niue/New Zealand
means of vision for the wearer. The face is tusks and turtle shell armlets around the photograph was discovered by Kihara as a Enamel, oil,
oil, pencil,
pencil, pastel,
pastel, oil
Enamel, oil stick and ink
stick and on canvas,
ink on canvas, five
five
framed by a fibre headdress, on top of which wrists, speak the singular renown of the postcard in the archives of the Museum of panels, each
panels, each 270
270 ×
× 200
200 cm
cm
sits a vast dome of human hair, supported by individual. These figures were preserved for a New Zealand. Giving her the biblical name Auckland Art
Auckland Art Gallery
Gallery Toi
Toi oo Tāmaki,
Tāmaki, Auckland,
Auckland, gift of the
2007/6.1-5
a plant-fibre frame. A cloak of black feathers period in a men’s house and commemorated Salome – recalling either the devoted follower Patrons of the Auckland Art Gallery, 2007
from time to time; eventually, as the modelled Selected Reference: Thomas 2010
netted structure
secured to a loose, netted, structureenvelops
envelops of Christ or the avenging daughter of Herod Selected reference: Thomas 2010
the body of the wearer, allowing for some face began to decay, the figure would be who danced in exchange for the head of John
freedom of movement for the arms and legs. disassembled, the skull removed to the clan the Baptist – the figure is sometimes used as Kehe te hauaga foou (To all new arrivals), can
The Kanak curator Emmanuel Kasarhérou ossuary, the great man ceasing to be a named Kehe
be seen tauashauaga foou (Towork.
a summative all newAt arrivals),
the end of can
Kihara’s artistic alter-ego, bridging the present
has analysed many of the masks found in and remembered hero, becoming instead one be
theseen as a summative
first decade work. At the
of the twenty-first end of
century,
and the colonial past. The work also pays
museum collections and has concluded that among the group’s ancestors. the first decade of the twenty-first
Pule fully resolved his response to the time we century,
homage to its photographic antecedents,
those with teeth, like this one, were made In 2007 the community expressed their Pule fullyand
inhabit, resolved
presented his response
that vision to in
theitstime
most
referencing the chronophotographic
using metal tools. It is thought that these support for the public exhibition of this we inhabit,form.
ambitious and presented
The painting that vision up
is made in its
of
experiments of Eadweard Muybridge and
masks originated in the north of Grande Terre, rambaramp to Dr Anita Herle of the Museum most ambitious
five panels; it is form.
notably Thearchitectural;
painting is made those at
Etienne Marey. But while their work aimed to
where they were associated with the spirit of Archaeology and Anthropology in up
theofleft
five
andpanels; it is notably
right ends architectural;
are structured vertically
stop time and spread out its frozen parts like a
world and with mourning ceremonies for Cambridge, at the time engaged in a those at the clouds
left andand right ends are heavenly
structured
deck of cards, Kihara recovers a haunting and feature associated
chiefs. The houp wood, from which the mask collaborative project with the Malakula beauty in the illusion of motion composed of
vertically
imagery; the andone feature
in theclouds
centreand associated
is vertical but is
is made, is associated with chiefs, while the Cultural Centre. nt/pb heavenly imagery; the one in the
made up of vines without clouds; the second centre
the fading traces of the dancer’s
hair would have come from those mourners is
andvertical
fourthbut areismade
madeupupofofmany vinesirregular
without
movements. nt/pb
tasked with presiding over the funerary rites clouds;
horizonsthe second
with scenes andonfourth
diversearescales.
madeItupis
of an important leader. As their use spread of
themany irregular of
juxtaposition horizons
these two withhorizontally-
scenes on
south, however, the masks tended to lose their diverse
organised scales. It is the
canvases thatjuxtaposition
is especiallyofstriking.
these
spiritual power and could be used simply as two
One horizontally-organised
is replete with the imagery canvases
of war,that is
a disguise or costume during ceremonies and especially
particularlystriking. One isjets
with fighter replete with the
that target a
celebrations. imagery
variety ofofreligious
war, particularly
edifices andwithtemples.
fighter jets
The
Paul Montague, a young zoologist who that
other,target
on the a variety of religious
right, carries manyedifices
images and of
spent a year in New Caledonia in 1914,

310 311
 OCEANIA REDUX
Peter Brunt and Nicholas Thomas
ENDNOTES
(pages 20–41)
1 Hau‘ofa 2000, p. 42.
2 Thomas 2003, p. 401.
3 Lévi-Strauss 1955, p. 43.
4 On Dumoutier, see Kamehiro 2011.
5 Kaeppler 1978 and Thomas et al. 2016.
6 The history of collecting from Oceania
and the changing status of the object are
topics with extensive bibliographies; for
three important overviews, see
Goldwater 1986, pp. 3–14; Peltier 1984,
pp. 99–122; and Clifford 1985, pp. 164–77.
On the cultural anthropology of art, see
Boas 1927. On missionary collections
from Polynesia, see King 2011 and Hooper
in Norwich 2006.
7 For an account of artists and
anthropologists who transcended this
primitivist dichotomy, see Phillips 2015.
8 See Christina Hellmich, ‘Hawaiian
Featherwork Abroad’, in San Francisco
2015, p. 116–18.
9 See Hooper 2007.
10 Sissons 2014.
11 Herle and Rouse 1998, and Cambridge
1998.
12 Forge 1967, p. 84.
13 Wendt 1976B and Hau‘ofa 2000.
14 Wendt 1976A. Spelling, letter-cases and
line layout of the poem as quoted here
follow the published text.
15 Paul Ricoeur, ‘Universal Civilisation and
National Culture’, in Ricoeur 1965,
pp. 271–84, 276.
312
16 Hau‘ofa 2000, pp. 33–34.
17 Cited in Brunt 2010, p. 84. 1 REIMAGINING THE OCEAN 2 ARCHITECTURE, THE SEASONS AND 13 The small huts sometimes comprised a door 6 James Cook and James King, A voyage to
18 This statement was made by an Iatmul Anne Salmond (pages 42–55) RITUALS IN THE LAND OF THE made of a wooden plank that could be used the Pacific Ocean, for making discoveries in
KANAKS Emmanuel Kasarhérou to measure coins, as described in the story the northern hemisphere. Performed under
man interviewed in the film Cannibal 1 Henry 1928, p. 356.
Tours (1988), directed by Dennis (pages 56–63) ‘Les Deux Soeurs de Moaxa’ (Leenhardt the direction of captains Cook, Clerke, and
O’Rourke. The English translation is from 2 Ellis 1859 quoted in Oliver 1974, vol. 2, 1932, p. 77, note). Gore, in His Majesty’s ships the Resolution
1 This refers to species of yam that is not
the subtitle. Unfortunately, his name was p. 919. and Discovery; in the years 1776, 1777, 1778,
cultivated but which can be eaten in times 14 This grass grows wild in a number of the
not given and attempts to find it out have 1779 and 1780. London, 1784, p. 17.
3 Di Piazza and Peathree, 2007; Di Piazza of famine. Pacific islands. It appears in the bouquets
been unsuccessful. 2010, and Schwarz, A. and Eckstein, L, in exchanged when money is handed over 7 Ibid, pp. 17–18.
2 Bourail is situated opposite a broad channel
19 See the essay by Emmanuel Kasarhérou, press. 'The Making of Tupaia’s Map: A Story (Barrau 1970, p. 462). I have myself noticed
in the barrier reef. Plantations of the Lapita 8 Mauss 1954, p. 9.
‘Architecture, Rituals and the Seasons in of the Extent and Mastery of Polynesian that it is often associated with houses in
period have been excavated here
the Land of the Kanaks’ in this catalogue. Navigation, Competing Systems of the Marquesas Islands and in Taïwan, 9 Ibid, referencing the hau of ‘its forest, its
(Frimigacci 1975). The Yöumâ Massif towers
Wayfinding on James Cook’s Endeavour, where it seems to fulfil the same function soil, its homeland’.
20 Cited in Binney 2010, p. 236. over the area. According to the tradition of
and the Invention of an Ingenious around the Aboriginal houses of the
the groups who live there or who are 10 This and the two subsequent quotations by
21 Kirch 2000, pp. 63–84. Cartographic System,' Journal of Pacific southeastern coast.
familiar with it, this is the original mountain. Edward Halealoha Ayau and Dr Eva-Maria
History.
22 For a concise history of Austronesian 15 On the links between mounds, lineages and Stange formed part of the preparation for
3 This information is gleaned from an
settlement, see Anderson 2016, 4 Cook, in Beaglehole 1955, p. 154. houses, see Bensa et al. 1982, pp. 52–116, and participation in the panel Restitution:
investigation carried out with Patrice
especially chapter 1, ‘Ancient Origins: in a work entitled Les Chemins de l’Alliance. What Now? at the Japanese Palace,
5 Henry 1907. Moasadi for the Agence de développement
3000 BC – AD 1300’. Howe 2003, Howe Dresden Ethnological Museum, on
de la culture Kanak – Centre Tjibaou; Old 16 The studies of José Garanger (see Garanger
2006, Kirch 2000 and Irwin 1992 also give 6 Henry 1928, p. 426. 23 October 2017.
Eugène Néchéro of the Emma tribe was 1972) have demonstrated that the oral
good coverage of the subject. 7 Ibid., pp. 336–655. interviewed in Canala in June 2002. traditions surrounding the chief Roy Mata,
23 Benjamin 1968, p. 263. collected by Jean Guiart at Efate in Vanuatu
8 Ibid., p. 355. 4 Magnania, like the wild yam, is a tuber
in the 1950s, dated from the thirteenth 4 PERFORMANCE AND THE BODY
24 Ibid., pp. 259–60. eaten during times of famine. Without
9 George n.d., p. 10. century ad. In New Caledonia, the work of Michael Mel (pages 72–79)
cultivating them deliberately, the Kanak
25 Foster 2004. Daniel Frimigacci (Frimigacci 1975) reveals
10 Banks, in Beaglehole 1962, vol. 1, p. 435. knew where they could be found in times of 1 Louis Antoine de Bougainville, A Voyage
that the traditions surrounding the
26 For several viewpoints on the series, see need. Round the World, trans. J. R. Forster,
11 Thomson c. 1840, pp. 27–28. movement of the clans between Bourail,
Baker and Rankin 2011. 5 A few examples of this unidentified tree London, 1772, p. 249, quoted in Bernard
Kouaoua and Houaïlou were several
12 Sharp 1996, pp. 117–19; Sharp 1998, Smith, European Vision and the South
27 Küchler 2002. apparently still survive in a forest of the centuries old – but it has not been possible
pp. 57–58. Pacific, Oxford, 1960, p. 42.
central range, on the Dogny plateau. to assign a precise date to the episodes.
28 See Edinburgh 2010. I have cited the 13 Mulrennan and Scott 2000.
6 Moyse-Faurie et al. 1986, p. 244. 2 McAleer and Rigby 2017.
English translation as given in the
production programme. 14 Hau‘ofa 1994, p. 7. 3 The following reflections are based on a
7 Leenhardt 1930, p. 6.
15 See Bess 2011, p. 90, for an account of this 3 MUSEUMS, COLLECTIONS, keynote lecture given by the present author
29 James Clifford, ‘Indigenous 8 On the Bogota Peninsula, near Gélima in
legal history. COLONIALISM AND THE GIFT: at the Eleventh Conference of the European
Articulations’, in Clifford 2013, Canala, where the first inhabitants of the
A DIALOGUE Society for Oceanists, Ludwig-Maximilians-
pp. 50–67, 51. 16 Ngatai, Taiaho, quoted in Waitangi Tribunal area are said to have lived, they would
Peter Brunt, Nicholas Thomas, Universität, 29 June – 2 July, 2017. See
30 Ibid., pp. 66–67. 2004, p. 35. climb to the top of the tallest columnar Sean Mallon and Noelle Kahanu Mel 2017.
pines and try to attack the moon with rocks (pages 64–71)
31 See Myers 2002, p. 231. 17 Te Rangikaheke 1849, trans. Curnow, p. 254. 4 Hau‘ofa 1994, pp. 153, 155.
and assegais. They also attempted to
18 Ruatapu 1993, pp. 122–24. capture the reflection of the moon in a lake 1 Mauss 1954 (quotation trans. N. Thomas).
32 Smidt and McGuigan 1993, p. 134. 5 Said 1979, p. 5. Emphasis in the original.
on this peninsula. My thanks to Patrice
19 Jahnke 2009, p. 393. 2 Kopytoff 1986; Gosden and Marshall 1999;
Moasadi for these details. Thomas 1991.
20 Te Rangihiroa 1926, pp. 597–646.
9 Leenhardt 1935, p. 222. 3 T. T. Tamasese (original exhibition text) as
21 Colenso 1887, pp. 418–22. quoted in ‘Apology Accepted’ in Sean
10 Dubois 1975.
22 John White Ms, ATL, transcribed and Mallon, Kolokesa S. Mahina-Tuai and
11 ‘Bwêêrhexau, Yené. Nô né mëu’ (‘About the Damon Salesa (eds), Tangata o le Moana:
translated by Charles Royal.
Yam‘). This audio text, transcribed into New Zealand and the People of the Pacific,
23 Colenso 1887, pp. 418–22. French and English, is accessible at the Wellington, 2012, p. 260.
following website: Claude Lercari and
Jacqueline de La Fontinelle, ‘La parole de 4 Ibid.
l’igname’, Ajië corpus, Pangloss Collection, 5 Marjorie Crocombe, ‘Can We Get Our
LACITO-CNRS. http:///lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/ Valuable Islands Artifacts Back from
pangloss/resource/crdo-AJI_IGNAME_ Europe?’, The Mana Annual of Creative
SOUND&crdo-AJI_IGNAME. Accessed 25 Writing, 1974, pp. 16–17.
September 2017. For more details on this
report see also Kasarhérou 2013.
12 Ibid.
313
 adams, bence and clark 2018
SELECT Fighting Fibres: Kiribati Armour and Museum
Collections, Julie Adams, Polly Bence and
Alison Clark (eds), Leiden, 2018
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Nicholas Thomas, Entangled Objects: Exchange,
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Nicholas Thomas, ‘The Dream of Joseph:
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Nicholas Thomas, Discoveries: The Voyages of
Captain Cook, London, 2003
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Hauaga: The Art of John Pule, Nicholas Thomas
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Nicholas Thomas, Islanders: The Pacific in the Age
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Nicholas Thomas, The Return of Curiosity: What
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1983

PHOTOGRAPHIC
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All works of art are reproduced by kind
permission of the owners. Every attempt
has been made to trace copyright
holders. We apologise for any inadvertent
infringement and invite appropriate rights
holders to contact us. Specific
acknowledgements are as follows:
Photo credits:
Auckland, Sir George Grey Special
Collections, Auckland Libraries – Ngā
Pātaka Kōrero o Tāmaki Makaurau:
cats 31, 32, 33, 34, 35
Auckland, © Lemi Ponifasio / MAU.
Photographer Armin Bardel: fig. 10
Auckland, Tāmaki Paenga Hira Auckland War
Memorial Museum: cats 4, 140
Basel, Museum der Kulturen Basel: cats 45,
48, 68, 78, 114, 130, 131 (photo: Omar
Lemke); 13, (photo: Derek Li Wan Po); 80
(photo: Markus Gruber); 5, 52, 77, 129
(photo: Peter Horner)
Bremen, Übersee-Museum Bremen: cat. 7
(photo: Volker Beinhorn)
Brisbane, Andrew Baker Art Dealer: cats 167,
168
© Peter Brunt: fig. 7
Cambridge, Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Cambridge:
fig. 41 (photo: Marilyn Strathern); figs 5,
6, 9, 22, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 40, 42
(Reproduced by kind permission of the
Syndics of Cambridge University Library,
S460.b.91.32); cats 3, 16, 17, 21, 36, 37,
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 47, 49, 56, 59, 64,
72, 88, 91, 92, 93, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102,
109, 111, 116, 123, 124, 137, 164, 165
Canberra, National Gallery of Australia,
Canberra: fig. 2
Canberra, National Library of Australia:
figs 30, 39
Cologne, Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum:
cat. 151
Copenhagen, National Museum of Denmark:
cats 146 (photo: Roberto Fortuna); 29, 55,
142, (photo: John Lee)
Dresden, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen
Dresden, Museum für Völkerkunde
Dresden: cats 76, 160 (Photo: Eva
Winkler); 20, 121 (photo: Esther Hoyer);
122 (photo: Hagen Friede)
Dublin, © National Museum of Ireland:
cats 112, 132, 144
Dunedin, Milford Galleries Dunedin: cat. 166
(Yuki Kihara)
Edinburgh, National Museums Scotland:
cats 133, 145
Exeter, Royal Albert Memorial Museum and
Exeter City Council: cat. 115 (photo:
© Peter Stephens Photography)
Florence, © Scala, 2018: figs 4 (© The
Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art
Resource); 25 (The British Library Board)
© Roy and Alex Fox: cat. 71
Hamburg, Museum fur Volkerkunde Hamburg:
cats 28 (photo: Brigitte Saal); 6, 84
(photo: Paul Schimweg)
© Gil Hanley: fig. 38
© Tom Hogarty: fig. 43
Honolulu, © John Webber, Bishop Museum
Archives, 2018: fig. 3
Honolulu, Used with permission from
Kamehameha Schools: fig. 24
Leipzig, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen
Dresden, GRASSI Museum für
Völkerkunde zu Leipzig: cats 9, 150
(photo: Esther Hoyer); 86 (photo:
Hans-Christian Schink)
Liverpool, courtesy National Museums
Liverpool, World Museum: cat. 134
London, © Bridgeman Images: figs 19, 20, 23,
25; cats 30, 113 (British Library Board);
162 (Pitt Rivers Museum. University of
Oxford)
London, © National Maritime Museum,
Greenwich: figs 1, 18, 37
London, © The Trustees of the British
Museum: cats 10, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66,
81, 85, 89, 90, 95, 96, 104, 105, 110, 136,
143, 149
Manchester, Manchester Museum, The
University of Manchester: cat. 135
(photo: © Michael Pollard)
© Mata Aho Collective: cat. 1
Munich, Museum Fünf Kontinente: cats 24,
107, 108, 120 (photo: Nicolai Kästner); 43
(photo: Marietta Weidner)
Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen,
Netherlands: cats 8, 12, 14, 18, 22, 23, 51,
53, 54, 63, 67, 79, 106, 125, 126, 147, 148,
159, 161
Oxford, Pitt Rivers Museum. University of
Oxford: fig. 8; cat. 152
All references are to page numbers; those scenes with canoes 122–23, performance 302
LENDERS TO INDEX in bold type indicate catalogue plates,
and those in italic type indicate essay
286
architecture 59–62, 146
sculpture 155, 291
Biwat language group 131, 288
THE EXHIBITION illustrations armour 133, 288
‘The Art of the Pacific Islands’,
Blackwater River 156, 291
Bligh, William 300
Washington (1979) 23 Blonde, HMS 297
‘Arts of the South Seas’, New York (1946) body and performance 72–81
23 Bond, Francis Godolphin 300
A Asei village, West Papua 166–67, bonito-fishing canoe 96–97, 282
A’a 23, 174, 294 292–93 Bora Bora 306
Abau people 230, 303 Asmat people 29, 283 Botany Bay 36, 300
Abelam people 23–24, 34 canoe paddles 108–109, 284 Bougainville 207, 226, 299, 302–303,
Adams, Julie 67 carvings 151, 290 305, 311
Adams, Mark sculpture 251, 306–307 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de 72
At Nesacoea, Djeine, New Caledonia shields 135, 288 Bourail region, New Caledonia 56, 58
Paris, © Dist. RMN-Grand Palais. Musée du Auckland Art Gallery British Museum, London 67 soul canoes 33, 97–99, 282 Brander, John 306
quai Branly – Jacques Chirac: cats 11, 82,
Toi o Tāmaki Chalfont Crescent, Mangere, South Astrolabe Bay, Papua New Guinea 291 Brenchley, Julius 282, 292
87, (photo: Hughes Debois); 26, 57, 73, 74, The British Library, London Auckland 219, 301 Aua, Bismarck Archipelago 282 British Museum, London 67
94, 141 (photo: Claude Germain); 15, 46, Auckland Libraries
163 (photo: Patrick Gries / Bruno Maidstone Museum ‘Cook’s Sites’ 36, 36–41 Austral Islands 127, 174, 247, 287, 294, Buck, Sir Peter (Te Rangihiroa) 52–53, 55
– Ngā Pātaka Kōrero o Tāmaki
Descoings); 50, 75 (photo: Michel Urtado Admiralty (Britain) 295 300–301, 306 Buin, Papua New Guinea 207, 299
/Thierry Ollivier), 118; Musée de Makaurau The Manchester Museum, Admiralty Islands 30, 169, 293 Au’ura 23, 294 Buliali, Emira Island 160, 292
Boulogne-sur-Mer: cat. 19 (photo: The University of Manchester adze, ceremonial 218, 301 Ayau, Edward Halealoha 71 Bull, George Seth 286
Benoît Touchard) Auckland War Memorial
© Private collection: fig. 21 Museum Tāmaki Paenga Hira Museum Fünf Kontinente, agriculture 56–59 Buzacott, Aaron 295
Stuttgart, Linden-Museum Stuttgart: cats 25, Munich Ahu Tongariki, Rapa Nui 29
27, 69, 70, 83, 128 (photo: Anatol Dreyer); Taloi Havini c/o Andrew Baker Ahuia Ova
117, 127 (photo: Dirk Kittelberger) Art Dealer Nationaal Museum van drawing of a dubu (ceremonial
Wellington, Alexander Turnbull Library,
Wereldculturen, Netherlands platform) 148, 290 B
National Library of New Zealand: figs 26,
27
Wellington, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Museum Der Kulturen Basel
Musée de Boulogne-Sur-Mer
Starkwhite, New Zealand drawing of two urita (supernatural Baining people 136, 220, 288, 301 C
creatures) 149, 290 Balade Harbour, New Caledonia 206, Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and
Tongarewa: fig. 36; cats 58, 101, 103, 138, Pitt Rivers Museum, University
139 Übersee-Museum Bremen ‘ahu’ula (feather cloak) 191, 297 299 Anthropology 23
of Oxford aiaimunu mask 231, 303 bamboo, engraved 248, 306 Campbell, Shirley 283
Additional Copyright Museum of Archaeology and Aijië country, New Caledonia 56–57, 62 Bamu River 107, 134, 284, 288 Campion, Jane 289
Musée du quai Branly –
Mark Adams © Mark Adams: figs 12, 13, 14, Anthropology, University of Ailinglaplap Atoll, Marshall Islands 112, Banks, Joseph 28, 48, 285, 290, 297, 300 canoes 28, 30, 43–48, 48–49, 52–53, 86,
15, 16, 17, 34; cat. 119 Jacques Chirac, Paris
Cambridge 285 barkcloth 182, 188–89, 236, 296 94–97, 119, 121–23, 282, 285–86
Taloi Havini and Stuart Miller © Courtesy of
the artists and Andrew Baker Art Dealer,
Musée National de la Marine, Aitutaki, Cook Islands 126, 188–89, 287, hiapo 238, 304 paddles 106–109, 283–85
Rautenstrauch-Joest
Brisbane: cats 167, 168 Paris 296 masi 192–93, 297 prows 101–104, 283
Poetry by Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner / Film by
Museum, Cologne
Private collection akua hulu manu (feathered god image) ngatu 237, 304 sabi or savi (canoe shield on
Masahiro Sugano © Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner /
National Museum of Denmark, 198–99, 298 painted barkcloth representing the crocodile-form prow) 92–93,
Studio Revolt: cat. 2 (Kathy Jetñil-Kijiner)
Yuki Kihara © Yuki Kihara (Sāmoa / Aotearoa Copenhagen Alamblak myths 292 Titikaveka church 239–41, 304 281–82
New Zealand), courtesy of Yuki Kihara, Private collection Allardyce, Sir William 304 siapo mamanu 195, 298 splashboards 101, 282–83
Staatlichen
Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki and (Mark Adams) altar group, Mayalibit Bay 266–67, basketwork steering oars 107, 284
Milford Galleries Dunedin, Aotearoa New Kunstsammlungen, Dresden
Zealand. Commissioned by Auckland Art Linden-Museum Stuttgart 308–309 to’o (woven image of the god ‘Oro) sternposts 105, 283
Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, Aotearoa New The National Museum of Amaile village, Samoa 178, 295 152, 290–91 wuramon (soul canoe) 97–99, 282
Zealand: cat. 166 Ireland, Dublin Museum of New Zealand Ambae, Vanuatu 212, 300 Bay of Plenty, New Zealand 48, 52, 305 Caret, Father François 293
Mata Aho Collective © Mata Aho Collective: Te Papa Tongarewa,
cat. 1 National Museums Scotland, Amborep village, Papua 151, 290 beams, decorated 158–59, 164–65, 292 Caroline Islands 100, 110–11, 173, 254,
Wellington ancestor figure named Popua 175, 294 Becke, Louis 304 282, 285, 294, 307
© Michael Mel: fig. 43 Edinburgh
Fiona Pardington © courtesy of the artist and Andrade, Maile 298 Benjamin, Walter, ‘Theses on the cartography 21–22
Starkwhite, New Zealand: cats 154, 155, Royal Albert Memorial Andrew, Thomas 310 Philosophy of History’ 31 carvings
156, 157, 158 Museum and Art Gallery, and others who wish to remain
Michael Parekowhai © Michael Parekowhai,
Aneityum 57 Bennet, George 291 canoes 101–105, 282–83
courtesy Michael Lett: cat. 58
Exeter anonymous Angoram, Papua New Guinea 163, 292 Bennigsen, Rudolf von 303 carved figure known as Pepe 220,
John Pule © John Pule: cat. 169
Museum Für Völkerkunde Antelope (ship) 292 Best, Elsdon 54 302
Lisa Reihana © Image courtesy of the artist
Hamburg anthropomorphic ornaments 271, 309 Binney, Judith 305 decorated beams 158–59, 164–65,
and ARTPROJECTS: fig. 11; cat. 153
© Isambard Thomas / CORVO: map, pp. 18–19 apa’apai (rhomboidal club) 222, 302 birds of paradise 76 292
Paul Wirz © DACS, 2018: fig. 4 GRASSI Museum Für Aqo bisj (ceremonial pole) 151, 290 double-figure hook 183, 295–96
Völkerkunde Zu Leipzig engraved bamboo 248, 306 Bismarck Archipelago 86, 293 engraved bamboo 248, 306
National Museums Liverpool figure of a woman 249, 306 canoes 30, 94–95, 282 feast trough in the form of a
four untitled drawings of maritime carvings 160, 292 crocodile 252–53, 307
320 321
 hei tiki (anthropomorphic ornament)
271, 309
house posts 160–61, 168, 292, 293
malu semban (openwork board) 147,
289–90
poupou (wall carving) 170, 293
sabi or savi (canoe shield on
crocodile-form prow) 92–93,
281–82
Tā Moko panel 244, 305
Tangonge 90–91, 281
see also sculpture
Cenderawasih Bay, West Papua 33, 283
ceremonies 182, 202
after death 262
ceremonial huts 59–62, 59, 60, 294
initiation ceremonies 202, 303, 290
Chapman, George 289
Charvet, Jean-Gabriel 21, 22, 31–33, 307
chief’s houses 26, 27, 293
Chimbu people 74–75
China 30
Chinnery, E. W. P. 292
Christianity 59, 286, 295–96
conversion to 23, 34, 305
crucifix 246, 305–306
missionaries 22, 236, 287, 293–94,
295, 298
clans 62
Clark, Helen 67, 297
Clifford, James 34
climate change 27, 29, 54
cloaks
feather 23, 69–70, 71, 191, 297
flax cloak with tāniko border 190,
297
clubs 202, 206, 220–23, 299, 301, 302
collections 64–71
colonialism 27, 66, 81, 236
Cook, Captain James 12, 22, 28, 36,
36–41, 71, 290, 297
first voyage 20, 21, 43–50, 300, 302
on fishhooks 286
gifts 23, 24, 69–70, 182, 281, 298
introduction of iron 301
second voyage 20, 86, 299, 302
third voyage 20–21
wallpaper designs and 31–33
Cook Islands 20, 293
barkcloth 188–89, 296
carvings 126, 287
fan 216, 300–301
textiles 196–97, 239–41, 298, 304
Cook Memorial, Kaawaloa 40–41
Cooke Daniels Ethnographical Expedition
290
Corbey, Raymond 309
Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand
48
Cortés, Hernando 289
creation myths 47, 50–54, 62, 286
Crocombe, Marjorie 69
crucifix 246, 305–306
culacula (club) 223, 302
D image) 198–99, 298
dance paddles 226, 302–303
dance wands 220, 301
Darsie, George 306
Davidson, Janet 295
Davis, A. O. C. 295
Davis, Captain H. W. 307
De Young Museum, San Francisco 81
death, rituals 262
decolonisation 27, 64
deity figure known as A’a 174, 294
D’Entrecasteaux Islands 282
depopulation 236, 262
Di Piazza, Anna 43
Dibiri Island 107, 284
Dilukai 172, 294
Discovery (Cook’s ship) 39
Dominion Museum, Wellington 52
Doyo village, Papua 168, 293
drums 127, 287
Dubois, Father 58
dubu (ceremonial platform) 148, 290
Dufour, Joseph et Cie 21, 22, 307
Dumont d’Urville, Jules Sébastien César
21–22, 33, 283, 308
Dumoutier, Pierre-Marie Alexandre 22,
33, 308
Dusky Sound, New Zealand 38–39
E Gaikarobi village, Papua New Guinea
‘E Ku Ana Ka Paia’, Honolulu (2010) 67
Easter Island see Rapa Nui
Edinburgh International Festival 31,
33–34
Eendracht (Dutch ship) 28
Emira Island 60, 292
Endeavour (Cook’s ship) 36, 43, 47–48,
50, 236, 281, 283, 300
Enlightenment 86
Entrecasteaux, Antoine Bruni d’ 301, 302
ethnographic museums 64–71
European figures (sculpture) 254, 307
F Gizu 23
krar (composite mask) 208, 299
Hine-moana 54, 55
Hiro 47 J Kiribati 29, 34, 132–33, 288
Kitai, Ngaa 296 M masks 80, 202, 274, 310
aiaimunu mask 231, 303 N
fabrics see textiles Gonde, New Caledonia 57, 60, 63 Hocart, A. M. 286 Jackson, Sir Henry 304 kites 118, 285–86 McDonald, James Ingram 52, 54–55 figure (mask attachment) 228–29, Nagir, Torres Strait 23, 208, 299
facade sculpture representing Dilukai Gordon, Sir Arthur Hamilton 295, 296 Hodges, William 12, 291 Jacquinot Bay, New Britain 303 Kiwai Island, Papua New Guinea 150, Madang Harbour, Papua New Guinea 303 Nairai 302
172, 294 gorgets 233, 304 The Landing at Tanna, one of the New Jetñil-Kijiner, Kathy, ‘Tell Them’ 29, 290 157, 291 kavat mask 136, 288 Nalilavatu 295
fans 216–17, 300–301 grande case (ceremonial hut) 59–62, 59, Hebrides 21 88–89, 281 Klee, Paul 31 ‘Made in Oceania – Tapa Art and Social krar (composite mask) 23, 208, 299 National Gallery, Washington D.C. 23
feast trough in the form of a crocodile 60 Review of the War Galleys at Tahiti 43, jewellery Ko Kawe 173, 294 Landscapes’, Cologne (2014) 67 mawa mask 209, 299 Nauer, Captain Karl 294
236, 252–53, 307 Grande Terre, New Caledonia 27, 34, 304 mwali (armshell) 186, 296 kobbu (mourner’s hood) 270, 309 Madigibuli, Sergeant Tevita 295 Massim region, Papua New Guinea 282 navigation 28, 28, 43–47, 44–45, 110–15,
feathers 76 56–57, 59–62, 310 A View in Pickersgill Harbour 38–39 necklaces 184–85, 187, 204–205, koka (dance ‘shield’) 207, 299 Maenge people 227, 303 Mata Aho Collective, Kiko Moana 28, 87, 285
cloaks 23, 69–70, 71, 191, 297 Grant, Lyonel 68–69, 70, 305 A View Taken in the Bay of Oaite Peha, 296, 299 Kolombangara 286 Maewo, Vanuatu 300 281 necklaces 184–85, 187, 204–205, 296,
Akua hulu manu (feathered god Green River 230, 303 Otaheite 36, 37, 73, 73 John Paul II, Pope 305 Kona coast, Hawai’i 154, 291 Mahaffy, Arthur 306 Matavai Bay, Tahiti 36 299
gorgets 233, 304
Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands 232, hoe (canoe paddles) 106, 109, 283–85 Kooijman, Simon 287 Maketū, Bay of Plenty 305
Makira, Solomon Islands 96–97, 161,
Matuku, Fiji 192–93, 297 Neich, Roger 295, 305
Nelson, HMS 68
303–304 Hōkūle’a (canoe) 52, 71 Korewori River 163, 292 MAU (performance company) 31
headdress 202–203, 298–99 Gunn, Michael 309 Holophusicon, London 302 Koror 292 282, 292 Mau movement 297 Nesacoea, New Caledonia 67
Le Ageagea o Tumua, ‘ie tōga Malakula (Malekula), Vanuatu 33, 275, Nevermann, Hans 28
(fine mat) 194, 297
Gweagal people 36 Homer 289
Honolulu 24 K Krämer, Augustin 28, 285
Kranket Island 157, 291 310
Māui 27, 29, 47, 52, 286
Mauss, Marcel 65, 68, 182 New Britain 29, 30, 136, 220, 227–29,
Festival of Pacific Arts 202 hooks Kabriman village, Papua New Guinea krar (composite mask) 208, 299 malangan 33, 262, 268–69, 309 mawa mask 209, 299 288, 301–302, 303
figures see sculpture double-figure hook 183, 295–96 156, 291 Kruger, Tāmati 305 Malinowski, Bronislaw 182, 296 Mawatta, Papua New Guinea 48–49 New Caledonia 20
Fiji 20, 29, 68 fishhooks 124–25, 286 Kadai village, Caroline Islands 282 Ku 154, 291, 295 Mallon, Sean 65–68, 285, 295 Mayalibit Bay altar group 266–67, agriculture 27, 56–59, 57
carvings 183, 295–96
clubs 223, 302
H suspension hook (mother and child) Kaeppler, Adrienne 291
Kahanu, Noelle M. K. Y. 66, 68–71, 298
Kubary, J. S. 294 malu semban (openwork board) 147,
289–90
308–309 architecture 59–62
carvings 248, 306
Haddon, Alfred Cort 23, 290 137, 288 Kuka’ili’moku 291 meeting houses 100, 164–65, 282, 283,
jewellery 184–85, 296 Hamburg Südsee-Expedition 285 Hooper, Steven 294, 296, 301 Kairiru Island 107, 284 ‘Kula ring’ 296 Mana Review 23–24 292, 293 ceremonial adze 218, 301
sculpture 250, 306 Hamilton, Augustus 305 Hornell, James 283 Kaitaia 31, 90–91, 281 Kundima village, Papua New Guinea Mander, Jane 289 Mel, Kulur 75, 81 clubs 206, 299
textiles 192–93, 297 Hanly, Gil 74–75 hos (navigator’s weather charm) 110, Kakaley 265, 308 140, 289 Mangareva, Gambier Islands 171, Mélandri, Magali 310 ‘head’ of money 185, 296
finial sculpture 162, 292 Haumene, Te Ua 305 285 Kalani’ōpu’u 23, 39, 69–70, 71, 298 293–94 Melanesian Mission 298 masks 274, 310
Firth, Raymond 294 Hau’ofa, Epeli 20, 50, 55 Houaïlou, New Caledonia 57, 58, 185, Kalikongu village, Solomon Islands Manning Straits 286 Melpa region, Papua New Guinea 73–75 New Georgia 103, 283, 307
fish 52–53, 54–55 ‘The Ocean in Us’ 24, 26 274, 296, 310 252–53, 307 Manseren Nanngi 309 Mendi people 141, 289 New Guinea 23–24, 29, 30, 202
fish malangan 268–69, 309 Havini, Taloi, ‘Blood Generation’ series houses 146 Kamakakūokalani Center for Hawaiian Manus Island 169, 293 Mer Island 177, 295 see also Papua New Guinea
fishhooks 124–25, 286
flags 236
277, 311 ceremonial houses 59–62, 59, 60, Studies, Mānoa 68–69
Kamāmalu, Queen 297
L Māori 33, 70
anthropomorphic ornaments 271,
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York New Ireland 29, 33, 155, 291
New Zealand 20, 27, 67–68
‘Hawai’i: Royal Islands in the Pacific’, 294 lagim (canoe splashboard) 101, 283 31
pennant flag of the Union of Tūhoe Stuttgart (2018) 69 chief’s houses 26, 27, 293 Kamehameha I, King 291, 297 Lamotrek Atoll, Yap Archipelago 110, 285 309 Meyer, Dr Manulani Aluli 70 carvings 90–91, 281
242–43, 305 Hawaiian Islands 30, 34 house posts 160–61, 168, 292, 293 Kamehameha II, King (Liholiho) 23, 297 Landtman, Gunnar 48–49, 290 canoe paddles 109, 285 Miller, Stuart, ‘Blood Generation’ series Captain Cook’s voyages 50
flax cloak with tāniko border 190, 297 Captain Cook’s voyages 21, 23, 39, meeting houses 164–65, 292, 293 Kaminimbit village, Papua New Guinea Lapita peoples 86 canoes 105–106, 283–84 277, 311 settlement of 30, 86
flute stopper 131, 288 68–70 Houtou de Labillardière, Jacques-Julien 92–93, 281–82 Lautivini 297 Captain Cook’s voyages 20 mimia (male carved figure) 150, 290 videos 276, 310
Fly River 299 feathers 198–99, 298 282 Kamma, F. C. 309 Laval, Father Honoré 293 carvings 170, 293 missionaries 22, 236, 287, 293–94, 295, see also Māori
Forge, Anthony 23–24 fishhooks 124, 286 Hughan, Allan 59 Kamoro people 104, 283 Le Ageagea o Tumua, ‘ie tōga (fine mat) clubs 302 298 Ngātai, Taiaho 50
Funakama, Solomon Islands 292 sculpture 154, 176, 291, 295 Humboldt Bay 26, 27, 102, 138, 283, 287, Kanak people 27, 34, 58–62, 59, 67, 301 31, 67–68, 194, 297 creation myths 50 Moai Hava 179, 295 Ngati Hinganga 29
settlement of 86 288–89, 293 Kanganaman village, Papua New Guinea Leach, Edmund 289 drawings 119–21, 210–11, 285–86, Moai papa (female figure) 249, 306 Ngāti Pikiao sculptors 293
textiles 191, 297 Huxley, Thomas 283 27, 137, 288 Leahy, Michael J. 31 300 Moala, Fiji 192–93, 297 ngatu (barkcloth) 237, 304
Hawaiki 29, 52 Kangaroo, HMB 286 Lee, Samuel 286 and fish 52–54 modernism 23 Nggoembba 65
Karibwongi Ragerage, house post 161, flags 242–43, 305 nguzunguzu (canoe prow figure) 103, 283
G ‘head’ of money 185, 296
headdresses 76, 202–203, 298–99 292
Leenhardt, Maurice 57, 58
Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa 73 piano 142–43, 289
Mogei culture 73–75
Moluccas 283, 309 Niue 20, 238, 278–79, 304, 311
gable sculptures 166–67, 292–93 wenena gerua (headdress ornament) Kasarhérou, Emmanuel 310 Leutele, Tui Atua 297 sculpture 244–45, 305 Molyneux, Robert 43 NNGPM 306
162, 292
224–25, 302 I Kavat mask 136, 288
Kaveia, Te Aliki Kaloso 47
Leverian Museum, London 302 textiles 190, 297
and water 27, 28, 29
‘money’ 185, 296 Nukumanu, Papua New Guinea 175, 294
Nukuoro, Caroline Islands 173, 294
headhunting 287, 307 Iatmul people 137, 288 Liholiho (Kamehameha II) 23, 297 Montague, Paul 310
Galathea (ship) 306 Heath, Revd Thomas 295 Idam valley 230, 303 Kealakekua Bay, Hawai’i 21, 36, 37, Linden-Museum, Stuttgart 69 marae (ceremonial centres) 42, 46–47 Mope, Papua New Guinea 65
Gambier Islands 171, 293–94 hei tiki (anthropomorphic ornament) 271, Ifar village, West Papua 128, 287 40–41 London Missionary Society 291, 294, 295, Maré 57–58 Morrison, James 291, 304
Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain 288, 302 309 Ika-tere 50 Keats, John 289 304 Marey, Etienne 310 mortuary effigies 33, 275, 310
Geelvink Bay 283 Keenakap 251, 306–307 Marianas 30
Gell, Alfred 283
Heleveni 286
helmets 133, 288
Indonesia 30
Ingava 286, 307 Keram valley, Papua New Guinea 289
Lono 39, 176, 295
Lorentz, Hendrikus Albertus 284 Marind-Anim people 80, 270, 309
Motu River 52
mourner’s hood 270, 309 O
George IV, King 23, 297 Henry Fielding (ship) 300 initiation ceremonies 202, 303, 290 Kerua, Kopi Amb 75, 81 Louisade Archipelago 101, 282–83 Marovo Lagoon, New Georgia 103, 283 Musée du quai Branly – Jacques-Chirac, oars, steering 107, 284
George, Marianne 47 Herle, Dr Anita 310 Iti, Tame 32, 33–34 K’i (the god Ku, the Island Snatcher) 154, Loyalty Islands 61–62 Marquesas Islands 20, 129, 217, 220–21, Paris 34 Oceania Centre for Art and Culture, Suva,
Germany 69, 71, 307 heva tupapau (‘the Costume of the Chief 291 287, 300–301 Museum of Modern Art, New York 23 Fiji 24
Gharwu, Kulur (Totah) 75–76 Mourner’) 213–15, 300 Kihara, Yuki, Siva in Motion 276, 310 Marsden, Revd Samuel 286 museums 64–71 O’Hanlon, Michael 303, 307
Gholk, River 75 hiapo (painted barkcloth) 238, 304 Kilipika village, Papua New Guinea Marshall Islands 28, 29, 34, 112–15, 285 Muybridge, Eadweard 310 Omai, A Voyage Round the World
gifts 23, 65–69, 182 Hienghène, New Caledonia 34, 310 75–76, 81 masi (barkcloth) 192–93, 297 mwali (armshell) 186, 296 (pantomime) 21
Giri people 134, 288 Hikurangi 52 King, James 69–70 Omai of Ra’iātea 12
322 323
Omaio 53
orator’s stool 156, 291
O’Reilly, Patrick 305
Orliac, Catherine 293
‘Oro cult 42–43, 291, 300
P Aotearoa, New Zealand 263, 308
‘Pacific Encounters: Art and Divinity in
Polynesia, 1760–1860’, Norwich
(2006) 67
paddles
canoe paddles 106–109, 283–85
dance paddles 226, 302–303
paddle inscribed ‘ATOPĀ 1846’ 247,
306
Palau 30, 164–65, 172, 204, 292, 294,
299
Palimbai, Papua New Guinea 27
pandanus textiles 212, 300
Papeete 24
Papua
canoes 97–99, 102, 108–109, 282,
283, 284
carvings 168, 293
ceremonies 151
sculpture 251, 306–307
shields 135, 138, 288–89
textiles 270, 309
Papua New Guinea
body and performance 73–81
canoes 94–95, 101, 107, 282–83,
284
carvings 92–93, 147, 160, 220,
281–82, 289–90, 292, 301–302
ceremonies 148, 290
dance paddles 226, 302–303
flute stopper 131, 288
headdress 202–203, 298–99
jewellery 186–87, 205, 296, 299
masks 136, 231, 288, 303
orator’s stool 156, 291
performance 74–75, 207, 299
reliquary 272–73, 309–10
sculpture 134, 150, 155, 157,
162–63, 169, 175, 288, 290, 291,
292, 293, 294
shields 139–41, 227, 230, 255, 289,
303, 307
substitute trophy head 130, 287
suspension hook 137, 288
wenena gerua (headdress ornament)
224–25, 302
Pardington, Fiona
Portrait of a life cast of Faustino-
Tchargualoff (painted), Mariana
Islands 265, 308
Purari Delta, Papua New Guinea 130,
287 S Tchargualoff (painted), Mariana
Islands (Pardington) 265, 308
basketwork 152, 290–91
ceremonial centres 28, 42–43, 47,
Tamasese family 31
Tamatea, Patoromu, Whakapakoko
tiki akau (figure of a god or ancestor)
129, 287 U Owyhee bringing presents to
Captain Cook 24
Portrait of a life cast of Kakaley Purea 300 sabi or savi (canoe shield on crocodile- Portrait of a life cast of Kakaley 300 (Madonna and Child) 245, 305 Tikopia people 294 Uawa 48 Wendt, Albert
(painted), Solomon Islands 265, Pureariki, Ngaa Kitai 287 form prow) 92–93, 281–82 (painted), Solomon Islands chart 44–45 Tangaroa 50, 52, 300 tino aitu (male deity figure known as Ko Uberi Kuberi 299 ‘Inside Us the Dead’ 24–26
308 Safan 29 (Pardington) 265, 308 fishhooks 124–25, 286 Tangonge (Kaitaia carving) 90–91, 281 Kawe) 173, 294 Uki, Solomon Islands 158–59, 292 ‘Towards a New Oceania’ 24
Portrait of a life cast of Ma Pou Ma Sahul 29–30 Portrait of a life cast of Ma Pou Ma gorgets 233, 304 Tanna 21 Titaua, Princess 306 Ulawa, Solomon Islands 282 wenena gerua (headcrest ornament)
Tekao (painted), Gambier Islands Saibi Island 209, 299 Tekao (painted), Gambier Islands performance 210–11, 300 Taofinu’u, Jim 219, 301 Titere, drawing of four kites 118, 285–86 uli figure 155, 291 224–25, 302
264, 308 Said, Edward 81 (Pardington) 264, 308 textiles 298 Taputapuātea 27–28 Titikaveka church 239–41, 304 Unir River 109, 135, 284, 288 Wenner, John 36
Portrait of a life cast of Matoua Tawai, Q Sainthill, Richard 295 Portrait of a life cast of Matoua Tawai, see also Tahiti taro 58, 59, 62 tivaevae ta’orei (patchwork quilt) Unitec Institute of Technology, Auckland West Papua 34, 128, 166–67, 266–67,
qana vivi (pandanus textile) 212, 300 Samoa 70
sculpture 178, 295
Aotearoa, New Zealand Solomon Islands 30, 34 Tasmania 20 196–97, 298 69
University of the South Pacific 24
287, 292–93, 308–309
Portrait of a life cast of Tou Taloa Quakers 300 (Pardington) 263, 308 canoe paddles 106, 284 tattoos 119, 120, 126, 219, 236, 285–86, Tjibaou, Jean-Marie 34 Whakaari (White Island) 52
(painted), Samoa 264, 308 tattoos 219, 301 Portrait of a life cast of Tou Taloa canoe prows 103, 283 287, 301 Tobati, West Papua 26 Upolu, Samoa 178, 295 Whanganui River 54
The Pressure of Sunlight Falling 33 textiles 31, 67, 194–95, 297–98 (painted), Samoa (Pardington) canoes 96–97, 122–23, 282, 286 Tauloho 286 Tobi Island 204, 299 Urewera Mountains 33, 34 Wheeler, Charles 300–301
Parekowhai, Michael, He Kōrero Pūrakau videos 276, 310 264, 308 carvings 158–59, 161, 252–53, 292, Taumako 47 Tonga 20 urita (supernatural creatures) 149, 290 Wheeler, Daniel 300–301
mo Te Awanui o Te Motu 142–43, Santa Cruz Islands 106, 284 rambaramp (mortuary effigy) 275, 307 taumi (gorget) 233, 304 carvings 183, 295–96 Ussiai people 169, 293 White, Anna-Marie 284
289 R Santa Isabel Island 107, 284
Les sauvages de la mer Pacifique
310 sculpture 246, 249, 305–306 taurapa (canoe sternpost) 105, 283 clubs 222–23, 302 ‘u’u (club) 220–21, 301 White, John 53–54
Parkinson, Sydney 48 Rabura Geita 290 stone relief from a meeting house settlement 86 Tawai, Matoua 263, 308 jewellery 184, 296 Te Whitu Tekau (the Seventy) 305
A Marai with an Offering to the Dead Ra’iatea, Society Islands 23, 27–28, 43, (wallpaper) 21, 22, 307–308 100, 282 shields 232, 303–304 Tawhiri 50 textiles 237, 304 Williams, John 23, 294
46 47, 47, 291, 294, 300 Sawos people 147, 289–90 ti’i (god image, with two heads) 153, soulava (necklace) 187, 296 Tchargualoff, Faustino 265, 308 to’o (woven image of the god ‘Oro) 152, Wirz, Paul 26, 27, 80, 287, 292, 293
Schorch, Dr Philipp 70
A New Zealand War Canoe 53
Parry, William 12
Ra’ivavae, Austral Islands 127, 247, 287,
306 sculpture
291
tiki akau (figure of a god or ancestor)
Spöring 48
Stange, Dr Eva-Maria 71
Te Arawa people 170, 293
Te Ika a Māui 52
290–91
Topaze, HMS 295 V Wola people 141, 289
worrumbi (shield) 141, 289
‘Pasifika Styles: Artists Inside the rambaramp (mortuary effigy) 33, 275, 310 ancestor figure named Popua 175, 129, 287 Stanley, Captain Owen 282 ‘Te Māori’, New York (1984) 31 Torres Strait 23, 30, 177, 208–209, 295, Vaitepiha Bay, Tahiti 36, 37 wuramon (soul canoe) 97–99, 282
Museum’, Cambridge (2006) 67 Rao 171, 293–94 294 tino aitu (male deity figure known as stars, navigation 43, 47 te otanga (armour, helmet and trident) 299 Valeri, Valerio 291 Wuvulu, Bismarck Archipelago 94–95,
patchwork quilt 196–97, 298 Rapa Nui (Easter Island) 20, 28, 29, 30, crucifix 246, 305–306 Ko Kawe) 173, 294 steering oars 107, 284 132–33, 288 Torres Strait Expedition 290 Van Tilburg, Jo Anne 295 205, 282, 299
Payamaja people 57 33, 86, 179, 249, 295, 306 deity figure known as A’a 174, 294 two double figures and a quadruped Steinway 289 Te Papa Tongarewa National Museum of tridents 132, 288 Vanuatu 20, 33, 34, 77, 212, 275, 300,
Peabody Essex Museum 67 Rarotonga, Cook Islands 216, 239–41, European figures 254, 307 90, 281 sternposts, canoes 105, 283 New Zealand 67–68, 70 Trobriand Islands 101, 139, 186–87, 282, 306, 310
Pearthree, Erik 43 298, 300–301, 304 façade sculpture representing Dilukai uli figure 155, 291 Stevenson, Robert Louis 304 Te Parata 53–54 283, 289, 296 vayola (war shield) 139, 289
Peltier, Philippe 310 Rata 47 172, 294 whakapakoko (Madonna and Child) ‘stick charts’, navigation 28, 28 Te Rangihiroa (Sir Peter Buck) 52–53, 55 trophy head, substitute 130, 287 Venice Biennale (2011) 289
pennant flag of the Union of Tūhoe Rattlesnake (ship) 282 female and male figures 157, 291
female figure (Giri people) 134, 288
245, 305 stone relief from a meeting house 100, Te Rarawa 31 Tū 50 Venus 36
Veonona 286
Y
242–43, 305 Reef Islands 106, 284 yipwon figure 163, 292 282 Te Rawheoro 48 Tū-te-wanawana 50 yams 56–59, 57, 61, 62
Pentecost Island 300 Reihana, Lisa, in pursuit of Venus female figure (Samoan) 178, 295 see also carvings stool, orator’s 156, 291 Te Tai Tokerau 31 Tuai (Thomas Tooi) Victoria, Queen 295 Yap Archipelago 100, 110, 254, 282, 285,
Pepe 220, 302 [infected] 31–33, 35, 236, 256–59, female figure (Keenakap) 251, sea-level rises 27, 29, 54, 262 Strathern, Marilyn 65 Teaiwa, Teresia 26 drawing of Korokoro’s moko (face videos 35, 256–259, 276, 307–308, 310 307
performance 72–81, 74–75, 77–81, 202 307–308 306–307 seasons 59 Su’a Sulu’ape Paulo II 301 Tekao, Ma Pou Ma 264, 308 tattoo) 120, 286 Viot, Jacques 287, 293 Yate, William 309
Phantom comics 307 reliquary in the form of a crocodile female figure with child (Ifar village) Second World War 23–24, 307 Sulka people 228–29, 303 Tempest: Without a Body 31, 32, 33–34 drawing of two waka (canoes) 119, Viti Levu, Fiji 295 Yei-Anim people 270, 309
Philippines 30 272–73, 309–10 128, 287 Seligman, Charles 290 Sunda 29 Terra Australis Incognito (Unknown 285–86 Yené Bwêêrhexau 58
photography 277, 311 Resolution (Cook’s ship) 38, 39, 299 female figure with child (Ussiai Semper, Carl 292 Surrealists 23 Southern Continent) 43 drawing of a waka (canoe) 121, 286 yipwon figure 163, 292
phrenology 22 Revolon, Sandra 292 people) 169, 293 Sentani, Lake 128, 166–68, 287, 292–93 suspension hook (mother and child) 137, textiles 236 drawings of a waka (canoe) and Yuat River 131, 140, 288, 289
female tattooed figure 126, 287
piano 142–43, 289
Pickersgill Harbour, New Zealand 38–39
Reynolds, Sir Joshua 12
Ricoeur, Paul 26 figure (Fijian) 250, 306
Sepik region, Papua New Guinea
canoe shield 92–93, 281–82
288
Suva 24
barkcloth 182, 188–89, 296
flax cloak with tāniko border 190,
moko (face tattoo) 119, 285–86
Tuamotu Archipelago 304 W Yule Island 202–203, 298–99
Pitt-Rivers, George Lane Fox 30 ‘rights of the sea’ 54–55 figure of a woman 249, 306 carvings 147, 289–90 297 Tubuai, Austral Islands 287 Wadra, François 67
Point Venus, Tahiti 36 Rikirangi, Te Kooti 305 finial sculpture 162, 292 ceremonial houses 27, 27 heva tupapau (‘the Costume of the Tūhoe people 33–34, 305 Wahgi Valley, Papua New Guinea 31,
Pomare II 291, 294 Rimini, Timi Waata 52 fish malangan 268–69, 309 flute stopper 131, 288 Chief Mourner’) 213–15, 300 Tupaia 28, 47–48, 236, 290, 297 255, 307
Ponifasio, Lemi 31, 32 rituals see ceremonies gable sculptures 166–67, 292–93 orator’s stool 156, 291 hiapo (painted barkcloth) 238, 304 chart of the Society Islands 43, Waiet 177, 295
Popua 175, 294 Robinson, Christopher 290 the god Lono 176, 295
K’i (the god Ku, the Island Snatcher)
reliquary 272–73, 309–10 T Kiko Moana (Mata Aho Collective) 28, 44–45 Waigeo Island 266–67, 308–309
Waitangi, Treaty of (1840) 50, 305
Porapora, Papua New Guinea 272–73, rock art 58 sculpture 134, 162–63, 288, 292 Ta’aroa 47 87, 281 A Māori bartering a crayfish with an
309–10 Rockefeller, Michael 288 154, 291 shields 230, 303 Tabavaliliu 302 Le Ageagea o Tumua, ‘ie tōga (fine English naval officer 51 Waitere, Tene 236
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea 24, Roro people 202–203, 298–99 male deity figure known as Rao 171, shields 92–93, 135, 138–41, 202, 207, tabuya (canoe prow) 101, 283 mat) 194, 297 mawa (untitled drawing of dancing Tā Moko panel 244, 305
148–49, 290 Roviana, Solomon Islands 65, 236, 293–94 227, 230, 232, 255, 281–82, 288–89, tahii (fan) 217, 301 masi (barkcloth) 192–93, 297 woman and chief mourner) Wakde-Yanna area, Humboldt Bay 102,
Pou 52 252–53, 286, 307 male figure (Keenakap) 251, 299, 303–304, 307 Tahiti 20, 70 mourner’s hood 270, 309 210–11, 300 283
poupou (wall carving) 170, 293 Royal Academy of Arts 12, 34, 68 306–307 Siane people 224–25, 302 Captain Cook’s voyages 36–37 ngatu (barkcloth) 237, 304 untitled drawing of a Tahitian scene wallpaper 21, 22, 31–33, 307
‘Poverty Bay’ 28, 47 Royal Society 48 Mayalibit Bay altar group 266–67, Siapo mamanu (painted barkcloth) 195, ceremonies 300 painted barkcloth representing the 116–17, 285 Wapo Creek, Papua New Guinea 287
‘primitive art’ 22–23, 287 Royalist, HMS 307 308–309 298 drawings of 116–17, 285 Titikaveka church 239–41, 304 Tūranganui-a-Kiwa 28, 47 Wate, Ben 292
Providence (ship) 300 Ru 287 mimia (male carved figure) 150, 290 Simbo, Solomon Islands 122–23, 249, ‘Oro cult 291 qana vivi (pandanus textile) 212, 300 Turner, Peter 295 water 26–30
prows, canoe 101–104, 283 Rumial village, Kairiru Island 284 Moai Hava 179, 295 286, 306 sculpture 90, 153, 281, 291 siapo mamanu (painted barkcloth) tutulu (ceremonial house post) 160, 292 Watheo, New Caledonia 57
Pule, John, Kehe tau hauaga foou (To all Rurutu, Austral Islands 23, 174, 294 Moai papa (female figure) 249, 306 Sko Sae village, Papua New Guinea textiles 213–15, 300 195, 298 Tuvalu 29 weather charms 110–11, 285
new arrivals) 33, 34, 278–79, 311 model of Waiet 177, 295 288–89 Taiwan 30 tivaevae ta’orei (patchwork quilt) Webber, John 12, 304
Pulotu 27 Portrait of a life cast of Faustino- Society Islands 293 Taloa, Tou 264, 308 196–97, 298 A Portrait of Poedua 73, 76
Tamasese Efi, Tui Atua Tupua 67, 297 ti’i (god image, with two heads) 153, 291 Tereoboo (Kalani’opu’u), King of
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The David Lean Foundation Mr and Mrs Christopher Bake Dr Anne Dornhorst Anne Elizabeth Tasca Mrs Sophie Cahu Maria Almudena Garcia Cano Hansberry Mr Nicholas Bonsall Peter Williams April Moorhouse Beaumont Nathan Art Advisory Ltd SUPPORTERS OF THE ROYAL The Merrell Foundation
The Lennox and Wyfold Foundation Mrs Deborah Brice Mr and Mrs Jim Downing Lady Tennant Brian and Melinda Carroll Mr Stephen Garrett Mr Charles Irving Mr Alexander Bradford Iwan Wirth BNP Paribas ACADEMY OF ARTS Sir Keith Mills
Mr Nelson Leong Mr and Mrs Frank Destribats Ms Noreen Doyle Mr Sacha Thacker Mrs Caroline Cartellieri Karlsen Dicle Evin Guntas Mrs Marcelle Joseph Mr Matthew Charlton Andrea Wong Marketing and Communications Bonhams 1793 Ltd The Henry Moore Foundation
Lord Leverhulme’s Charitable Trust Mr Jim Grover Mrs Janet Dwek Anthony Thornton Damian and Anastasia Chunilal Mrs Susan Hayden Mrs Kit Kemp Jessica Cinel Associate British American Tobacco Art Fund The Peacock Charitable Trust
Christian Levett and Mougins Charles and Kaaren Hale Lord and Lady Egremont Mr Anthony J Todd Andrew and Stefanie Clarke Mrs. Michele Hillgarth Mr. Christopher Kneale Mr Alessandro Conti Emeritus and Honorary Trustees Allie McLane Burberry BNP Paribas Stanley Picker Trust
Museum of Classical Art Mr Yan Huo Mrs Jocelyn Fox Mrs Carolyn Townsend Mr and Mrs Paul Collins Zane Jackson, Director of Three Mr William Loschert Mr Rollo Gabb Lord Aldington The Cultivist BNY Mellon, Anniversary Partner of The Polonsky Foundation
Sir Sydney Lipworth QC and Lady Elisabeth Lenz Arup and Harshi Ganguly Miss M L Ulfane Vanessa Colomar de Enserro Point Enterprises Mr Keir McGuinness Pierre-Antoine Godefroy Susan Burns JAPANESE COMMITTEE EY the Royal Academy of Arts Edith & Ferdinand Porjes Trust
Lipworth CBE Mr and Mrs John R Olsen Mrs Jill Garcia John and Carol Wates Mrs Cathy Dishner Mrs Cathy Jeffrey The Lord and Lady Myners Dr Irem Gunay Sir James Butler CBE DL OF HONOUR GlaxoSmithKline PLC Edwardian Hotels The Red Butterfly Foundation
Miss Rosemary Lomax Simpson David and Sophie Shalit Mrs Mina Gerowin Herrmann Anthony and Rachel Williams Mr and Mrs Jeff Eldredge Shareen Khattar Janet and Andrew Newman Mr Sidney Hiscox Sir Trevor Chinn CVO Heidrick & Struggles International Google Arts and Culture Rippon Travel Award
Mr William Loschert Alex Beard and Emma Vernetti Caroline and Alan Gillespie Mrs Janet Winslow Suzanne Ferlic Johnson Mr Gerald Kidd Carol Sellars Miss Amelia Hunton John Coombe Mr Hiroaki Fujii (Chair) and Mrs Fujii Inc HS1 Ltd Cate Olson and Nash Robbins
Mr and Mrs Mark Loveday Mr Mark Glatman Mrs Adriana Winters Mrs Stroma Finston Mrs Anna Kirrage David and Alison Sola Ms Huma Kabakci Ludovic de Montille Imperial College Healthcare Charity HTC VIVE Sir Stuart Rose
Molly Lowell and David Borthwick Gold Ms Jane Gregory David Zwirner Ronald and Helen Freeman Mr Matthew Langton Mrs Sarah Chenevix-Trench Miss Min Kemp Ambassador Edward E Elson Corporate Members Jones Day Insight Investment Rose Foundation
Dr. Lee MacCormick Edwards Molly Lowell Borthwick Mrs Sarah Harvey-Collicott Mr Christopher Harrison Mrs Julie Lee Miss Flora Kessler John Entwistle OBE Mr Nobuyuki Idei (I Concept) and Lazard JM Finn The Rothschild Foundation
Charitable Foundation Richard Bram and Monika Machon Sir John Hegarty and Miss Philippa Donors Lady Barbara Judge CBE Florian and Henriette Lefort Silver Anna Korshun Michael Gee Mrs Idei Lubbock Fine Momart Adrian Sassoon
Mr and Mrs Donald Main Sir Francis Brooke Bt Crane Geoffrey Ainsworth and Jo Miss Rebecca Kemsley Mr Jeff Lowe Lord and Lady Aldington Miss Petra Kwan The Rt Hon The Earl of Gowrie PC Mr Yoshitoshi Kitajima (Dai Nippon Momart Newton Investment Management Jake and Hélène Marie Shafran
Mr Javad and Mrs Narmina Ms Lisa Carrodus Sir Michael and Lady Heller Featherstone Mrs Stephanie Léouzon Ms Kathryn Ludlow Mrs Elizabeth Alston Antoine Lebouteiller HRH Princess Marie-Chantal of Printing Co Ltd) and Mrs Morgan Stanley & Co International Sky Arts The Archie Sherman Charitable
Marandi Dr Martin A.Clarke Mrs Katrin Henkel Jean Cass MBE and Eric Cass MBE Ms Ida Levine Olivier and Priscilla Malingue Lorna Anne Barker Mrs Victoria Luxem Greece Kitajima PLC Turkishceramics Trust
J P Marland Charitable Trust Caroline Cole Lady Heseltine Mr Richard Hoare Mr Guido Lombardo Mary McNicholas Mr and Mrs Jonathan and Sarah Miss Shannon Magner Reverend C Hugh Hildesley Mr Shinzo Maeda and Mrs Maeda Pentland Group PLC Wells Fargo Christina Smith
Philip and Valerie Marsden Christopher and Alex Courage Mrs Pat Heslop Mr Charles Holloway Charles G Lubar Dr Carolina Minio Paluello Bayliss Christina Makris Susan Ho (Shiseido Co Ltd) Sumitomo Mitsui Banking White & Case Paul Smith Ltd
The Lord Mayor’s Appeal Mrs Patricia Franks Mary Hobart William Brake Charitable Trust Mrs Victoria Mills Mrs Sophie Mirman Alex Haidas and Thalia Chryssikou Ignacio Marinho Lady Judge CBE Mr Yoshihiko Miyauchi (ORIX Corporation Europe Ltd South Square Trust
The Paul Mellon Estate Amy Griffin Mr Philip Hudson Mr and Mrs James Kirkman Neil Osborn and Holly Smith Mr James Nicholls Rosalind Clayton Ms Kimiya Minoukadeh Gabrielle Jungels-Winkler Corporation) and Mrs Miyauchi TRUSTS, FOUNDATIONS AND Nina and Roger Stewart Charitable
The late Mr Minoru Mori Hon KBE Mrs Robin Hambro S Isern-Feliu Jacqueline and Marc Leland Lady Purves Mrs Tessa Nicholson Mr Richard Clothier Miss Miruna Onofrei Lady Lever Mr Yuzaburo Mogi (Kikkoman Corporate INDIVIDUAL DONORS Trust
and Mrs Mori Mrs Elizabeth Hosking Mrs Caroline Jackson Cate Olson and Nash Robbins Mrs Janice Sacher Mr and Mrs Jeremy Nicholson Ms Cynthia Corbett Mr Daniel Stewart Park Sir Sydney Lipworth QC Corporation) and Mrs Mogi Bird & Bird LLP Peter Storrs Trust
HRH Princess Marie-Chantal of Mr Nicholas Maclean Sir Martin and Lady Jacomb John Pattisson Ms Elena Shchukina Roderick and Maria Peacock Mrs Dominic Dowley Mr Sebastian Plantin The Rt Hon The Lord Luce GCVO DL Mrs Minoru Mori (Mori Building Co Bloomberg LP Charles and Regine Aldington Taylor Family Foundation
Greece Federico Marchetti Mrs Raymonde Jay The Michael H Sacher Charitable Mr James B Sherwood Mr Malcolm Poynton Nigel and Christine Evans Mr Elliot Safra Sir Keith Mills GBE DL Ltd) The Boston Consulting Group Art Mentor Foundation Lucerne The Terra Foundation for American
Christina Ong Mr Stephen Marquardt ART JED GALLERY Trust Sir Hugh and Lady Sykes Mrs Tineke Pugh Mrs Catherine Farquharson Ziba Sarikhani Mrs Minoru Mori Mr Takeo Obayashi (Obayashi Capital Group Artists’ Collecting Society Art
Mr Charles Outhwaite Sir Keith and Lady Mills Mr Alistair DK Johnston CMG and H M Sassoon Charitable Trust Mr Ian Taylor Mrs Catherine Rees Mr David Fawkes Jane Singer Lady Myners Corporation) and Mrs Obayashi Charles River Associates The Atlas Fund Mr and Mrs Bart T Tiernan
Simon and Midge Palley Lady Rayne Lacey Ms Christina M Nijman Jake and Hélène Marie Shafran Mr Craig D Weaver Mrs Yosmarvi Rivas Rangel Catherine Ferguson The Honourable Clarence Tan John Raisman CBE Mr Nobutada Saji (Suntory Holding Christie’s Petr Aven Celia Walker Art Foundation
John Pattisson Jean and Geoffrey Redman-Brown Fiona Johnstone and those who wish to remain Mrs Juliana Wheeler Miss Harriet Ruffer Gaye and Kent Gardner Ms Amy Thompson John Roberts FRIBA Co Ltd) and Mrs Saji Clifford Chance LLP The Nicholas Bacon Charitable Trust Spencer Wills Trust
P F Charitable Trust The Lady Renwick of Clifton Mrs Ghislaine Kane anonymous Mr and Mrs John Winter Edwina Sassoon Mr Mark Garthwaite Mr Milan Tomic Lord Rose of Monewden Mr Toichi Takenaka (Takenaka GAM London Ltd Albert van den Bergh Charitable The Wingate Foundation
Mr and Mrs Maurice Pinto Richard Sharp Dr Elisabeth Kehoe and those who wish to remain Ms Polina Semernikova Stephen and Margarita Grant Miss Navann Ty Sir Simon Robertson Corporation) and Mrs Takenaka Generation Investment Trust Iwan Wirth
John Porter Charitable Trust Mr Richard Simmons CBE Mrs Emma Keswick ARCHITECTURE PATRONS anonymous Mrs Veronica Simmons Mrs Michael Green Ms Zeynep Uzuner Sir Evelyn de Rothschild Mr Yuzo Yagi (Yagi Tsusho Ltd) and Management LLP Blavatnik Family Foundation Lord Leonard and Lady Estelle
Mrs Tineke Pugh Mr Kevin Sneader and Ms Amy Princess Jeet Khemka GROUP Jeffery C Sugarman and Alan D H Mr and Mrs G Halamish Miss Burcu Yuksel Maryam Sachs Mrs Yagi Holdingham Group BNP Paribas Foundation Wolfson Foundation
Sir Simon and Victoria, Lady Robey Muntner Mr D H Killick CONTEMPORARY CIRCLE Newham Mr Lindsay Hamilton and those who wish to remain Richard S Sharp iGuzzini Boeing Foundation Worshipful Company of Chartered
OBE Jane Spack Mrs Aboudi Kosta Chair PATRONS GROUP Mr Matt Symonds Mrs Lesley Haynes anonymous David Stileman Patrons John Lewis Partnership Charlotte Bonham-Carter Charitable Architects
Sir Paul and Lady Ruddock David Stileman Mr and Mrs Herbert Kretzmer Mr Roger Zogolovitch Mrs Arabella Tullo Professor and Mrs Ken Howard RA Prof Tadao Ando HON RA and Mrs Lindsell Train Trust Sian and Matthew Westerman
Mr Wafic Rida Saïd Mr Robert John Yerbury Kathryn Langridge Chair Anonymous Mark and Fiona Hutchinson TRUSTEES OF THE ROYAL TRUSTEES OF ROYAL ACADEMY Ando Macfarlanes William Brake Charitable Trust Galen and Hilary Weston
The Basil Samuel Charitable Trust Joan H Lavender Gold Susan Elliott Mr and Mrs Maurice Wolridge Mr and Mrs S Kahan ACADEMY DEVELOPMENT TRUST AMERICA Mr Shinji Fukukawa and Mrs Marie Curie Ambassador Matthew Barzun and Peter and Geraldine Williams
Mrs Coral Samuel CBE Silver Lady Lever of Manchester Mr Michael Stiff Mr Mario Zonias Paul and Susie Kempe Registered Charity No. 1067270 Fukukawa Rathbone Brothers PLC Brooke Brown Barzun
Edwina Sassoon Lady Agnew Miss R Lomax-Simpson Mr Peter Williams Gold and those who wish to remain Mrs Alkistis Koukouliou Honorary Patron Prof Arata Isozaki HON RA and Mrs Ridgeway Partners Jeanne and William Callanan
The Schroder Foundation Mrs Anna Albertini The Hon Mrs Virginia Lovell Sara Alireza anonymous Nicolette Kwok Honorary President HRH Princess Alexandra Isozaki Rolex David Cannadine
Mr Sean Scully RA Ms Ruth Anderson Mr and Mrs Henry Lumley Silver Joan and Robin Alvarez Mrs Anna Lee HRH The Prince of Wales KG KT The Hon Lady Ogilvy KG GCVO Mr Hideo Morita and Mrs Morita The Royal Society of Chemistry Capital Group
Louisa Service O.B.E. Miss H J C Anstruther Sir John Mactaggart Mr Richard Baldwin Tom and Diane Berger INTERNATIONAL PATRONS Mrs Julie Llewelyn GCB OM AK QSO ADC Mr Koichi Nezu and Mrs Nezu Sky Rosalind Clayton and Martin
Jake and Hélène Marie Shafran Mrs Jacqueline Appel Madeline and Donald Main Jacqueline and Jonathan Mr Jeremy Coller GROUP Mr and Mrs Mark Loveday Honorary Trustees Mr Yoji Shimizu and Mrs Shimizu Slaughter and May Higginson
David and Sophie Shalit Mr Edward Baker and Dr Annie Yim Mr Paul Marshall Gestetner Patrick and Benedicte de April Lu Boon Heng Trustees Christopher Le Brun PRA Mr Masayoshi Son and Mrs Son Stuart Weitzman Cockayne Grants for the Arts
Mr Richard S Sharp Mr Brian Balfour-Oatts Mr and Mrs Richard C Martin Anne Holmes-Drewry Nonneville Niloufar Bakhtiar - Bakhtiari Mr George Maher Lord Davies of Abersoch CBE (Chair) Sir Nicholas Grimshaw CBE PPRA Mr Jonathan Stone and Mrs Stone Ten Acre Mayfair (Native Land, The London Community Foundation
William and Maureen Shenkman Mrs Jane Barker Mr Charles Martin Alan Leibowitz and Barbara Weiss Virginia Gabbertas Steffanie Brown Philip and Val Marsden Philip Marsden (Deputy Chair) Prof Phillip King CBE PPRA Mrs Tadao Suzuki Hotel Properties and Amcorp) Robert and Lynette Craig
The late Pauline Sitwell Catherine Baxendale Gillian McIntosh Mr and Mrs Robin Lough Mr Alexander Green Bonnie Chan Woo Itxaso Mediavilla-Murray President of the Royal Academy (ex Trustees Mrs Yuko Tadano Trowers & Hamlins LLP Mr and Mrs Damon de Laszlo
Mr Christopher Smith Mrs Elissa Benchimol Andrew and Judith McKinna Mr Stephen Musgrave Jessica Lavooy Andres O Clase Jim Moyes officio) Declan Kelly (Chair) Mr Hideya Taida HON CBE and Mrs UBS Wealth Management Gilbert and Eileen Edgar Foundation
Mr Brian Smith Mrs J K M Bentley, Liveinart The Anthony and Elizabeth Mr Paul Sandliands Mr Michael Marx Valentina Drouin Emma O’Donoghue Treasurer of the Royal Academy (ex Monika McLennan (Vice-chair) Taida Value Retail Mary Ellis
Mr and Mrs Roger Staton Mrs Francelle Bradford Mellows Charitable Trust and those who wish to remain Simon and Sabi North Stephen Fitzgerald Mr William Ramsay officio) Elizabeth Crain (Treasurer) Mr Shuji Takashina and Mrs Weil The Eranda Foundation
Sir Hugh and Lady Stevenson Eleanor E Brass Mr David Mirvish anonymous Mr and Mrs Simon Oliver Belma Gaudio Peter Rice Esq Aryeh Bourkoff Takashina The Exhibition Supporters’ Circle
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