Transitive G-subsets of an invariant

subset Q

p ) of Q(

p ), p 1(mod 4),
under the Modular Group Action
M. Aslam Malik

and Aneesa Mughal

Department of Mathematics, University of the Punjab,
Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore-54590, Pakistan.
Abstract
In this paper we investigate the action of the modular group PSL(2, Z)
on the real projective line with an emphasis on nding orbit structure
of a G-set
Q

n ) =
a +

n
c
: a, c ,= 0, b =
a
2
n
c
Z and (a, b, c) = 1
where n = k
2
m, k N. Q(

m)Q is the disjoint union of Q

k
2
m )
for all k N.
We classify the G-orbits of Q

p ), p 1(mod 4), and nd their

ambiguous lengths as a function of p. Specically it is proved that the
number o
G
(p) of all G-orbits of Q

p ) is congruent to 0(mod 2).

AMS Mathematics Subject Classication (2000): 05C25, 11E04, 20G15
Keywords: Real quadratic irrational number; Modular Group; Linear-
fractional transformations; Transitive G-subset.

malikpu@yahoo.com

aneesa-mughal@hotmail.com
1
1 Introduction
It is well known that Q(

m) = u + v

m : u, v Q is a real quadratic
eld for square free m > 0. An element of Q(

m) Q is called a real
quadratic irrational number and G = x, y : x
2
= y
3
= 1) represents the
modular group for x(z) =
1
z
, y(z) =
z1
z
as Mobius transformations. Q.
Mushtaq in 1988 has shown that every real quadratic irrational number can
be uniquely expressed as
a+

n
c
, where n = k
2
m, k N, and (a,
a
2
n
c
, c) = 1.
He also proved that the set
Q

n ) =
a +

n
c
: a, c ,= 0, b =
a
2
n
c
Z and (a, b, c) = 1
is a proper G-subset of Q(

m ) for all k N. Higman et al. have proved

in (1988) that the action of the modular group G on Q is transitive.
Since the set of all real quadratic irrational numbers in Q(

m ) is the disjoint
union of all Q

k
2
m ), that is, Q(

m) Q =
kN
Q

k
2
m ).
The action of G on Q

n ) was discussed by M. Aslam Malik et al.

(2000, 2003), Q. Mushtaq (1988,1998) and S. Anis and Q. Mushtaq (2008)
and it was proved in (M. Aslam Malik et al., 2005) that G acts intransitively
on Q

n ), n ,= 2. For =
a+

n
c
Q

n ), if and its algebraic

conjugate =
a+

n
c
, as real numbers, have dierent signs, then is called
an ambiguous number. These ambiguous numbers play a signicant role to
determine the structure of G-orbits of Q

n ). The coset diagrams are

used to investigate local-global relationship between real quadratic irrational
numbers and the elements of G. By using coset diagrams, Q. Mushtaq, in
1988, has shown that for each non-square n the set
Q

1
(

n ) =
a +

n
c
Q

n ) : a
2
< n
is nite and that part of the coset diagram consisting of the elements of
Q

1
(

n ) forms a single circuit (closed path) and it is the only circuit con-
tained in the coset diagram for the orbit
G
, Q

n ). Thus the number

o
G
(n) of all G-orbits of Q

n ) is equal to the number of circuits in the

coset diagram under the action of G on Q

n ) (M. Aslam Malik et al.

1995).
A circuit is a closed path of edges and triangles in the coset diagram for the
G-orbit
G
, Q

n ). If n
1
, n
2
, . . . , n
k
is a sequence of positive integers
2
then by a circuit of the type (n
1
, n
2
, . . . , n
2
k), we shall mean the circuit in
which n
1
triangles have one vertex inside (outside) the circuit and n
2
triangles
have one vertex outside (inside) the circuit and so on n
2
k triangles have one
vertex outside (inside) the circuit. This circuit induces an element
g = (yx)
n
2
k
. . . (yx)
n
3
(y
1
x)
n
2
(yx)
n
1
(1)
of G and xes a particular vertex of a triangle lying on the circuit (Q. Mush-
taq, 1998). The set of ambiguous numbers in the orbit
G
, Q

n ) is
denoted by (
G
)
amb
and the ambiguous length of
G
is denoted by [
G
[
amb
.
It is clear from (1) that, [
G
[
amb
= 2(n
1
+n
2
+. . . +n
2
k). Thus, it motivates
to know the cardinality of Q

1
(

n ) on one hand and the number of circuits

formed by these numbers on the other hand.
The exact number [Q

1
(

n )[ has been determined in (M. Aslam Malik et al.

1995 and S. M. Husnine et al. 2005) as a function of n.
The G-subsets, not necessarily transitive, of Q

n ) have been explored

in (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2005, M. Aslam Malik and M. Asim Zafar 2011)
by using the notion of congruences and quadratic residues. Thus it becomes
interesting to explore the transitive G-subsets (G-orbits) of Q

n ) and to
determine the number o
G
(n) of all G-orbits of Q

n ). It is also interesting
to nd the formula for calculating the ambiguous length [
G
[
amb
of the G-
orbit
G
, where Q

n ), as a function of n.
Throughout this paper G stands for the modular group, p for prime, n for
non-square positive integer and =
a+

n
c
Q

n ). In this paper we study

the structure of the circuits formed by the elements of Q

1
(

n ). In Section 2
we have determined the formulae to calculate the ambiguous lengths of the
G-orbits of Q

p ) in terms of p. These ambiguous lengths of the G-orbits

help us to nd the remaining orbits of Q

p ), p 1(mod 4) and classify

them as well. In Section 3 we concentrate on the distribution of the ambigu-
ous elements of Q

p ) in the G-orbits and have been able to prove that if

p 1(mod 4), then ()
G
()
G
= for all Q

p )((

p )
G
(
1+

p
2
)
G
).
Specically, we have proved that o
G
(p) 0(mod 2) for p 1(mod 4).
Throughout the paper we have employed geometric insight to reduce the
computations.
The following results of (M. Aslam Malik et al. 1995, 2000 and 2005) will
be used in the sequel.
3
Lemma 1.1 (M. Aslam Malik et al. 1995) Let m be a square-free posi-
tive integer. Then
[Q

1
(

m )[ =

(m) = 2(m) + 4

a=1
(ma
2
).
Lemma 1.2 (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2000) Let p 1(mod 4) such that p =
a
2
+c
2
. Then there are exactly eight ambiguous numbers
a+

p
c
,
a+

p
c
,
c+

p
a
,
c+

p
a
of Q

p ) which are mapped onto their conjugates under x.

Lemma 1.3 (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2000) Let Q

n). Then
G
= ()
G
if and only if there exists an element in
G
such that x() = .
Lemma 1.4 (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2000) Let k N and Q

n )
Then:
1. (yx)
k
() = k + . 2. (xy
2
)
k
() = k + .
3. g() = g() for all g G. 4. [
G
[
amb
= [
G
[
amb
.
5. x() = x() 6. y() = 2 y()
7. xy
2
() = [yx()] 8. y
2
x() = [xy()]
9. x() = x() = x() = x();
10. y() = y() = 2 y() = 2 y();
11. xy
2
() = xy
2
() = [yx()] = [yx()];
12. y
2
x() = y
2
x() = [xy()] = [xy()].
Lemma 1.5 (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2005) Let n 1(mod 4). Then
Q

n ) = Q

n ) : 2[(b, c) and Q

n )Q

n ) = Q

n ) :
2 (b, c) are both G-subsets of Q

n ).
Lemma 1.6 (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2000)
1. Let =
a+

n
c
Q

n ) where n is any xed non-square positive

integer and c is xed. Then elements of the form
a

n
c
and
a

n
a
2
n
c
of
Q

n ), a

= (a + kc), k Z, belong to
G
.
2. p 1(mod 4) and =
a+

p
q
Q

1
(

p ), for some xed prime q,

2 < q p. Then all the elements of Q

1
(

p ) with denominator q are

also in
G
()
G
and all the elements of Q

1
(

p ) with denominator
q are included in ()
G
()
G
.
3. Let p 1(mod 4) and =
a+

p
c
Q

1
(

p ) for some c. Then all the

elements of Q

1
(

p ) with denominator c may not be included in

G
.
4
For example, if p = 37 then
5+

37
12
(

37 )
G
,
1+

37
12
(
1+

37
3
)
G
and
1+

37
12
(
1+

37
3
)
G
whereas these are distinct G-orbits.
It was proved in (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2000) that if p 1(mod 4),
then Q

p ) splits into at least two orbits, namely (

p )
G
and (
1+

p
2
)
G
. In
the following section, we nd the ambiguous lengths of these G-orbits as a
function of p which help us in determining the number and structure of the
remaining G-orbits of Q

p ).
Lemma 1.7 (Q. Mushtaq. 1998) If a circuit contains with its conjugate
then the circuit is of the type (n
1
, n
2
, ..., n
k1
, n
2
k, n
2
k, ..., n
2
, n
1
).
2 Ambiguous lengths of the G-orbits of Q

p )
We start with the following result whose proof follows by the denition of
oor function and that will be used in the subsequent work and provide us
a base to proceed further
Lemma 2.1 Let n be a non-square positive integer. Then
1. n = i +

n|
2
for some i N.
2. n + j = (

n| + 1)
2
for some j N.
The following corollary is an immediate consequence of Lemma 2.1(1).
Corollary 2.2 Let p 1(mod 4) such that p = a
2
+

p|
2
. Then:
1. p = (

p|
2
)
2
+

p|
2
with

p|
2
1, 2, , . . . ,

p|1.
2.

p|
2
=

p| if and only if p = 2.
3.

p| >

p|
2
if p > 2.
4. There are some primes p 1(mod 4) which are not in the form
p = a
2
+

p|
2
. For example 41 = 5 +

41|
2
.
Lemma. 2.3 (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2004) For Q

p ), we have the
followings:
1. yx() = =
1+

p
2
or =
1+

p
2
5
2. y
2
x() = =
1+

p
c
or =
1+

p
c
, where p = 1 + 2c.
Remarks 2.4
1. If we take

p|
2
= 1 in Corollary 2.2 (1). Then by Lemma 1.2,
the eight numbers of Q

p ) which map onto their conjugates under

x are

p+

p
1
,

p+

p
1
,
1+

p
,
1+

p
.
2. If we take

p|
2
= 2 in Corollary 2.2 (1). Then by Lemma 1.2,
the eight numbers of Q

p ) which map onto their conjugates under

x are
2+

p
,
2+

p
,

p+

p
2
,

p+

p
2
, where p > 13.
In the following results, we nd the ambiguous lengths of (

p )
G
and (
1+

p
2
)
G
of Q

p ) and show the distribution of ambiguous numbers lying in these

G-orbits.
Theorem 2.5 Let p 1(mod 4) such that p 1 is a perfect square. Then
the circuit of (

p )
G
is of the type (2

p|, 2

p|) and [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 8

p|.
Proof: It is given that p 1 =

p|
2
and hence by Lemmas 1.2 and 1.4(1)
we have
x(

p| +

p) =

p+

p
1
, x(

p| +

p) =

p+

p
1
,
(yx)
2

p
(

p|+

p) =

p|+

p, and (xy
2
)
2

p
(

p|+

p) =

p+

p
1
.
Thus by Lemma 1.7 we have (y
2
x)
2

p
(yx)
2

p
(

p|+

p) =

p|+

p.
Hence the circuit of (

p )
G
is of the type (2

p|, 2

p|) and
[(

p )
G
[
amb
= 8

p| which can be visualized by Figure 2.1.

6
Fig.2.1. Closed path of (

p)
G
where p 1 =

p|
2
.
Example 2.1 By Theorem 2.5, the circuit of (

5 )
G
has type (4, 4) with
[(

5 )
G
[
amb
= 16 and the circuit of (

37 )
G
has type (12, 12) with [(

37 )
G
[
amb
=
48.
The following theorem gives the ambiguous length of (
1+

p
2
)
G
.
Theorem 2.6 Let p > 5 be a prime such that p1 is a perfect square. Then
the circuit of (
1+

p
2
)
G
has type (1,

p| 1, 1, 1,

p| 1, 1) and hence
[(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 4(

p| + 1).
Proof: It is given that p 1 =

p|
2
so Figure 2.2 can be constructed by
using Lemmas 1.2, 1.4(1) and 1.7. This follows that the circuit of (
1+

p
2
)
G
has type (1,

p|1, 1, 1,

p|1, 1) and hence [(

1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 4(

p|+1).

7
Fig.2.2. Closed path of

(1

p)+

p
2

G
where p 1 =

p|
2
Examples 2.2
1. By Lemma 1.1, [Q

1
(

5 )[ =

(5) = 20, so

(5) [(

5 )
G
[
amb
= 4.
And the circuit of (
1+

5
2
)
G
has type (1, 1). Hence [(
1+

5
2
)
G
[
amb
= 4.
Thus o
G
(5) = 2.
2. Let p = 37. Then by Theorem 2.5, the type of the circuit of (
1+

37
2
)
G
is (1, 5, 1, 1, 5, 1) and [(
1+

37
2
)
G
[
amb
= 28.
8
The following remark is an immediate consequence of Theorems 2.4 and 2.5.
Remark 2.7 Theorems 2.4 and 2.5 show that the numbers

p+

p
1
,

p+

p
1
are contained in (

p)
G
and the numbers
1+

p
,
1+

p
are contained in
(
1+

p
2
)
G
.
The following results give the ambiguous lengths of (

p)
G
and (
1+

p
2
)
G
, in
terms of p, where p is as given in the statement of Remarks 2.3 (2).
Theorem 2.8 Let p 13 and p 1(mod 4) such that p 4 is a perfect
square. Then
(1). The circuit of (

p )
G
has type

1,

p1
2
, 2

p|,

p1
2
, 1, 1,

p1
2
, 2

p|,

p1
2
, 1

and [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 4(3

p| + 1).
(2). The circuit of (
1+

p
2
)
G
has type (

p|,

p|) and [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 4

p|.
Proof: The proof is analogous to that of Theorems 2.4 and 2.5.The types
of the circuits of (

p )
G
, (
1+

p
2
)
G
can be visualized by Figures 2.3 and 2.4
respectively.
9
Fig.2.3. Closed path of

p+

p
1

G
; p 13 and p 4 =

p|
2
10
Fig.2.4. Closed path of

(1

p)+

p
1

G
; p 13 and p 4 =

p|
2
We conclude this section with the following example.
Example 2.3 Let p = 229. Then by Theorem 2.7, [(

229 )
G
[
amb
= 184 and
circuit of (

229 )
G
has type (1, 7, 30, 7, 1, 1, 7, 30, 7, 1). Also [(
1+

229
2
)
G
[
amb
=
60 and circuit of (
1+

229
2
)
G
has type (15, 15).
11
3 Transitive G-subsets of Q

p ), p 1(mod 4)
The G-orbits namely, (

p )
G
and (
1+

p
2
)
G
of Q

p ) have been investigated

in (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2000). In Section 2, we have found the ambiguous
lengths of these two G-orbits in terms of p. However Q

p ) may split into

more than two G-orbits including (

p )
G
and (
1+

p
2
)
G
.
So in this section, we investigate all the G-orbits of Q

p ) and explore
some results related to the G-orbits of Q

p ). We discuss the distribution

of the ambiguous elements of Q

p ) in the G-orbits and prove that if

p 1(mod 4) then o
G
(p) 0(mod 2).
Now if

(p) = [(

p )
G
[
amb
+[(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
, then we have o
G
(p) = 2. However
if

(p) > [(

p )
G
[
amb
+[(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
then we have the following lemma which
helps us to nd the circuit of remaining G-orbits of Q

p ).
Lemma 3.1 Let p 1(mod 4). Then
()
G
()
G
= for all Q

p ) ((

p )
G
(
1+

p
2
)
G
).
Proof: Let p 1(mod 4). Then, we know (M. Aslam Malik 2000) that the
numbers
a+

p
c
,
a+

p
c
are contained in (

p )
G
and the numbers
c+

p
a
,
c+

p
a
are contained in (
1+

p
2
)
G
. Hence by Lemma 1.3, we have
()
G
()
G
= for all Q

p ) ((

p )
G
(
1+

p
2
)
G
).
Lemma 3.2 Let p 1(mod 4). Then
()
G
= ()
G
and ()
G
= ()
G
for all Q

p ) ((

p )
G
(
1+

p
2
)
G
).
Proof: Let p 1(mod 4). Then by Lemma 3.1,
()
G
()
G
= for all Q

p ) ((

p )
G
(
1+

p
2
)
G
).
Also we know that if a is a quadratic residue of p. Then a is also a quadratic
residue of p if and only if p 1(mod 4). This completes the proof.
Remarks 3.3 Let n be a non-square positive integer. Then:
1. na
2
, a = odd, can be written as a product of primes in a unique way
as:
n a
2
= 2
h
q

1
1
q

2
2
. . . q

s
s
where 2 < q
1
< q
2
< . . . < q
s
,
i
1, 1 i s. Also if n 0(mod 2)
then h = 0, if h = 1 then n 3(mod 4). Similarly h = 2 or
h 3 according as n 5 or 1(mod 8).
2. n a
2
, a = even, has a unique prime decomposition as:
n a
2
= 2
h
t

1
1
t

2
2
. . . t

l
l
12
where 2 < t
1
< t
2
< . . . < t
l
,
i
1, 1 i l.
Also if n 1(mod 2) then h = 0, if h = 1 then n 2(mod 4).
Similarly for a
2
0(mod 8), we have h = 2 or h 3 according as
n 4 or 0(mod 8) and for a
2
4(mod 8), we have h = 2 or h 3
according as n 0 or 4(mod 8).
Lemma 3.4 Let n 1(mod 4). Then
1+

n
4
Q

n ) or Q

n ) Q

n ) according as n 1 or 5(mod 8).

Proof: The proof of this assertion is clear from congruence relation.
Lemma 3.5 Let p 1(mod 4) such that p 1 is a perfect square.
If (Q

p ) Q

p )) (

p )
G
,= , then
either
1+

p
q
1
or
2+

p
t
1
(Q

p ) Q

p )) (

p )
G
.
Proof Let p 1(mod 4) such that p 1 is a perfect square. Then
by Theorem 2.4, (

p )
G
amb
=
a+

p
1
,
a+

p
(pa
2
)
, where 0 a

p|.
If (Q

p )Q

p ))(

p )
G
,= , then either p1 is a power of 2 or is not a
power of 2. In the latter case, there exists
1+

p
q
1
(Q

p )Q

p ))(

p )
G
.
However if p 1 is a power of 2 then clearly p 4 is not a power of 2 and in
this case there exists
2+

p
t
1
(Q

p ) Q

p )) (

p )
G
.
Following corollary is an immediate consequence of Lemmas 3.1 and 3.5.
Corollary 3.6 Let p 1(mod 4) such that p 1 is a perfect square.
If (Q

p ) Q

p )) (

p )
G
,= then either
(

p )
G
(
1+

p
q
1
)
G
(
1+

p
q
1
)
G
Q

p ) Q

p ) or
(

p )
G
(
2+

p
t
1
)
G
(
2+

p
t
1
)
G
Q

p ) Q

p ).
Lemma 3.7 Let p 1(mod 8) such that p 1 is a perfect square. Then
Q

p ) splits into at least six G-orbits for p > 17.

Proof Let p 1(mod 8) such that p 1 is a perfect square. Then
by Theorem 2.4, (

p )
G
amb
=
a+

p
1
,
a+

p
(pa
2
)
, where 0 a

p| and by
Theorem 2.5, (
1+

p
2
)
G
amb
=
a+

p
2
,
a+

p
(
pa
2
2
)
,
1+

p
: a = 1, 3, . . . ,

p| 1.
Also (

p )
G
Q

p ) Q

p ) and (
1+

p
2
)
G
Q

p ).
For p = 17,

17| = 4 and hence

1+

17

17
(
1+

17
2
)
G
amb
.
Thus
1+

p
4
/ (
1+

p
2
)
G
amb
for p > 17.
Hence, for p > 17, we have always at least two more G-orbits, namely (
1+

p
4
)
G
and (
1+

p
4
)
G
which are contained in Q

p ).
13
Hence (
1+

p
2
)
G
(
1+

p
4
)
G
(
1+

p
4
)
G
Q

p ).
Also by Corollary 3.6, either (

p )
G
(
1+

p
q
1
)
G
(
1+

p
q
1
)
G
Q

p )Q

p )
or (

p )
G
(
2+

p
t
1
)
G
(
2+

p
t
1
)
G
Q

p ) Q

p ). Hence Q

p ) splits
into at least six G-orbits for p > 17.
Lemma 3.8 Let p 5(mod 8) such that p 1 is a perfect square. Then
Q

p ) splits into at least four G-orbits namely, (

p )
G
, (
1+

p
2
)
G
, (
1+

p
4
)
G
and (
1+

p
4
)
G
for p > 5.
Proof Let p 5(mod 8) such that p 1 is a perfect square. Then
by Lemma 3.4,
1+

n
4
Q

n )Q

n ). Also (

p )
G
Q

p )Q

p ).
Since for p = 5,
1+

5
4
(

5 )
G
amb
. Therefore for p > 5,
1+

p
4
/ (

p )
G
amb
.
Hence (
1+

p
4
)
G
and (
1+

p
4
)
G
always exists for p > 5 and are contained in
Q

n ) Q

n ). Thus (

p )
G
(
1+

p
4
)
G
(
1+

p
4
)
G
Q

p ) Q

p ).
Also (
1+

p
2
)
G
Q

p ). Hence Q

p ) splits into at least four G-orbits

namely, (

p )
G
, (
1+

p
2
)
G
, (
1+

p
4
)
G
and (
1+

p
4
)
G
for p > 5.
To discuss the remaining G-orbits of Q

p ), p 5(mod 8), we need the

following results.
Lemma 3.9 Let p 1(mod 4) such that p 1 is a perfect square. Then
p 1 or 5(mod 8) according as

p| 0 or 2(mod 4).
Proof: The proof is straightforward.
In particular, if

p| = 2q
1
in Lemma 3.9 then we have the following
corollary.
Corollary 3.10 Let p 1(mod 4) such that p 1 is a perfect square and

p| = 2q
1
. Then (p 1) = 9.
Proof:
Let

p| = 2q
1
. Then p1 =

p|
2
= (2q
1
)
2
. Hence (p1) = (2q
1
)
2
=
9 and these divisors of p 1 =

p|
2
are 1, p 1, 2,
p1
2
, 4,
p1
4
,

p|, q
1
=

p
2
,
p1

p
2
or 1,

p|
2
, 2,

p
2
2
, 4,

p
2
4
,

p|, q
1
=

p
2
, 2

p|.
We have seen that if p 1(mod 4) such that p 1 is a perfect square,
then
1+

p
c
Q

p ) : c = 1,

p|
2
(

p)
G
and
1+

p
c
Q

p ) :
c = 2,

p
2
2
,

p| (
1+

p
2
)
G
. Now we check the G-orbits for
1+

p
q
1
and
1+

p
4
Q

p ), p 5(mod 8) in the following results.

14
Theorem 3.11 Let p 5(mod 8) such that p 1 =

p|
2
= (2q
1
)
2
. Then
the circuits of (
1+

p
4
)
G
and (
1+

p
4
)
G
are of the type (

p2
2
, 3, 1,

p2
2
, 3, 1)
and hence [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 2

p| + 12 = [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
.
Proof: Let =
3

p+

p
4
. Then (yx)

p2
2
() =

p1+

p
2
. This implies
(x)(yx)

p2
2
() =

p+1+

p/2
. // Now (xy
2
)
2
(x)(yx)

p2
4
() =
1+

p
q
1
.
Then (xy
2
)(xy
2
)
2
(x)(yx)

p2
4
() =
q
1
+1+

p
q
1
.
Also (xy)(xy
2
)
3
(x)(yx)

p2
4
() = . By repeated application of Lemma
1.4(7,8) we have
(y
2
x)(yx)
3
(y
2
x)

p2
2
(yx)(y
2
x)
3
(yx)

p2
2
() = .
Fig.2.5. Closed path of

1+

p
4

G
; p 13
Hence [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 2

p| + 12 and by Lemma 1.5,

15
[(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
.
From Theorem 3.11, we can immediately deduce the following remarks.
Remark 3.12 Let p 5(mod 8) such that p 1 =

p|
2
= (2q
1
)
2
. Then
(
1+

p
4
)
G
= (
1+

p
q
1
)
G
and (
1+

p
4
)
G
= (
1+

p
q
1
)
G
.
The following corollary is an immediate consequence of Lemma 3.8 and
Remark 3.12.
Corollary 3.13 Let p 5(mod 8) such that p 1 =

p|
2
= (2q
1
)
2
. Then
Q

p ) splits into at least four G-orbits namely,

(

p )
G
, (
1+

p
2
)
G
, (
1+

p
4
)
G
= (
1+

p
q
1
)
G
and (
1+

p
4
)
G
= (
1+

p
q
1
)
G
.
In particular, when p 2011 then o
G
(p) = 4 where p > 5.
To be more concrete, consider the following example.
Example 3.1 Since

101| = (2)(5). Then by Corollary 3.13 and Lemma

1.6 (2), Q

101 ) splits into at least four G-orbits namely, (

101 )
G
, (
1+

101
2
)
G
,
(
1+

101
4
)
G
= (
1+

101
5
)
G
and (
1+

101
4
)
G
= (
1+

101
5
)
G
. By Theorems 2.4, 2.5
and 3.11, [(

101 )
G
[
amb
= 80, [(
1+

101
2
)
G
[
amb
= 44, [(
1+

101
4
)
G
[
amb
= 32 =
[(
1+

101
4
)
G
[
amb
. By Lemma 1.1, [Q

1
(

101 )[ =

(101) = 188. Since

(101) = [(

101 )
G
[
amb
+[(
1+

101
2
)
G
[
amb
+[(
1+

101
3
)
G
[
amb
+[(
1+

101
3
)
G
[
amb
.
Hence o
G
(101) = 4
Examples 3.2
1. Let p = 37 1(mod 4). We explore the G-orbits of Q

37 ) in the
following manner.
Step-I: First we write 37 a
2
, 1 a

37| into its prime decom-

position in order to nd the positive divisors of 37 a
2
:
37 1 = 36 = 2
2
.3
2
, 37 4 = 33 = 3.11, 37 9 = 28 = 2
2
.7,
37 16 = 21 = 3.7, 37 25 = 12 = 2
2
.3 and 37 36 = 1
Step-II: By Theorem 2.4, (

37 )
G
amb
=
a+

37
1
,
a+

37
(37a
2
)
, where 0
a 6 and by Theorem 2.5, (
1+

37
2
)
G
amb
=
a+

37
2
,
a+

37
(
37a
2
2
)
,
1+

37
6
:
a = 1, 3, 5.
Step-III: A = Q

1
(

37 ) ((

37 )
G
(
1+

37
2
)
G
) ,= and 3 is the small-
est odd prime divisor of 37a
2
, 1 a 6. So we take
1+

37
3
A and
by Lemmas 3.1 and 3.2, we get (
1+

37
3
)
G
= (
1+

37
3
)
G
and (
1+

37
3
)
G
=
(
1+

37
3
)
G
.
Step-IV: By Lemma 1.6 (2) and by M Aslam Malik , M Asim 2011,
16
a+

37
3
Q

1
(

37 ) are contained in B = (
1+

37
3
)
G
(
1+

37
3
)
G
where
a = 1, 2, 4, 5 and by Lemma 1.6 (1),
a+

37
(c=
37a
2
3
)
Q

1
(

37 ) are also
contained in B where c = 12, 11, 7, 4. Now by Lemma 1.6 (1, 2),
4+

37
7
B implies that
3+

37
7
and
3+

37
4
B. Also by Lemma
1.9 (1),
5+

37
4
B implies that
1+

37
4
and
1+

37
9
B. Since
Q

1
(

37 ) ((

37 )
G
(
1+

37
2
)
G
B) = . Hence o
G
(37) = 4.
2. By adopting the algorithm used in Example 3.2 (1), we discuss the
prime p for which o
G
(p) = 6.
Let p = 229 1(mod 4). Then by Theorems 2.8 and 2.9, [(

229 )
G
[
amb
=
184 and [(
1+

229
2
)
G
[
amb
= 60. By Lemma 1.1, o
G
(229) > 2. Now by
Lemma 1.9 (2), we pick
1+

229
3
T = Q

1
(

229 ) ((

229 )
G
amb

(
1+

229
2
)
G
amb
). Then by Lemma 3.1, we have two more G-orbits namely,
(
1+

229
3
)
G
and (
1+

229
3
)
G
of Q

229 ). By using Lemma 1.9 (1, 2), we

see that the circuits of (
1+

229
3
)
G
and (
1+

229
3
)
G
have type (9, 1, 2, 2, 5, 1,
1, 1, 2, 9, 1, 2, 2, 5, 1, 1, 1, 2). Thus [(
1+

229
3
)
G
[
amb
= 96 = [(
1+

229
3
)
G
[
amb
.
Since

(229) (184+60+96+96) = 56. Therefore o

G
(229) > 4. Now
we take
1+

229
6
T ((
1+

229
3
)
G
amb
(
1+

229
3
)
G
amb
). Then by Lemma 3.1,
two more G-orbits of Q

229 ) are (
1+

229
6
)
G
and (
1+

229
6
)
G
. Again
using Lemma 1.9 (1), the circuits of (
1+

229
6
)
G
and (
1+

229
6
)
G
have
type (2, 2, 1, 4, 2, 1, 2) and hence [(
1+

229
3
)
G
[
amb
= 28 = [(
1+

229
3
)
G
[
amb
.
Since

(229) = 184+60+96+96+28+28. Hence o

G
(229) = 6
Following are the 21 primes p 1(mod 4) and p 2011 such that
o
G
(p) = 4.
37, 101, 197, 269, 349, 373, 389, 557, 677, 701, 709, 757, 829, 877, 997,
1213, 1301, 1613, 1861, 1949, 1973.
Note that 37 is the smallest prime congruent to 1(mod 4) such that
o
G
(37) = 4.
4 Results and Discussions
Following 7 primes p 1(mod 4) and p 2011 are such that o
G
(p) = 6.
229, 257, 761, 733, 1229, 1373, 1489.
17
Note that the smallest prime p 1(mod 4) such that o
G
(p) = 6 is 229.
Summing up the above results we conclude this paper with the following
main theorem.
Theorem 4.1 Let p 1(mod 4). Then the number o
G
(p) 0(mod 2).
Proof It has been proved in (M. Aslam Malik et al. 2000) that if p
1(mod 4), then Q

p ) splits into at least two G-orbits, namely (

p )
G
and
(
1+

p
2
)
G
.
So B = Q

p )((

p )
G
(
1+

p
2
)
G
) may or may not be empty. If B = , then
o
G
(p) = 2 . However if B ,= , then by Lemma 3.1, we get two more G-orbits,
namely ()
G
and ()
G
,for some B. Again if B (()
G
()
G
) = , then
o
G
(p) = 4, otherwise we continue this process of forming the orbits, which at
each step adds two more orbits in the previous number of orbits.
Since

(p) = [Q

1
(

p )[ is nite. So after a nite number of steps, all the

ambiguous numbers are exhausted in forming the circuits of these orbits of
Q

p ). It follows that the number o

G
(p) of all G-orbits of Q

p ) for
p 1(mod 4) is congruent to 0(mod 2).
Note: o
G
(p) = 2 for all primes p 1(mod 4) and p 2011 other than listed
in Table and mentioned at the ends of Examples 3.1 and 3.2.
18
TABLE
Primes p 1(mod 4) such that p 2011, o
G
(p) > 6.
p G-orbits
G
of Q

p ) with [
G
[
amb
o
G
(p)

(p)
401 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 160, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 84, [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[ = 52 10 596
[(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 52, [(
1+

p
5
)
G
[
amb
= 48 = [(
1+

p
5
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 36 = [(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
16
)
G
[
amb
= 40
[(
1+

p
16
)
G
[
amb
=40
1093 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 400, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 132, [(
1+

p
3
)
G
[ = 168 10 1284
[(
1+

p
3
)
G
[
amb
= 168, [(
1+

p
6
)
G
[
amb
= 52 = [(
1+

p
6
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
7
)
G
[
amb
= 120 = [(
1+

p
7
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
14
)
G
[
amb
= 36
[(
1+

p
14
)
G
[
amb
=36
1429 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 504, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 164, [(
1+

p
3
)
G
[ = 264 10 1836
[(
1+

p
3
)
G
[
amb
= 264, [(
1+

p
6
)
G
[
amb
= 84 = [(
1+

p
6
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
7
)
G
[
amb
= 184 = [(
1+

p
7
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
14
)
G
[
amb
= 52
[(
1+

p
14
)
G
[
amb
=52
1901 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 360, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 196, [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[ = 120 12 1444
[(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 120, [(
1+

p
5
)
G
[
amb
= 120 = [(
1+

p
5
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
10
)
G
[
amb
= 76 = [(
1+

p
10
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
19
)
G
[
amb
= 72
[(
1+

p
19
)
G
[
amb
= 72, [(
1+

p
25
)
G
[
amb
= 56 = [(
1+

p
25
)
G
[
amb
577 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 192, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 100, [(
1+

p
3
)
G
[ = 72 14 892
[(
1+

p
3
)
G
[
amb
= 72, [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 60 = [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 52 = [(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
9
)
G
[
amb
= 40
[(
1+

p
9
)
G
[
amb
= 40, [(
1+

p
16
)
G
[
amb
= 36 = [(
1+

p
16
)
G
[
amb
[(
3+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 40 = [(
3+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
1009 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 280, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 156, [(
1+

p
3
)
G
[ = 144 14 1596
[(
1+

p
3
)
G
[
amb
= 144, [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 108 = [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 100 = [(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
7
)
G
[
amb
= 88
[(
1+

p
7
)
G
[
amb
= 88, [(
1+

p
9
)
G
[
amb
= 72 = [(
1+

p
9
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
12
)
G
[
amb
= 68 = [(
1+

p
12
)
G
[
amb
19
p G-orbits
G
of Q

p ) with [
G
[
amb
o
G
(p)

(p)
1601 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 320, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 164, [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[ = 92 14 1244
[(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 92, [(
1+

p
5
)
G
[
amb
= 80 = [(
1+

p
5
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 68 = [(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
16
)
G
[
amb
= 44
[(
1+

p
16
)
G
[
amb
= 44, [(
1+

p
25
)
G
[
amb
= 40 = [(
1+

p
25
)
G
[
amb
[(
3+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 56 = [(
3+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
1129 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 280, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 156, [(
1+

p
3
)
G
[ = 120 18 1732
[(
1+

p
3
)
G
[
amb
= 120, [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 100 = [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
6
)
G
[
amb
= 76 = [(
1+

p
6
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 96
[(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 96, [(
1+

p
12
)
G
[
amb
= 68 = [(
1+

p
12
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
24
)
G
[
amb
= 56 = [(
1+

p
24
)
G
[
amb
, [(
2+

p
15
)
G
[
amb
= 72
[(
2+

p
15
)
G
[
amb
= 72, [(
3+

p
14
)
G
[
amb
= 60 = [(
3+

p
14
)
G
[
amb
1297 [(

p )
G
[
amb
= 288, [(
1+

p
2
)
G
[
amb
= 148, [(
1+

p
3
)
G
[ = 104 22 1644
[(
1+

p
3
)
G
[
amb
= 104, [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
= 84 = [(
1+

p
4
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
6
)
G
[
amb
= 68 = [(
1+

p
6
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 52
[(
1+

p
8
)
G
[
amb
= 52, [(
1+

p
9
)
G
[
amb
= 64 = [(
1+

p
9
)
G
[
amb
[(
1+

p
16
)
G
[
amb
= 48 = [(
1+

p
16
)
G
[
amb
, [(
1+

p
24
)
G
[
amb
= 44
[(
1+

p
24
)
G
[
amb
= 44, [(
1+

p
27
)
G
[
amb
= 40 = [(
1+

p
27
)
G
[
amb
[(
3+

p
7
)
G
[
amb
= 56 = [(
3+

p
7
)
G
[
amb
, [(
3+

p
14
)
G
[
amb
= 44
[(
3+

p
14
)
G
[
amb
= 44
References
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20
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m ) of Q(

m ).
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21