Some Important Notes

N. Annamalai M.Sc,M.Phil.,
DST- INSPIRE (SRF)
Department of Mathematics
Bharathidasan University
Tiruchirappalli-24
Email: algebra.annamalai@gmail.com
Website: https://annamalaimaths.wordpress.com

October 14, 2017

2

ALGEBRA

1. Let GL(n, q) be the group of all n × n invertible matrices over the finite
field Fq , where q = pm , p is a prime and some positive integer m. Then
n(n−1)
(i)O(GL(n, q)) = q 2 (q n − 1)(q n−1 − 1) · · · (q − 1).
n(n−1)
(ii) Order of Sylow p-subgroup of GL(n, q) is q 2 .
n(n−1)
q 2 (q n − 1)(q n−1 − 1) · · · (q − 1)
(iii) O(SL(n, q)) = .
(q − 1)
2. The center Z(GL(n, q)) = {kIn | k ∈ F∗q }, where In is the identity
matrix.

3. The centralizer (normalizer)

N (SL(n, q)) = {kIn | k ∈ F∗q and k n = 1}.

4. Z(SL(n, q)) = {kIn | k ∈ F∗q and k n = 1}.

5. | Z(SL(n, q)) |= gcd(n, q − 1).

O(G)
6. Let G be a finite group and a ∈ G. Then O(cl(a)) = .
O(N (a))
G ∼
7. = I(G).
Z(G)
n!
8. In Sn , the number of distinct cycles of length r is (r 6 n).
r(n − r)!
9. Converse of Lagrange’s theorem holds in finite cyclic groups and prime
power order.
T
10. Z(G) = N (a).
a∈G

11. The number of group homomorphism from Zm to Zn is gcd(m, n).

12. Let G be an infinite cyclic group. Then | Aut(G) |= 2.

13. Let G be a finite cyclic group of order n. Then | Aut(G) |= ϕ(n).

14. Aut(Sn ) ∼
= Sn , Z(Sn ) = {I} for n ≥ 3 and n 6= 6.
∼
| ⊕Z⊕
15. Aut(Z {z· · · ⊕ Z}) = GL(n, Z).
n times
 3

16. Aut(Zpm ⊕ Zpm ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zpm ) ∼

= GL(n, Zpm ).
| {z }
n times

17. Aut(Z2 ⊕ Z4 ) ∼
= D8 .
k
(n − 2i ) where k = [log2 (n −
Q
18. If G has order n > 1, then |Aut(G)| ≤
i=0
1)].

19. Let p be a prime number, and let G be a finite abelian group in which
every element has order p. Then Aut(G) ∼= GL(n, Zp ), where n is the
dimension of G over Zp .

20. If G is a group of order n and F is any field, then GL(n, F ) contains a

subgroup isomorphic to G.

21. Let G = G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn , where the Gi are abelian groups. Then

Aut(G) is isomorphic with the group of all invertible n × n matrices
whose (i, j) entries belong to Hom(Gi , Gj ), the usual matrix product
begin the group operation.

22. If O(G) = p2 q 2 and q - p2 − 1, p - q 2 − 1, then G is abelian.

23. G is a finite group of order p2 q where p and q are distinct primes such
that p2  1(modq) and q  1(modp). Then G is an abelian group. If p
divides q − 1, then any group of order p2 q is abelian.

24. If p does not divide | Aut(G) |, then any group of order pq 2 is abelian.

25. If G is a non-abelian finite group, then |Z(G)| ≤ 41 |G|.

26. If H and K are subgroups of a finite group G satisfying (|G : H|, |G :

K|) = 1, then G = HK.

27. If G is a simple group of order 60, then G is isomorphic to A5 .

28. Let G be a group of order pqr, where p > q > r are primes. If p − 1 is
not divisible by q or r and q − 1 is not divisible by r, then G must be
abelian (hence cyclic).

29. Abelian groups have exactly one Sylow p-subgroup for each p.

30. The class equation of G is

P O(G)
O(G) = O(Z(G)) + .
a∈Z(G)
/ O(N (a))
4

31. Let G be a non-abelian group of order p3 . The number of conjugate

classes of G is p2 + p − 1.

32. Let G be a finite group of order n and p be a prime number such that
n
p > . Then any subgroup of order p in G is normal in G.
p
33. Let G be a finite group of order n and p be a prime number such that
p2 does not divide n. Then any subgroup of order p in G is normal in
G.

34. The number of non-isomorphic abelian groups of order pn , (p a prime)

is p(n) (partition of n).

35. The number of groups of order n is at most nnlog2 n .

36. A group of order n can be generated by a set of at most log2 n elements.

37. Let n > 1. The content of n is defined to be the product of all distinct
primes dividing n and is denoted by c(n). a ∈ Zn is nilpotent iff c(n)
divides a.

38. For any integers a and n with 0 ≤ a < n, then a is idempotent in Zn

iff a(a − 1) is a multiple of n.

39. Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + aq−2 xq−2 ∈ Fq [x]. Then the number of non-
zero solutions of the polynomial in Fq is equal to q − 1 − r, r = rank(A)
 
a0 a1 a2 · · · aq−2
 a1 a2 a3 · · · a0 
 
where A =  a2 a3 a4 · · · a1 
 
 .. .. .. . . .. 
 . . . . . 
aq−2 a0 a1 · · · aq−1 q−1×q−1

40. Any ring of prime order is commutative.

41. A ring of order p2 ( p a prime) may not be commutative.

42. Smallest non commutative ring is of order 4.

43. Ch(R × S) = l.c.m(ChR, ChS).

√
44. Z[ −19] is Principle Ideal Doamin but not Euclidean Domain.

45. A field (F, +, . ) is always a Unique Factorization Domain.

 5
√
46. Z[ −5] is an integral domain which is not a Unique Factorization Do-
main.

47. Let F be a field. Then F[x, y] is an example of a Unique Factorization

Domain D which is not a Principle Ideal Doamin.

48. Zn has no non-zero nilpotent iff n is square free.

R
49. If R has unity 1, then 1 + I is unity of .
I
50. Field of reals can be imbedded into the field of complex numbers.

51. If x ∈ [0, 1], then M = {f ∈ C[0, 1] | f (x) = 0} is a maximal ideal of

C[0, 1].

52. If F is a field, then the kernel of any evaluation map F [x] −→ F is a

maximal ideal.

53. A Euclidean domain possesses unity.

54. Every field is a Euclidean domain.

R[x] ∼
55. For any commutative ring R with unity, = R.
hxi

56. An integral domain R with unity is a field iff R[x] is a Principle Ideal
Domain.

57. The order of Sylow p-subgroup of Sn is pk where k = [ np ] + [ pn2 ] + · · · .

58. Let σ = (1, 2, 3, · · · , n) ∈ Sn . The number of elements in the conjugate

class of σ is (n − 1)!.

59. If G is a group and A is an abelian

 group, then there is a bijec-
tion between Hom(G, A) and Hom [G,G]G
, A where G0 = [G, G] =
haba−1 b−1 i.

60. Sn0 = An for n ≥ 1, A0n = An for n ≥ 5 and A04 = K4 .

61. (GL(n, C))0 = SL(n, C) = (SL(n, C))0 .

0
62. For n ≥ 3, D2n is hs2 i or hsi according as n is even or odd.

63. If a normal subgroup N of An (n ≥ 3) contains a 3-cycle, then N = An .

6

A4
64. is cyclic group of order 3.
V4

S4 ∼
65. = S3 .
V4

Q∼
66. = µ∞ = {all roots of 1 in C}.
Z
C∼ C∗
67. = R, ∗ ∼
= S 1.
R R
C∗ ∼ ∗
68. = R+ .
S1
GL(n, C) ∼ ∗
69. =C .
SL(n, C)

GL(n, Z) ∼
70. = {−1, 1}.
SL(n, Z)

U (n, C) ∼ 1
71. =S .
SU (n, C)

O(n, C) ∼
72. = {−1, 1}.
SO(n, C)

73. Let G be an abelian group of order pα .

(i) |Aut(G)| = (pα − 1)(pα − p) · · · (pα − pα−1 ).
(ii) The number of subgroups of G of order pβ , 1 ≤ β ≤ α, is

(pα − 1)(pα−1 − 1) · · · (pα−β+1 − 1)

.
(pβ − 1)(pβ−1 − 1) · · · (p − 1)


m
w(m)−w
74. The number of ring homomorphism from Zn to Zm is 2 (n,m) ,
where w(n) denotes the number of prime divisors of n.

75. D2n ∼
= D2k .
hrk i

76. In D2n , (
2 if n is even
O(Z(D2n )) =
1 if n is odd.
 7

77. In D2n ,
(
n + 1 if n is even
Number of elements of order 2 =
n if n is odd.

No.of elements of order n

78. Number of cyclic subgroup of order n = .
ϕ(n)
79. If G is a finite abelian group having a unique subgroup of order p for
every prime divisor p of O(G), then G is cyclic.

80. The group of nth roots of unity is cyclic.

81. A generator for this group is called a primitive n-th root of unity.

82. Let ξ be a primitive nth root of unity, then [Q(ξ); Q] = ϕ(n).

83. The Galois group of the general polynomial of degree n is Sn .

84. Aut(Zn ) ∼
= U (n).
85. The number of permutation in Sn (n ≥ 4) which commute with σ =
(12)(34) is 8(n − 4)!.
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)
86. If σ = (12)(34) in Sn , then | cl(a) |= .
8
87. Let σ ∈ Sn and let m1 , m2 , · · · , ms be distinct integers which appear
in the cycle type of σ (including 1-cycles). For each i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , s}
Ps
assume σ has ki cycles of length mi (so that ki mi = n). The number
i=1
of conjugates of σ is

n!
.
(k1 !mk11 )(k2 !mk22 ) · · · (ks !mks s )

88. Let σ be the m-cycle (1 2 · · · m). Then σ i is also an m-cycle iff (i, m) =
1.

89. If G =< x > be a cyclic group of order n. Then a subgroup H is normal

iff H = hxp i for some prime p|n.

90. In D2n , if k|n, hrk i is normal subgroup in D2n .

91. If |G : H| = m, |G : K| = n. Then lcm(m, n) ≤ |G : H ∩ K| ≤ mn.

8

92. If H ≤ K ≤ G, then |G : H| = |G : K||K : H|.

 
|G|
93. If N is a normal subgroup of the finite group G and |N |, = 1,
|N |
then N is the unique subgroup of G of order |N |.

94. If G is a simple group of odd order, then G ∼

= Zp for some prime p.

95.   group G is solvable iff for every divisor n of |G| such that
The finite
|G|
n, = 1, G has a subgroup of order n.
n
96. If p is prime, then Sp = hσ, τ i, σ is any transposition and τ is any p
cycle.

97. If σ is an m-cycle is Sn . Then |N (σ)| = m(n − m)!.

98. Let p and q be prime numbers with p < q, and let d be the smallest
number such that pd ≡ 1mod q. Then, any group of order pk q where
1 ≤ k < d contains a normal subgroup of order q.

99. If |G| = pd q, then either G contains a normal subgroup of order q or a

normal subgroup of order pd .

100. Let G be a group with a subgroup H of index n. If n! < |G|, then the
group G is not simple.

101. Z(Q8 ) = h−1i, Inn(Q8 ) ∼

= K4 .

102. Z(D8 ) = hr2 i, Inn(D8 ) ∼

= K4 .

103. U (2n ) ∼
= Z2 ⊕ Z2n−2 , n ≥ 3.

104. Let p be a prime and let V be an abelian group with the property that
pv = 0 for all v ∈ V and |V | = pn . Then Aut(V ) ∼
= GLn (Fp ).

105. For all n 6= 6, we have Aut(Sn ) = Inn(Sn ) ∼

= Sn .
For n = 6, we have |Aut(S6 ) : Inn(S6 )| = 2.

106. Aut(D8 ) ∼
= D8 , Aut(Q8 ) ∼
= S4 .

107. Sylow p−subgroup of D2n is cyclic and normal for every odd prime p.
SL2 (F3 ) ∼
108. = A4 .
Z(SL2 (F3 ))
 9

G
109. If N is a normal subgroup of G, then np ( N ) ≤ np (G).

110. SL2 (F4 ) ∼

= A5 .

111. np (A × B) = np (A)np (B), where A, B are finite groups.

112. If x is a nilpotent, then 1 + x is unit.

113. Sum of unit and nilpotent is unit.

114. mZ + nZ = dZ, d = gcd(m, n).

115. mZ ∩ nZ = lZ, l = lcm(m, n).

Z[i]
116. If q ∈ Z be a prime with q ≡ 3(mod 4). Then is a field with q 2
hqi
elements.
n
Z[i] Z[i]
117. Let π be an irreducible element in Z[i]. Then n
= .
hπ i hπi

118. If F is a field, then the polynomial ring F [x] is a Euclidean domain.

119. R[x2 , x3 ] is not Euclidean domain.

120. If R is Unique Factorization Domain, then a polynomial ring in an

arbitrary number of variables with coefficients in R is also a Unique
Factorization Domain.
r
121. Let p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ Z[x]. If s
∈ Q, (r, s) = 1 and
p( rs ) = 0, then r|a0 and s|an .

122. If p(x) is a monic polynomial with integer coeffients and p(d) 6= 0 for
all integers d dividing the constant term of p(x), then p(x) has no roots
in Q.

123. A polynomial of degree two or three over a field F is irreducible iff it

has no root in F.

124. An irreducible polynomial over Fq of degree n remains irreducible over

Fqk iff (k, n) = 1.

125. If σ ∈ Sn is the product of disjoint cycles of lenghts n1 , n2 , · · · , nr

with n1 ≤ n2 ≤ · · · ≤ nr (including its 1-cycles), then the integers
n1 , n2 , · · · , nr are called the cycle type of σ.
10

126. Two elements of Sn are conjucate in Sn iff they have the same cycle
type.

127. In a integral domain primes implies irreducibility.

128. Field have no primes and irreducible element.

129. Let φ : F → F be a homomorphism of fields. Then φ is either identicaly

0 or is injective, so that the image of φ is either 0 or isomorphic to F.

130. If f (x) ∈ F [x] has n distinct roots in its splitting field E, then Gal(E/F )
is isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group Sn , and so its order
is a divisor of n!.

131. Gal(Zpn |Zp ) ∼

= Zn .

132. If F is a field and E = F (α), where α is a primitive nth root of

unity, then Gal(E/F ) is isomorphic to a subgroup of U (n) and hence
Gal(E/F ) is an abelian group.

133. Let F be finite field of order pn . Then the Aut(F ) is cyclic group of
order n.

134. A polynomial f (x) = xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c0 is reduced if cn−1 = 0.

If f (x) is a monic polynomial of degree n and if cn−1 6= 0 in F, then its
associated reduced polynomial is fg (x) = f (x − cn−1
n
).

135. A polynomial f (x) and its associated reduced polynomial fg

(x) have
same discriminant.

(x) = x3 + qx + r is D = −4q 3 −
136. The discriminant of a reduced cubic fg
27r2 .

137. If f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c, then its associated reduced polynomial is

2 3
x3 + qx + r, where q = b − a3 and r = 2a 27
− ab
3
+ c.

138. The discriminant of f (x) is D = a2 b2 − 4b3 − 4a3 c − 27c2 + 18abc.

139. Let f (x) ∈ Q[x] be an irreducible cubic with Galois group G and
discriminant D.
(i) f (x) has exactly one real root iff D < 0, in which case G ∼
= S3 .
√
√ real roots iff D > 0. In this case, either D ∈ Q
(ii) f (x) has three
∼
and G = Z3 or D ∈ / Q and G ∼ = S3 .
 11

140. Let n be a positive integer. The sequence of n consecutive composite

numbers is (n + 1)! + 2, (n + 1)! + 3, · · · , (n + 1)! + (n + 1).
141. The area of the polygon whose vertices are the nth roots of unity in the
complex plane, when n ≥ 3 is n2 sin 2π
n
.
P
142. Let p be a prime and let n be a positive integer, if m ≥ 0 and if is
the sum of the p-adic digits of m, then
P
nm = n (modp).

143. n3 = n (mod 6) for all n ∈ Z.

144. gcd(a, b) is the smallest positive integer of the form as + bt.
145. Let n and a be positive integers and let d = gcd(a, n).
Then ax ≡ 1(mod n) has a solution iff d = 1.
146. Let G be a group and let a be an element of G of order n. For each
integer k between 1 and n, then |ak | = |an−k |.
147. U (2n ), (n ≥ 3) is not cyclic.
148. The number of subgroup of the dihedral group Dn (n ≥ 3) is d(n)+σ(n).
Where d(n) is the number of positive divisors of n and σ(n) is the sum
of the positive divisors of n.
149. Every subgroup of Dn of odd order is cyclic.
150. The group of rational numbers under addition, has no proper subgroup
of finite index.
151. Suppose (t, s) = 1. Then U (st) ' U (s) ⊕ U (t).
152. U (2n ) ' Z2 ⊕ Z2n−2 , n ≥ 3.
153. U (pn ) ' Zpn −pn−1 , p odd prime.
154. The centre of a group is characteristic.
G
155. If is cyclic, then G is abelian.
Z(G)
156. If G is non-abelian, then Aut(G) is not cyclic.
Z⊕Z
157. ' Za ⊕ Zb .
h(a, 0)i × h(0, b)i
12

158. If A is finite, then

A ⊕ B ' A ⊕ C iff B ⊕ C.

D4
159. ' Z2 ⊕ Z2 .
Z(D4 )
Q
160. Let G be the group . Then for every positive integer t, G has a unique
Z
cyclic subgroup of G.

161. If 1 + k is idempotent in Zn , then n − k is an idempotent in Zn .

162. If I is an maximal ideal of a commutative ring R with unity, then I[x]

need not be maximal ideal in R[x].

163. If I is a prime ideal of a commutative ring R with unity, then I[x] is a

prime ideal of R[x].

164. Let f (x) and g(x) be irreducible polynomial over a field F. If f (x) and
g(x) are not associates, then

F [x] F [x] F [x]

' ⊕ .
hf (x) g(x)i hf (x)i hg(x)i

165. In Zn , there are 2d idempotent elements, where d is the number of

distinct prime divisors of n.

166. Sum of positive integers less than or equal to n and relatively prime to
nφ(n)
n is .
2
167. If n = pα1 1 pα2 2 · · · pαk k , then the sum of all positive divisors of n is
 α1 +1  α2 +1   αk +1 
p1 −1 p2 −1 pk −1
σ(n) = ··· .
p1 − 1 p2 − 1 pk − 1

168. If 2 6= d|n, then the number of elements of order d in D2n is φ(d).

P
169. Number of elements of order d in Zn × Zm is φ(d1 )φ(d2 ), where
d1 |n,d2 |m
d = lcm(d1 , d2 ).

U (n)
170. If k|n and Uk (n) = {x ∈ U (n) | x ≡ 1(mod k)}, then ' U (k).
Uk (n)
 13

Z×Z
171. is not cyclic if gcd(a, b) 6= 1.
h(a, b)i
Q
172. Number of elements of order n in is φ(n).
Z
n!
173. Number of elements of order d in Sn is ,
1α1 2α2 · · · k αk α1 !α2 ! · · · αk !
where lcm(1, 2, · · · , k) = d and αi is the number of i in selected parti-
tion.

174. |Aut(D2n )| = nφ(n) where n ≥ 3.

175. Number of conjugate class of D2n is equal to

(
n+6
2
if n is even
n+3
2
if n is odd

176. Zn [i] ' Zn × Zn .

177. If 4|p − 3, then Zp [i] is an integral domain.

178. Sum of two subring need not be subring.

Z[i]
179. ' Za2 +b2 if gcd(a, b) = 1.
ha + ibi
Z[i] Z[i]
180. ' Zn [i] ' .
hni hini
Z[x]
181. ' Zm [x].
hmi
182. (GF (pn ), +) ' Zp × Zp × · · · × Zp .
| {z }
n ×times

183. If x = a + ib either a = 0 or b = 0 and |x| = p with 4|p − 3, then x is

irreducible element of Z[i].

184. If x = a + ib and a 6= 0, b 6= 0 and a2 + b2 = p, then x is irreducible in

Z[i].
√
185. Z[ −d] is not PID if d > 2.
√
186. Z[ −d] is ED if d = 1, 2.
14

1/n1 1/n2 1/nk

187. [Q(a1 , a2 , · · · , ak ) : Q] = lcm(n1 , n2 , · · · , nk ) where ai 6= aj 6=
1.

188. Let A be a group. For every element a ∈ A there exists a unique group
homomorphism φa : Z → A that sends 1 7→ a.

189. Let A be a group. Then there exists a bijection between Hom(Z, A)

and A. i.e., |Hom(Z, A)| = |A|.

190. For a group G, the map Hom(G, G1 ×G2 ) → Hom(G, G1 )×Hom(G, G2 )

is a bijection.

191. For a group G, the map Hom(G1 ×G2 , G) → Hom(G1 , G)×Hom(G2 , G)

is a bijection.

192. Number of group homomorphism f : Zm → Zn × Zk is gcd(m, n) ×

gcd(m, k).

193. Number of group homomorphism f : Zn × Zk → Zm is gcd(m, n) ×

gcd(m, k).

194. If n|m, then number of onto homomorphism f : Zm → Zn is φ(n).

195. Number of isomorphism from f : Zn → Zn is φ(n).

196. Number of homomorphism from f : Z → Zn is n.

197. Number of homomorphism from f : Zn → Z is 1.

198. Number of homomorphism f : Sn → Zm , n ≥ 3 is

(
1 if m is odd
2 if m is even.

199. Number of associates of a ∈ Zm are φ(o(a)).

m
200. List of associates cl(a) = {x ∈ Zm | (x,m)
= o(a)}.

201. Number of nilpotent elements in Zpn is pn−1 .

202. If m = pn1 1 pn2 2 · · · prnr , then number of nilpotent elements in Zm is

pn1 1 −1 pn2 2 −1 · · · prnr −1 .
 15

LINEAR ALGEBRA

1. The number of an integer n × n matrix with determinant 1 is cn =

1 2n


n+1 n
, n ≥ 1.

2. If sum of the elements in each column (row) of a square matrix of order

n is k, then the sum of the elements in each column (row) of Am will
be k m .

3. Let A be an m×n matrix with all
entries
are distinct. Then the number
of sub matrix of order i × j is mi × nj .

4. The number of sub matrix of all order of a m × n matrix A with all

m P
n
m
× nj = (2m − 1)(2n − 1).
P


entries are distinct is i
i=1 j=1

5. Let A be an m × n matrix with all entries are equal. Then the number
of sub matrix of order i × j is 1.

6. The number of sub matrix of all order of a m × n matrix A with all

entries are equal is nm.

7. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space, and let T : V → V be

linear.
(i) If rank(T ) = rank(T 2 ), then R(T ) ∩ N (T ) = {0} and V = R(T ) ⊕
N (T ).
(ii) V = R(T k ) ⊕ N (T k ) for some k > 0.
 
a 0 ··· 0 b
0 a · · · b 0
8. Let ∆2n =  .. .. . Then det(∆2n ) = (a2 − b2 )n .
 
.. .. 
. . · · · . .
b 0 · · · 0 a 2n×2n

9. Let A ∈ Mm×n (F ). Then rank(A∗ A) = rank(A).

10. If A is an m × n matrix such that rank(A) = n, then A∗ A is invertible.

√
11. For any square matrix A, k A k is finite and, in fact, equals λ, where
λ is the largest eigenvalue of A∗ A.

12. Let A be an invertible matrix. Then k A−1 k= √1 ,

λ
where λ is the
smallest eigenvalue of A∗ A.
16

13. Let T be a linear operator on V whose characteristic polynomial splits,

and let λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λk be the distinct eigenvalues of T . Then T is diag-
onalisable iff rank(T − λi I) = rank(T − λi I)2 for 1 ≤ i ≤ k.

14. A linear operator T on a finite-dimensional vector space V is diagonal-

isable iff its Jordan canonical form is a diagonal matrix.

15. The system of linear equations Ax = b has a solution iff b ∈ R(A)

(Row space of A).

16. An orthonormal set in an inner product space is linearly independent.

17. Let W1 and W2 be subspaces of a finite dimensional inner product space

V . Then
(i) (W1 + W2 )⊥ = W1⊥ ∩ W2⊥
(ii)(W1 ∩ W2 )⊥ = W1⊥ + W2⊥
 
a b
18. Let A = . Then A is diagonalisable iff
c d
(a + d)2 > 4(ad − bc).

19. For any square matrix A = [aij ] of order n,

n
P
R(A) = max{Ri (A) = | aij |: 1 ≤ i ≤ n}
j=1
n
P
C(A) = max{Cj (A) = | aij |: 1 ≤ j ≤ n}
i=1

si = Ri (A)− | aii |

20. For any square matrix A of order n, every eigen value λ of A satisfies
| λ − all |≤ sl for some 1 ≤ l ≤ n.

21. For any square matrix A of order n, every eigen value of A satisfies
| λ |≤ min{R(A), C(A)}.
 
a b1 0 · · · · · · 0
c1 a
 b2 ··· 

22. The eigen value of the tridiagonal matrix A = 
 c 2 a b 3


 .. 
 . ··· ··· a bn−1 
··· cn−1 a n×n
q
(n ≥ 3) satisfies the inequality | λ − a |< 2 max | bi | max | ci |.
i i
 17

23. If A is idempotent. then Rank(A) = T rac(A).

24. If A is symmetric matrix, then Rank(A) is equal to the number of

non-zero eigen values of A.

25. Test for diagonalization

Let T be a linear operator on an n-dimensional vector space V . Then
T is diagonalizable iff
(i) The characteristic polynomial of T splits.
(ii) For each eigen value λ of T , the multiplicity of λ equals
n − rank(T − λI).

26.
 
A B
rank = rank(A) + rank(D − BA−1 C)
C D
= rank(D) + rank(A − CD−1 B).

27.
 
A B
det = det(A)det(D − BA−1 C)
C D
= det(D)det(A − CD−1 B).

28. Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space over

C. Then T is diagonalisable iff T is annihilated by some polynomial f
over C which has distinct roots.

29. A linear operator T on a finite-dimensional vector space V is diagonal-

izable iff V is the direct sum of the eigen spaces of T .

30. Any projection E on a vector space V is diagonalizable.

31. If N is nilpotent, then I + N is invertible.

32. If N is nilpotent, then det(I + N ) = 1.

33. If A is a matrix and det(I + tA) = 1 for all t, then A is nilpotent.

34. Every singular matrix can be written as a product of nilpotent matrices.

18

35. For an n × n square matrix N with real (or complex) entries, the
following are equivalent:
(i) N is nilpotent
(ii) The minimal polynomial of N is λk for some positive integer k ≤ n
(iii) The characteristic polynomial for N is λn
(iv) The only eigen values of N is 0
(v) trace(N k ) = 0 for all k > 0.

36. Dimension of the vector space of n × n matrices when trace is zero is

n2 − 1.
n
P
37. If V = {A = (aij )m×n : aij = 0, ∀i = 1, 2, · · · , m}
j=1

(i) When column is zero then dimension of V is mn − m

(ii) If one row and one column is zero,then its dimension is
(m − 1)(n − 1) = mn − m − n + 1
P n(n + 1)
38. The dimension of symmetric matrices of vector space is n=
2
P n(n − 1)
39. The dimension of skew symmetric matrices is (n − 1) =
2
n(n + 1)
40. The dimension of symmetric matrices with trace zero is −1
2
41. The dimension of skew-symmetric matrices with trace zero is
n(n − 1)
2
42. Vector space of n × n matrix with complex field over the real number
have dimension 2n2 .

43. Dimension of n × n Hermitian matrices with complex entry over the

field of real numbers is 2n2 .

44. Vector space of n × n skew-Hermitian matrices over R, then it’s dimen-

sion is n2 .
P
45. Vector space of upper triangular matrices, it’s dimension is n
P
46. Vector space of lower triangular matrices, it’s dimension is n
 19

47. The dimension of scalar matrices is 1.

48. Dimension of diagonal matrices is n.

49. Dimension of scalar matrices and trace zero is 0.

50. The number of basis in the finite dimensional n vector space over a
finite field Zp is,

(pn − 1)(pn − p) · · · (pn − pn−1 )

n!
51. The number of subspaces of dimension r is

(pn − 1)(pn − p) · · · (pn − pr−1 )

(pr − 1)(pr − p) · · · (pr − pr−1 )

52. | adjA |=| A |n−1 , if |A| =

6 0

53. | adj. adj · · · adjA |=| A |(n−1)r

54. (i) rank(A) = n ⇒ rank(adjA) = n

(ii) rank(A) = n − 1 ⇒ rank(adjA) = 1
(iii) rank(A) < n − 1 ⇒ rank(adjA) = 0
(iv) rank(AB) ≤ min{rank(A), rank(B)}

55. Let A and B be any n × n matrix.

Then rank(A)+rank(B)−n ≤ rank(AB) ≤ min{rank(A), rank(B)}.

56. rank(A + B) ≤ rank(A) + rank(B).

57. Let A be an m × n matrix and B be any n × p matrix. Then

Then rank(AB) ≥ rank(A) + rank(B) − n.

58. | A − λI |= λ3 − trace(A)λ2 + trace(adj(A))λ− | A |= 0.

59. Sum of the eigen values = trace(A).

60. Product of eigen values = det(A).

61. If A is nilpotent then A + λI is always non-singular for any value of λ.

62. The eigen values of symmetric / Hermitian matrix are real.

20

63. The eigen values of skew-Hermitian is purely imaginary.

64. The skew-Hermitian matrices have even rank.

65. The determinant of skew-Hermitian matrix of odd order is zero.

66. For a 2 × 2 matrix, the eigen values are

p
[(a11 + a22 ) ± 4a12 a21 + (a11 − a22 )2 ]
λ=
2
67. If T : R2 → R2 defined by
T (x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy) is C-linear iff a = d and b = −c.

68. Let A be an n × n matrix (aij ) with complex entries. Suppose |aii | >
Pn
|aij |, j 6= i, for all i = 1, 2 · · · , n. Then A is invertible.
j=1

69. Let A be an m × n matrix and WA = {x ∈ Rm | xA = 0}. Then

dimWA = m − rank(A).

70. Let A be an m × n matrix and B be an n × p matrix and WAB = {x ∈

Rm | xAB = 0}. Then dimWAB = m − rank(AB).

REAL ANALYSIS

1. Every function is a curve but every curve may not be a function.

2. Card(Z) = Card(N × N) = Card(Q) = ℵ0 (Aleph naught).

3. Card(R) = Card(R × R) = c (Continum).

4. There is a one-one correspondence R → R × R.

5. There is a one-one correspondence between Rm and Rn for all positive

integers m and n.

6. Every continuous open mapping of R to R is monotonic.

7. A metric space which is not complete is the space of all rational num-
bers, with d(x, y) = |x − y|.

8. Suppose {sn } is monotonice. Then {sn } converges iff it is bounded.

9. The product of two convergent series converges, and to the right value,
if at least one of the two series coverges absolutely.
 21

10. For any set A,

(i) int(A) ⊂ A ⊂ cl(A) = A ∪ A0 .

11. (i) If A ⊂ B, then int(A) ⊂ int(B).

(ii) int(A) ∪ int(B) ⊂ int(A ∪ B).
(iii) int(A) ∩ int(B) = int(A ∩ B).

12. Suppose that {zn } is a complex sequence with limit z and suppose that
{an } is a positive sequence such that limn→∞ (a1 + a2 + · · · + an ) = +∞.
a1 z1 + a2 z2 + · · · + an zn
Then lim = z.
n→∞ a1 + a2 + · · · an
xn
13. lim = +∞ if x > 1 and k ∈ N.
n→∞ nk

14. lim nk xn = 0 if |x| < 1 and k ∈ N.

n→∞
1
15. lim x n = 1 if x > 0.
n→∞

kn
16. For each n ∈ N, lim = 0.
k→∞ 2k

2nk
17. For each n ∈ N, lim = 0.
k→∞ k!

18. For m ≥ 2,
1
(i) m → 0 as m → ∞.
k
1
(ii) k → 0 as m → ∞.
m
√
19. Let a1 , a2 , · · · , ak ∈ R+ . Then lim n
an1 + an2 + · · · ank = max{a1 , a2 , · · · , ak }.
n→∞

20. Every increasing sequence in Q which is bounded above is a Cauchy

sequence.

21. Every decreasing sequence in Q which is bounded below is a Cauchy

sequence.
P P
22. Let xn be a series in R such that xn ≥ 0 for all n ∈ N. Then xn
converges iff (sn ) is bounded.
P
If (xn ) is a decreasing sequence in [0, ∞), then
23. P xn converges iff
n n
2 x2 converges.
22

24. π = 12 min{t > 0 | eit = 1}.

25. Every Boral set is measurable set.

26. There exists measurable set which is not Boral set.

27. For any set A, there exists a measurable set E containing A (i.e., E ⊂
A) and such that m ∗ (A) = m(E).

28. Every non-empty open set has positive measure.

29. There exists a non-measurable set.

Rx dy
30. log x = .
1 y

31. If f : R → R is one-one, then d(a, b) = |f (a) − f (b)| is metric.

32. The directional derivative of z = f (x, y) in the direction of unit vector

u = (a, b) is

f (x + ah, y + bh) − f (x, y)

Du f (x, y) = lim
h→0 h

33. Du f (x, y) = Of (x, y)· u

34. At a point (x, y), the maximum value of the directional derivative
Du f (x, y) is | Of (x, y) |.

35. If f (x, y) is differentiable, then f has a directional derivative in the

direction of every unit vector u = (a, b) and Du f (x, y) = fx (x, y)a +
fy (x, y)b.

36. Let {xn } be a sequence such that there exist A > 0 and c ∈ (0, 1) for
which | xn+1 − xn |≤ Acn for any n ≥ 1. Then {xn } is Cauchy.

37. {pn } is a Cauchy sequence iff lim diam EN = 0.

n→∞

Where EN = {pN , pN +1 , · · · } and diam A = sup{d(x, y)|x, y ∈ A}

38. Let {fn } is the Fibonacci number sequence, then fn < 2n .

39. Test for continuity at x = 0

Left-hand limit = lim f (0 − h)
h→0

Right-hand limit = lim f (0 + h)

h→0
 23

40. Test for differentiability at x = 0

f (0 − h) − f (0)
Left-hand derivative = lim
h→0 −h
f (0 + h) − f (0)
Right-hand derivative = lim
h→0 h
41. As h → 0, sin( h1 ) oscillates between −1 and 1.

42. As h → 0, cos( h1 ) oscillates between −1 and 1.

43. Let f (x) be a periodic function. If lim f (x) exists, then f (x) is a
x→∞
constant.

44. lim sinx does not exist.

x→∞

45. If f 00 (x) exists and is continuous in a neighborhood of x = a, then

f (a + h) − 2f (a) + f (a − h)
lim 2
= f 00 (a)
h→0 h

46. If T : Rn −→ Rm is a linear map, then T is differentiable at every

a ∈ Rn with T 0 (a) = T (a).

47. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R, then f [ 12 (x1 + x2 )] ≤ 21 [f (x1 ) + f (x2 )].
∞
P
48. Suppose a1 ≥ a2 ≥ · · · ≥ 0. Then the series an converges iff the
n=1
∞
2k a2k converges.
P
series
k=0

49. The following functions are uniformly continuous

(i) f : [1, ∞) −→ R
(ii) Any linear map T : Rm −→ Rn
(iii) f : R −→ R such that f 0 (x) exists and is bounded.
√ a+b
50. The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean Inequality for a, b is ab 6 2
.

51. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers and let x ∈ R. If (an ) is a

sequence of positive real numbers with lim (an ) = 0 and if for some
n→∞
constant c > 0 and some m ∈ N, we have
| xn − x |6 can , n > m. Then lim xn = x.
n→∞
24

52. If 0 < b < 1, then lim bn = 0.

n→∞

1
53. If c > 0, then lim c n = 1.
n→∞

1
54. lim n n = 1.
n→∞

sin n
55. lim = 0.
n→∞ n
xn+1
56. Let (xn ) be a sequence of positive real numbers such that l = lim
n→∞ xn
exists. If |l| < 1, then (xn ) converges and lim (xn ) = 0
n→∞

57. xn = 1 + 12 + 31 + · · · + 1
n
for n ∈ N, is a divergent sequence.

58. lim (1 + n1 )n = e, 2 < e < 3

n→∞

59. lim (1 + na )bn = eab .

n→∞

60. lim (1 + xa )bx = eab .

x→∞

61. A continuous periodic function on R is bounded and uniformly contin-

uous on R.

62. If f : A −→ R is a Lipschitz function, then f is uniformly continuous

on A.

63. If lim |f (x)| = 0, then f is uniformly continuous.

|x|→∞

64. If f has compact support, then f is uniformly continuous.

65. Suppose F is differentiable on I(interval) | f 0 (x) |6 M , ∀x ∈ I, then

F is uniformly continuous on I.

66. lim x sin( x1 ) = 0.

x→0

67. Suppose a ∈ [0, 1], then there exists sequences xn > 0 and yn > 0 such
that xn → 0, yn → 0 and xynn → a.

68. Suppose that φ : [0, ∞) → R is concave and φ(0) = 0. Then

φ(x + y) ≤ φ(x) + φ(y), ∀x, y > 0.

 25

69. Let f be a continuous real valued function on [0, ∞) such that lim f (x)
x→∞
exists (finitely). Then f is uniformly continuous.

70. f : R → R continuous function and |f (x) − f (y)| ≥ |x − y| for all x

and y. Then f (R) = R.

71. Let f : [0, ∞) → R be a uniformly continuous function with the prop-

Rb
erty that lim f (x)dx exists (as a finite limit). Then lim f (x) = 0.
b→∞ 0 x→∞

72. A real valued function of a complex variable either has derivative zero
or the derivative does not exist.

73. Let I ⊆ R be an interval and let f : I → R be monotone on I. Then

the set of points D ⊆ I at which f is discontinuous is a countable set.

74. If h : R → R satisfies the identity h(x + y) = h(x) + h(y), ∀x, y ∈ R

and if h is continuous at a single point x0 , then h is continuous at every
point of R.

75. If h is a monotone function satisfying h(x + y) = h(x) + h(y), then h

must be continuous on R.

76. If f is bounded and there is a finite set E such that f is continuous at

every point of [a, b] \ E, then f is Riemann integrable.

77. A bounded function f : [a, b] → R is Riemann integrable iff it is

continuous almost every where on [a, b].

78. The only connected subsets of the real line are the intervals ( open,
closed, semi-open or semi-closed ).

79. A non-empty open subset of the complex plane is connected iff any
two of its points can be joined by polygon lying in the set having its
segments parallel to the coordinates axes.

80. Every compact metric space is complete.

81. A subset S of a metric space X is compact iff S is complete and totally

bounded.

82. A metric space is compact iff if every infinite sequence has a limit
point.

83. Continuous image of connected set is connected.

26

84. Continuous image of a compact set is compact.

85. Suppose E is compact, f is continuous on E iff Graph(f ) is compact.

86. Let f be a differentiable real function on (a, b). f is convex if and only
if f 0 is monotonically increasing.

87. (X, τ ) be a compact topological space and F be a closed subset of X.

Then F is compact.

88. (X, τ ) be a Hausdorff topological space and F be a compact subset of

X. Then F is closed.

89. A complex sequence {zn } converges iff if it is Cauchy.

90. Suppose lim fn (x) = f (x) (x ∈ X). Let Mn = sup | fn (x) − f (x) |.
n→∞ x∈X
Then fn → f uniformly on X iff if Mn → 0 as n → ∞.

91. Suppose {fn } is a sequence of functions definedP on X, and suppose

| fn (x) |≤ M
P n (x ∈ X, n = 1, 2, · · · ). Then fn converges uniformly
on X if Mn converges.

92. The limit of uniformly convergent sequence of complex continuous func-

tions on a metric space is continuous.

93. f : X → Y continuous. Then the graph of f with the subspace topology

of X × Y is homeomorphic to X.
(i) R is homeomorphic to y = x2 . Let f : R → R , f (x) = x2

94. Let f : X → Y be a homeomorphism and let A ⊂ X. Then f in-

duces homeomorphism between A and f (A), (and between X\A and
f (X\A)).
(i) [0, 1) is not homeomorphic to (0, 1), take f = I.

95. Any two open intervals of the real line are homeomorphic.

96. Any two closed intervals of the real line are homeomorphic.

97. Let f : X → Y be a continuous bijection. If X is compact and Y is

Hausdorff then f is a homeomorphism.

98. A bijective continuous map is a homeomorphism iff it is open map.

99. A bijective continuous map is a homeomorphism iff it is closed map.

 27

100. A bijective continuous map from a compact metric space to another

metric space is a closed map and hence is a homeomorphism.

cn is convergent and | arg cn |≤ α < π2 , then it converges abso-

P
101. If
lutely.

102. If ϕ : [a, b] −→ R is a step function, then ϕ ∈ R[a, b]

103. If f : [a, b] −→ R is continuous on [a, b], then f ∈ R[a, b]

104. If f : [a, b] −→ R is monotone on [a, b], then f ∈ R[a, b].

105. Two norms are equivalent

√
(i) k x k2 ≤k x k1 ≤ n k x k2
√
(ii) k x k∞ ≤k x k2 ≤ n k x k∞
(iii) k x k∞ ≤k x k1 ≤ n k x k∞
1 √1
(iv) d
k x k1 ≤ d
k x k2 ≤k x k∞ ≤k x k2 ≤k x k1

106. Box topology on Rw

(i) The box topology is completely regular.
(ii) The box topology is neither compact nor connected.
(iii) The box topology is not first countable.
(iv) Neither is the box topology separable.
(v) The box topology is para compact if the continuum hypothesis is
true.

107. Every metric space is normal.

108. Every compact Hausdorff space is normal.

109. ({0, 1}N , box topology) is not compact.

110. The orthonormal group

O(n) = {A ∈ M at(n; R) : AAT = I} is compact.

111. The Special orthogonal group

SO(n) = {A ∈ O(n) : det(A) = 1} is a closed subgroup of the compact
group O(n), and so is itself compact.

112. The Unitary group

U (n) = {A ∈ M at(n; C) : T ∗ T = I} is compact.
28

113. The Special unitary group

SU (n) = {A ∈ U (n) : det(A) = 1}
is a closed subgroup of the compact group U (n), and so is itself com-
pact.
U (1) × SU (n)
114. U (n) = , w = e2π/n
<w>
115. The Symplectic group
Sp(n) = {A ∈ M at(n; H) : T ∗ T = I}
(Here M at(n; H) denotes the space of n × n matrices with quarternian
entries) is compact.

116. A matrix Lie group is any subgroup G of GL(n; C) with the following
property; If Am is any sequence of matrices in G and Am converges to
some matrix A, then either A ∈ G or A is not invertible. (i.e, a matrix
Lie group is a closed subgroup of GL(n; C))

117. The complex orthogonal group

O(n; C) = {A ∈ GL(n; C) |< Ax, Ay >=< x, y >, ∀x, y ∈ Cn }

118. The Special complex orthogonal group

SO(n; C) = {A ∈ O(n; C) | det(A) = 1}

.

119. Let g denote the (n + k) × (n + k) diagonal matrix with ones in the

first n diagonal entries and minius ones in the last k diagonal entries.

O(n; k) = {A(n+k)×(n+k) | AT g A = g}

120. A matrix Lie group G is said to be compact if the following two condi-
tions are satisfied:
a) If Am is any sequence of matrices in G, and Am converges to a matrix
A, then A is in G.
b) There exists a constant c such that for all A ∈ G, | Aij |≤ c for all
1 ≤ i, j ≤ n.
 29

121.
Compact N on − compact

O(n) GL(n; R)
SO(n) GL(n; C)
U (n) SL(n; R)
SU (n) SL(n; C)
Sp(n) O(n; C)
S ∼
1
= U (1) SO(n; C)
O(n; k)
SO(n; k)
Sp(n : R)
Sp(n; C)
R, Rn , R∗ , C∗

122.
Group Connected?

GL(n; C) yes
SL(n; C) yes
GL(n; R) no
SL(n; R) yes
O(n) no
SO(n) yes
SU (n) yes
O(n; 1) no
S0(n; 1) no

123. Let f (x) and g(x) be two differentiable functions with continuous nth
derivatives. Then
dn
  k
Pn
n d dn−k
(f (x)g(x)) = (f (x)) (g(x)).
dxn k=0 k dxk dxn−k
30
Pn
124. U (P, f ) = i=1 Mi δi , δi = xi − xi−1 .
Pn
125. L(P, f ) = i=1 mi δi , δi = xi − xi−1

126. For every partition P on [a, b], we have L(P, f ) 6 U (P, f )

127. m(b − a) 6 L(P, f ) 6 U (P, f ) 6 M (b − a)

where m = inf{f (x) | x ∈ [a, b]}
M = sup{f (x) | x ∈ [a, b]}

Rb−
128. f (x)dx = inf{U (P, f ) : P is partition of [a, b]}
a

Rb
129. f (x)dx = sup{L(P, f ) : P is partition of [a, b]}
a−

130. L(P, −f ) = −U (P, f )

131. U (P, −f ) = −L(P, f )

Rb R b−
132. f (x)dx ≤ a
f (x)dx
a−

Rb−
133. U (P, f ) f (x)dx + 
a

Rb
134. L(P, f ) > f (x)dx − 
a−

135. W (P, f ) = U (P, f ) − L(P, f )

136. If f is Riemann integrable on [a, b], then

Rb n
P b−a
f (x)dx = lim hf (a + rh), h = n
a n→∞ r=1

137. If f is integrable on [0, 1], then

R1 1
n
f ( nr )
P
f (x)dx = lim
0 n→∞ n r=1

Rb Rb−
138. L(P, f ) 6 f (x)dx 6 f (x)dx 6 U (P, f )
a− a
 31

Rb
139. m(b − a) 6 f (x)dx 6 M (b − a), b ≥ a
a

Rb
140. m(b − a) ≥ f (x)dx ≥ M (b − a), b 6 a.
a

Rb
141. f (x)dx = µ(b − a) , m ≤ µ ≤ M.
a

Rb
142. | f (x)dα(x)| ≤ [α(b) − α(a)] max |f (x)|.
a a≤x≤b

143. Let f (x) be a continuous function and α(x) ∈ C 1 in a ≤ x ≤ b. Then

Zb Zb
f (x)dα(x) = f (x)α0 (x)dx.
a a

144. A function α(x) is of bounded variation in an interval a ≤ x ≤ b iff

α(x) = α1 (x) + α2 (x), where α1 (x) is increasing and α2 (x) is decreasing
in a ≤ x ≤ b.

145. Let f (x) be an increasing function and α(x) is continuous function on

[a, b]. Then

Zb Zb
f (x)dα(x) + α(x)df (x) = α(b)f (b) − α(a)f (a).
a a

146. Let g(x) be a continuous function and f (x) is an increasing function

on [a, b]. Then

Zb Zξ Zb
f (x)g(x)dx = f (a) g(x)dx + f (b) g(x)dx.
a a ξ

147. Let g(x) be a continuous function, f (x) be an increasing function and

f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b]. Then

Zb Zb
f (x)g(x)dx = f (b) g(x)dx, a ≤ ξ ≤ b.
a ξ
32

148. Suppose {sn } is monotonic. Then {sn } converges iff it is bounded.

149. The set of all limit points of a bounded sequence is a compact set
(closed set).

150. fn → 0 iff |fn | → 0.

fn+1 1
151. fn > 0, ∀n ∈ N, lim = l, l > 0, then lim(fn ) n = l.
fn
152. If |A| = m, |B| = n, then the number of one-one functions from A to
n!
B is (n−m)! (m ≤ n).

153. If f (n) is a positive monotonically decreasing

P nfunction of n for all n ∈ N,
a f (an ) converge or diverge
P
then the two infinite series f (n) and
together, a being a positive integer greater than unity.

154. Let f be a function defined for all points in some neighbourhood of a

point b except at the point b itself. Then f (x) → l as x → b iff the
limit of the sequence < f (xn ) > exists and is equal to l for any sequence
< xn >, xn 6= b for any n ∈ N, converging to b.
T
155. If f (x) has period T, then af (bx + c) + d has period |b|
.

156. If f (x) and g(x) has periods T1 and T2 , respectively, then af (x) + bg(x)
has period T = lcm(T1 , T2 ) provided exists.

COMPLEX ANALYSIS

1. If z = x + iy, then max{|x|, |y|} ≤ |z| ≤ |x| + |y|.

2. Every line or circle in C is the solution set of an equation of the form

a|z|2 + w̄z + wz̄ + b = 0, a, b ∈ R, w ∈ C.

3. If {zn } is a sequence of complex numbers, then lim zn = w iff lim |zn −

w| = 0.

4. Limit point of zeros is an isolated essential singularity of f (z).

5. Limit point of poles is a non-isolated essential singularity of f (z).

6. Poles are isolated of f (z).

7. An entire function f : C −→ C has a removable singularity at z = ∞

iff f (z) is constant.
 33

8. An entire function f : C −→ C has a pole at z = ∞ of order k iff f (z)

is a non-constant polynomial of degree k.
9. Let p(z) be a non constant polynomial with real coefficients such that
for some real number a, p(a) 6= 0 but p0 (a) = p00 (a) = 0. Then the
equation p(z) has no real root
10. A Mobius transformation which has a unique fixed point in C is called
Parabolic.
11. A Mobius transformation has exactly two fixed points, then it is called
loxodromic.
12. The four distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 in C∞ all lie on a circle or on a line
iff their cross-ratio (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) is a real number.
13. If f : C −→ C is analytic and f (z) = f (z + z1 ) = f (z + z2 ) for all
z ∈ C, where z1 and z2 are two non-zero complex numbers such that
z1 or z2 ∈
/ R, then f is constant.
14. Let f be analytic function on Ω and z0 ∈ Ω such that f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0, then
f is conformal at z0 .
15. If f has isolated singular point z0 , then
∞ ∞
X X bn
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + , 0 < |z − z0 | < R
n=0 n=1
(z − z0 )n

(i) If all b0n s are zero, then the point z0 is said to be removable sigu-
larity.
(ii) When an infinite number of the coefficient bn in f (z) are non zero,
then z0 is said to be an essential singular point of f .
16. If f has an isolated singularity at z0 , then z = z0 is a removable singu-
larity iff one of the following conditions holds
(i) f is bounded in a deleted nbh of z0
(ii) lim (z − z0 )f (z) exists
z→z0

(iii) lim (z − z0 )f (z) = 0.

z→z0

17. If f has an isolated singularity at z0 , then f (z) has an essential singu-

larity at z0 iff lim f (z) fails to exists either as a finite value or as an
z→z0
infinite limit.
34

18. An entire function f (z) is univalent in C iff f (z) = a0 + a1 z(z ∈ C)

where a0 , a1 are constants with a1 6= 0; that is
Aut(C) = {f ∈ H(C) : f (z) = a0 + a1 z}.

19. If f (z) has a finite limit at z0 , then f (z) is a bounded function in some
neighborhood of z0 .

20. If z0 is pole or essential of f, then z0 is essential of ef .

21. If f (z) is an entire function and have two linearly independent periods
over R, then f (z) is constant.

22. Let f be analytic at a. Then f is one-to-one in some nbh of a iff

f 0 (a) 6= 0.

23. If f (z) is analytic on a complex domain D, and Re(f 0 (z)) > 0 in D,

then f is univalent (one to one) in D.

24. Every non-constant entire function omits at most one complex number
as its value, In other words, if an entire function omits two values, then
it is constant.

25. If f is an entire function such that 0 ∈

/ f (C) and 1 ∈
/ f (C), then f is
constant.

26. If f (z) is entire, Ref (z) or Imf (z) is bounded on C, then f (z) is
constant.

27. If f (z) is entire, Ref (z) of Imf (z) lies in half-plane, then f (z) is con-
stant.

28. Every non constant and non vanishing entire function on C necessarily
has an isolated essential singularity at ∞.

29. A real valued function of a complex variable either has derivative zero
or the derivative does not exits.

30. f :M→M is analytic such that f (a) = 0 and f (a − 1) = b for some

1
a ∈ (0, 1) and b ∈M . Then |b| ≤ .
1 + a − a2
31. f M→M is analytic, |f (z)| ≤ 1 on |z| = 1, f (a) = 0 and f (−a) = b for
2a
some a ∈ (0, 1) and b ∈ (0, 1]. Then |b| ≤ .
1 + a2
 35

32. p(z) is analytic in M with p(0) = 1 and Rep(z) > 0 in M. Then

|p0 (0)| ≤ 2 and

1 − |z| 1 + |z|
≤ |p(z)| ≤ , z ∈M .
1 + |z| 1 − |z|

∂f
33. The complex form of C-R equation fz̄ = = 0.
∂ z̄
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
34. The complex form of Laplace equation = 0 and + =
∂ z̄∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2
∂2
4 .
∂ z̄∂z
35. A function which is harmonic and bounded in C must be constant.

36. The range of a non-constant entire function is a dense subset of C.

37. If f has a removable singularity at z0 , then Res[f (z) : z0 ] = 0

38. If f has an isolated singularity at z0 an is f is even in (z − z0 ), then

Res[f (z); z0 ] = 0.

39. If a is an isolated singularity of f which is not removable, then a is an

essential singularity of ef (z) .

40. Let U denote the open unit disc of C, and T its boundary. For any
z−α
α ∈ U , define φα (z) = . Then
1 − ᾱz
(i) φα is analytic, one to one, onto
(ii) φα (T ) = T
(iii) φ−1
α = φ−α

(iv) φ0α (0) = 1 − |α|2

(v) φ0α (α) = 1
1−|α|2

41. Every one-to-one analytic maps f of U onto itself is given by f (z) =

λφα (z) for some λ ∈ C with |λ| = 1 and for some α ∈ U .

42. If f : 4 → 4̄ is analytic and f (a) = 0 for some a ∈ 4. Then

a−z
| f (z) |≤| ϕa (z) |, where ϕa (z) = for z ∈ 4.
1 − āz
36

43. Let f : 4 → 4̄ be analytic having a zero of order n at the origin,

f (0) = 0 and | f (z) |< 1 for | z |< 1. Then
(i) | f (z) |≤| z |n
(ii) | f n (0) |≤ n!
and the equality holds in (i) for some point 0 6= z0 ∈ 4 or in (ii) occurs
iff f (z) = z n with |  |= 1.

44. Let f (z) is analytic on the unit disk 4 and satisfies the following two
conditions
(i) | f (z) |≤ 1 for all z ∈ 4
(ii) f (a) = b for some a, b ∈ 4.
Then
0 1− | f (a) |2
| f (a) |≤
1− | a |2

and the equality occurs only if f ∈ Aut(4)

√
45. sin−1 z = −ilog(iz + 1 − z 2 )
√
46. cos−1 z = −ilog(z + i 1 − z 2 )
i i+z
47. tan−1 z = log( )
2 i−z
d 1
48. sin−1 z = √
dz 1 − z2
d −1
49. cos−1 z = √
dz 1 − z2
d 1
50. tan−1 z =
dz 1 + z2
√
51. sinh−1 z = log(z + z 2 + 1)
√
52. cosh−1 z = log(z + z 2 − 1)
1 1+z
53. tanh−1 z = log( )
2 1−z
d 1
54. sinh−1 z = √
dz 1 + z2
 37

d 1
55. cosh−1 z = √
dz z2 − 1
d 1
56. tanh−1 z =
dz 1 − z2
GENERAL
√
1. Any integer n > 1 is either a prime or has a prime factor ≤ n.

2. The number of non-negative integer solutions of the equation ax + by +

n2
cz = n, (a, b, c) = 1, a, b, c 6= 0 is approximated .
2abc
2
√
3. HM ≤ GM ≤ AM, 1/a+1/b ≤ ab ≤ a+b 2
.

4. For a, b ∈ N, the number of positive integers less than or equal to a

and divisible by b is [ ab ].
1
5. L(1) =
s
1
6. L(t) =
s2
k!
7. L(tk ) = , k≥0
sk+1
1
8. L(e−at ) =
s+a
s
9. L(cos ωt) = 2
s + ω2
ω
10. L(sin ωt) = 2
s + ω2
s+a
11. L(e−at cos ωt) =
(s + a)2 + ω 2
s cos φ − ω sin φ
12. L(cos (ωt + φ)) =
s2 + ω 2
√
√ π
13. L( t) = 3
2s 2
df
14. = sF (s) − f (0)
dt
38

dk f k k−1 k−2 df dk−1

15. = s F (s) − s f (0) − s (0) − · · · − f (0)
dtk dt dtk−1
d β(x)
R β(x)
R ∂ dβ(x) dα(x)
16. F (x, t)dt = F (x, t)dt+F (x, β(x)) −F (x, α(x))
dx α(x) α(x) ∂x dx dx

17. In Fredholm equation. The resolvent kernel is

∞
Kn (x, t)λn−1
P
R(x, t; λ) =
n=1

Rb
where Kn (x, t) = K(x, s)Kn−1 (s, t)ds , and solution is
a

Rb
y(x) = f (x) + λ R(x, t; λ)f (t)dt
a

18. In Volterra equation. The resolvent kernel is

∞
Kn+1 (x, t)λn
P
R(x, t; λ) =
n=0
Rx
where Kn (x, t) = Kn−1 (x, s)K(s, t)ds , and solution is
t
Rx
y(x) = f (x) + λ R(x, t; λ)f (t)dt
0

19. Let a = pα1 1 · · · pαnn and b = pβ1 1 · · · pβr r .

Then gcd(a, b) = pmin(αp ,βp )
Q
p

pmax(αp ,βp )
Q
lcm(a, b) =
p

lcm(a, c)
20. lcm( ab , dc ) =
gcd(b, d)
21. One-dimensional wave equation

∂ 2y 1 ∂ 2y
= , −∞ < x < ∞, t > 0
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
y(x, 0) = f (x), yt (x, 0) = g(x), −∞ < x < ∞
x+ct
Z
1 1
y(x, t) = [f (x − ct) + f (x + ct)] + g(s)ds
2 2c
x−ct
 39

22. Heat equation

ut = kuxx , −∞ < x < ∞, t > 0

u(x, 0) = f (x), −∞ < x < ∞
Z∞
1 −(x−ξ)2
u(x, t) = √ f (ξ)e 4kt dξ.
2 πkt
−∞

2
23. If |S| = n. Then there are exactly nn number of binary operations on
S.

24. The number of commutative binary operations on S is equal to |S X | =

n2 +n
n 2 , where X = {(a, a) : a ∈ S}.

25. Equation for the angle of the hour hand

θhr = 12 (60H + M ), where H is the hour and M is the minutes.

26. Equation for the angle of the minute hand

θmin = 6M.

27. Equation for the angle between the hands

δθ =| 12 (60H − 11M ) |