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WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 3

WAVE OPTICS
In our discussion of lenses, mirrors and optical instruments we use the model of geometric optics
where we represent light as rays which are straight lines that are bent at a reflecting or refracting
surface. Many aspects of the behavior of light canÊt be understood on the basis of propagation of
rays. In some situations we have to consider its wave properties explicity. If two or more light
waves of the same frequency overlap at a point, the total effect depends on the phases of the
waves as well as their amplitude. The resulting patterns arise from of the wave nature of light
and canÊt be understood on the basis of rays.
Two monochromatic sources with the same frequency and with a definite and constant phase
relationship with each other are said to be coherent.

Hu
Huyygens’ Wave Theor
oryy

Huygens in 1678 assumed that a body emits light in the form of waves. According to him :
(1) Each point source of light is a centre of disturbance from which waves spread in all directions.
The locus of all the particles of the medium vibrating in the same phase at a given instant
is called a wavefront. The shape of wavefront depends on the source producing the waves
and is usually spherical, cylindrical or plane as shown.

(A) Point-source (B) Line-source (C) Source at 

(2) Each point on a wavefront is a source of new disturbance, called secondary wavelets. These
wavelets are spherical and travel with speed of light in that medium.
(3) The forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at any instant gives the new wavefront.

A´ A A A´
A A´

O O

B B´
B´ B B B´
(A) (B) (C)
(4) In a homogeneous medium, the wavfront is always perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. Hence, a line drawn normal to the wavefront gives the directions of propagation
of a wave and is called a ray.

Int
ntee rfe rence

The term interference refers to any situation in which two or more waves overlap in space. When
this occurs, the displacement at any point at any instant of time is governed by the principle of
superpositiion which states :

WAVE OPTICS
4 MARKS
ÂÂWhen two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at any instant
may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would be produced at any point
by the indivisual wavesif each were present aloneÊÊ
let the two waves be :
y1 = A1 sint
y2 = A2 sin(t + )
Where  is the phase difference
y = y1 + y2
= A sin(t + )

Where A = A21  A22  2A1 A 2 cos 

and

I = I1  I2  2 I1I 2 cos 

{as I  A2}
Please note that the derivation is not given in an exhaustive manner as it has already been
covered in the chapter ÂÂwaves and soundsÊÊ
For Iresultant to be maximum
cos  = 1      = 2n
                          = n Where n = 0, 1, 2 ______

and 2
A max = (A + A)2

 
2
Imax = I1 + I2

 2 
also,  
  

Where  is the path difference

For Iresultant to be minimum
cos  = 1
 =  (2 n  1) with n = 1, 2, 3

 1 
 =  n  
 2
and A min = |A1  A 2|

 
2
Imin = I1 ~ I2

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 5

Con
ondi
di
dittions for I nt
ntee rfe re nc
ncee

In order to obtain a sustained (permanent or stable) and observable interference pattern, the
following conditions must be fulfilled.
(i) sources must be coherent : In order to produce a stable interference patter the individual
waves must maintain a constant phase relationship with one another, i.e., the two interfering
sources must emit waves having a constant phase difference between them. If the phase
difference between two sources does not remain constant then the places of maxima and
minima shift. In case of mechanical waves it is possible to kep a constant phase relationship
between two different sources. But in case of light two different light sources canÊt be
coherent. This is because of the way light is emitted. In ordinary light sources, atoms gain
excess energy by thermal agitation or by impact with accelerated electrons. An atom that is
ÂexcitedÊ in such a way begins to radiate energy and continues until it has lost all the enrgy
it can, typically in a time of the order of 108 s. The many atoms in a source ordinarily
radiate in an unsynchronized and random phase relationship, and the light that is emitted
from two such sources has no definite phase relationship. Hence, to obtain a stable interference
in light a single source is split into two coherent sources. Any random phase change in the
source affects these secondary sources equally and does not change their relative phase.
Laser light is much more coherent than ordinary light.
(ii) Same frequency or wavelength : Phase relationship betweep two waves can be kept
constant only when their frequecies are same. Thus we can say, that two coherent sources
must have the same frequency.
(iii) Equality of amplitudes : The amplitudes of two interfering waves should be equal or
appromixately equal. Otherwise the difference between the intensities of maximas and
minimas will be too small and the contrast will be poor. Maximum constrast is, however
obtained when A1 = A 2, because then minimum intensity will be zero.
(iv) Both should be travelling in same direction

Con
onsstructive and destructive int
ntee rfer enc
ncee

We consider two identical sources of monochromatic waves S1 and S2 along the y-axis, equiduistant
from the origin.
Consider a point ÂaÊ on X-axis. From symmetry the two distances from S1to a & S 2 to a are equal;
waves from the two sources thus require equal times to travel to a. Hence waves that leaves S1
and S2 in phase arrive at a in phase. The two waves add and the total amplitude at ÂaÊ is twice
the amplitude of each individual waves. This is true for any point on the x-axis.

b
S1
a
S2 c

WAVE OPTICS
 6 MARKS

b S1
r 1=7 

r2=9 r 1=9.75
S1 S2


r2 =7.25
S2
c

Similarly, the distance from S2 to point b is exactly two wavelengths greater than the distance
from S1 to b. A wave rest from S1 arrives at b exactly two cycles earlier than a emitted at the
same time from S2 and and again the two waves arrive in phase. As at point O, the total
amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes of the waves from S1 and S2.

In general, when waves from two or more sources arrive at a point in phase, the amplitude of
resultant wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual wave; the individual waves reinforce
each other. This is called constructive interference. Let the distance from S 1 to any point P be r1
and let the distance from S 2 to P be r 2.

For constructive interference to occur at P, the path difference r2  r1 between two waves must
be an integral multiple of the wavelength ;

r 2  r1 = m (m = 0, μ1, μ 3...) ...(i)

At point C, r2  r 1 = 2.5 , which is a half-integral number of wavelengths waves from the

two sources arive at point C exactly a half cycle out of phase. A crest of one wave arrives at
the same time a trough of the other wave. the resultant amplitude is the difference between the
two individual amplitudes. If the individual amplitudes are equal, then the totoal amplitude is
zero. This cancellation or partial concellation of the individual waves is called destructive
interference.

 1
r 2  r1 =  m  2   (m = 0, μ1, μ2, μ 3...) ...(ii)
 

The path difference at C satisfies with m = 3.

Opt
ptiical P
Paath Di
Diff fere nc
ncee

When a light travels from rarer to denser then there is a phase difference of  and path difference


of .
2

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 7

Now, when a glass slab is placed in its path, then path difference can be :

(d+( 1)t)
A´ B´ (optical path)

A B (origional path)

A´B´ optical dt t d  (ø  1)t

  
C C C/ø C

 A´B´ optical = d + (ø 1)t {A´B´ optical is the air equivalent path of light}
ABoriginal = d
 path difference = (ø  1)t

You
ounng ’s Dou
oubble Slit Expe
perri ment

Thomas Young in the year 1801 first demonstrated the phenomenon of interference in light. He
allowed sunlight to pass through a pinhole S and then through two pinholes S1 and S2, placed
at a good distance away from S as shown in Fig. The interference pattern obtained on the screen
AB consists of a few coloured bands of different widths with a white central band.

B y
S1
S S2
z
A
y
x
D
d

Now a days pinholes S1 and S 2 are replaced by two narrow identical slits* (which increase the
brightness) and sunlight by monochromatic light (which increases the number of bands). The
pattern consists of a large number of euqally spaced alternate bright and dark bands (called
fringes) running parallel to the length of the-slit.
Through this experiment measuring the wavelength of light (characteristic of wave), Young
conclusively established the wave-nature of light.

WAVE OPTICS
 8 MARKS
P r in c ip le

Monochromatic light (single wavelength) from a narrow vertical slit S falls on two other narrow
slits S 1 and S 2 which are very close together and parallel to S. S 1 and S2 act as two coherent
sources (both. being derived from S). If S, S 1 and S2 all are very narrow, diffraction (bending of
light at openings whose width is of the order of wavelength of light) causes the emerging beams
to spread into the region beyond the slits. Superposition occurs in the shaded area, where the
diffracted beams overlap. Alternate bright and dark equally spaced vertical bands (interference
frignes) can be observd on a screen placed at some distance from the slits. If either of S1 or S2
is covered, the fringes disappear.

Diffracted beam
from S1

S1 Interference
Monochromatic effects in
S region where
light source
S2 beams overlap

Single Double
slit slit
Diffracted beam
from S 2

T he or y

An expression for the separation of two bright (or dark) fringes (called fringe width W) can be
obtained as under.
Figure shows the light waves from S 1 and S2 meeting at an arbitrary point P on the screen. Since
D>>d, the two light rays are approximately parallel with a path diffference.

to P
Screen
P
r1 
y to P
S1 r2 
 d
d O
S2 
D
r2  r1 = d sin 

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 9

x = S 2P  S1P
 d sin  ...(i)
For maximum intensity at P,
x = n (n = 0, μ 1, μ2,...)
or d sin  = n (n = 0, μ 1, μ2,...) ...(ii)
The bright fringe corresponding to the integer n is called the nth order (or just n th) bright fringe.
The bright fringe for n = 0, is know as the central fringe and its centre (point O) is called the
central (or zero order) mamimum. Higher order bright fringes are sutuated symmetrically about
the central fringe.
For minimum intensity at P,


x   2 n  1  (n = μ 1, μ2,...)
2


or d sin   2 n  1  (n = μ 1, μ2,...) ...(iii)
2

The first minima (n = μ1) are adjacent to the central maximum on either side. It is useful to obtain
expressions for the positions of the bright and dark fringes measured vertically from O. In
addition to our assumption that D >> d, we assume that d>>. These can be valid assumptions
because in practice D is often of the order of 1 m, d a fraction of a milimetre and  a fraction of
a micrometre for visible light. Under these conditions  is small, thus, we can use the appromixation,

y
sin   tan 
D

Substituting ins Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get

n D
ybright = (n = 0, μ1, μ 2,...) ...(iv)
d

ydark = (2 n  1) D (n = μ1, μ 2,...) ...(v)

2d
Fringe Width (  ) : Distance between two adjacent bright (or dark) fringes is called the fringe
width. It is denoted by . Thus.

n D (n  1) D  D
  
d d d

D

d

Alternatively we can show that distance between two successive dark fringes is also  D .
d

WAVE OPTICS
10 MARKS
Angular fr
friing
ngee width

y
As is very small, the equation tan   can be reduced to
D

 = y/D ... (1)

y
Therefore   ... (2)
D

where y gives the distance two consecutive similar fringes.

 y = , the fringe widt.
Hence from (1) we obtain.


 
d

D
But   , therefore from (2) we obtain.
d


 
d

where  is called the angular fringe width.

Chan
han ge in fr
fr inge width du
du e to c han
han ge in
in medi
me di
diuum

If the light waves of wavelength  interfere, then the fringe width is given by

D

d

in a medium of refractive index ø, the wavelength changes to


´  ... (1)


The fringe width in the medium of refractive index ø is

D´
´  ... (2)
d

From (1) and (2) we obtain.

D
 ´ 
d

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 11

This gives the new fringe width. From (1), differentiating we get,

D
   ...(3)
d

D
   (   )´ ...(4)
d

If the wavelength is constant, that is the medium is not changed, but slits separation is varied
then,

D
    d´ taking 2d = d´.
d´

Not
otee :

1. For two coherent sources the resultant intensity is given by.

I  I1  I2  2 I1 I 2 cos 

Putting I1 = I2 = I 0

We have I = I0 + I0 + 2 I0  I0 cos

Simplifying the above expression, we get


I = 4I0 cos2
2

2. We can see that intensity is maximum at points where,

 
cos  1 or  n (n = 0, μ1, μ2,...)
2 2

2
or  = 2n or  x  2 n


or x = n or d sin = n

yd nyD
or  n or y
D d

and this condition, we have already discused earlier. Further, the maximum intensity is
Imax = 4I0


or I =Imax cos2
2

WAVE OPTICS
12 MARKS
Minimum intensity on the screen is found at points where,

   1
cos 0 or   n    (n = μ1, μ2, μ3...)
2 2  2

2
or  = (2n – 1) or  x  (2 n  1)


 
or  x  (2n  1) or d sin   (2 n 1)
2 2

yd  (2n  1) D
or  (2n  1) or y
D 2 2

The minimum intensity is zero I min = 0

A plot of light intensity versus d sin  is given in figure.

2  3   O   3 2 d sin
2 2 2 2

3. Fringe width (w) is the distance between two successive maximas or minimas. It is given by,

D
w
d

w  
Two conclusions can be drawn from this relation

(i) If YDSE apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index ø, then wavelength of

light and hence, fringe width decrease ø times.

(ii) If white light is used in place of a monochromatic light then coloured fringes
are obtained on the screen with red fringes of larger size than that of violet, because
red > violet.

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 13

But note that centre is still white because path difference there is zero for all colours. Hence,
all the wavelengths interfere constructively. At other places light will interfere destructively
for those wavelengths for whom path difference is /2, 3/2,... etc. and they will interfere
constructively for the wavelengths for whom path difference is , 2,... etc.
4. Shifting of fringes : Suppose a glass slab of thickness t and refractive index ø is inserted
onto the path of the ray emanating from source S1 then the whole fringe pattern shifs

  D tD
upwards by a distance . This can be shown as under,
d P
Geometric path difference between S2P and S1P is,
y
yd S1
x1  S2 P  S1 P 
D

Path difference produced by the glass slab, S2

x2 = (ø  1)t
Note : Due to the glass slab path of ray 1 gets increased by x2 .
Therefore, net path difference between the two rays is,
x = x1  x2

yd
x   (  1)t
D

For nth maxima on upper side, x = n

yd
or  (   1) t  n
D

nyD (   1) tD
 y 
d d

ny D
Earlier it was
d

   1 t D
 Shift 
d

Following three points are important with regard to above equation.

(a) Shift is independent of n, (the order of the fringe), i.e.,
shift of zero order maximum = shift of 7th order maximum
or shift of 5th order maximum = shift of 9 th order minimum and so on.

WAVE OPTICS
 14 MARKS
(b) Shift is independent of , i.e., if white light is used then,
shift of red colour fringe = shift of violet colour fringe.

shift
(c) Number of fringes shiftd 
fringewidth

   1 t D / d    1 t
 
D / d 

These numbers are inversely proportional to . This is because shift is same for all colours but
fringe width of the colour having smaller value of is small, so more number of fringes will shift
of this colour.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 1

In youngÊs experiment, the interfering waves have amplitudes in the ratio 3:2. Find the
ratio of (a) amplitudes and (b) intensities, between the bright and dark fringes.
Solution :
In case of interference

A2  A12  A22  2A1 A2 cos  I  I1  I2  2 I1 I2 cos  

 

Resultant amplitude, for given A1 and A2, is maximum for cos  = 1 and minimum for cos = 1.

2
 Amax  A12  A22  2A1 A2  (A1  A2 )2

or Amax = A1 + A2 (bright fringe)

and A2max  A12  A22  2A1 A2 ( 1)

= (A1  A2)2
or Amin = A1  A 2 , assuming A1 > A 2; otherwise A2  A1, (dark fringe)

Amax A + A2
Here we have to obtain the ratio = 1 and also the corresponding ratio of
A min A1 - A 2

I max A 1 + A 2 
2

intensities I =
 A1 - A2 
2
min

A1 3
 (given)
A2 2

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 15

A1 + A2 3  2
By componendo and dividendo  5
A1 - A 2 3 2

A max
Hence =5
Amin

I max  A 1 + A 2 
2

and =  25 Ans.
 A1 - A2 
Imin 2

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 2

Find the maximum intensity in case of interference of a identical waves each of intensity
I 0 if the interference is (a) coherent (b) incoherent.
Solution :
In case of interference of two waves.

I = I1 + I 2 + 2  
I1I2 cos

(a) In case of coherent interference at a given point,  does not vary with time and so I will
be maximum when cos  = max = 1, i.e.,

 I max  Co = I 1 + I 2 + 2 I 1I 2 =  I1 + I2 
So for n identical waves each of intensity I0,

   n I0 
2 2
 Imax Co = I0 + I0  ...

= n 2I0
(b) In case of incoherent interference at a given point,  varies randomly with time,
So, (cos )av = 0
and hence, (I R)Inco = I 1 + I 2
So, in case of n identical waves,
(I R)Inco = I0 + I 20 + ... = nI0 Ans.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 3
YoungÊs double slit experiment is performed inside water (ø = 4/3) with light of frequency
6 ï 1014 Hz. If the slits are separated by 0.2 mm and the screen kept 1m from the slits, find
the fringe width. Using the same set-up, what will the fringe width be if the expriment is
performed in air ?
WAVE OPTICS
 16 MARKS
Solution :
Wavelength of given light in air can be obtained from the relation
c = fair

c 3  10 8
air    5  107 m
f 
6 10 14

Wavelength of light of same frequency (6  1014 Hz) in water will be different and

 air 5  10 7
  water  
water 4/3

 water  3.75  10 7 m
As the experiment is performed in water,

 water D
fringe width 
d

d = 0.2 mm = 0.2  103 m

Here D = 1m

3.5  10 7
  m
0.2  10 3

or                                 = 1.87 mm
If the experiment is performed in air,

air D 5  10 7
fringe width,   m
d 0.2  103

or          = 2.5 mm Ans.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 4

Fig. shows two radio antennas kept at a distance 400m. The antennas broadcast the ame
signals at the same wavelength. A person, having a radio, is standing at the position of thid
order maximum. Find the wavelength of signals.
A1

800m
400m

A2 600m

P(Person)
WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 17

Solution :
So as to obtain path difference between the signals from A 1 and A2 at P, the path lengths A1P
and A2 P need to be determined.

A1
N
200m
800m
M
200m
L
A2 600m

P (Person)

In A2LP, (A2P) 2 = (PL)2 + (A2L) 2

 (A2P) 2 = (600  200)2 + (800)2
= (400)2 + (800)2
 A2P = 894.43 m
In A1NP, (A1P) 2 = (PN)2 + (A1 N)2
= (600 + 200)2 + (800)2
 A1P = 1131.37 m
Path difference = A1P  A 2P = 236.94 m
Since the person is at the position of third order maximum,
  = 3 [ = n]
or 3 = 236.94 m
  = 79 m Ans.

Int
nteerfe rence iin
n tthi
hi
hinn ffiilms
180 phase
Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films, change No phase
such as thin layers of oil on water or the thin surface of a change
soap bubble. 1
2
The varied colors observed when white light is incident on Air  air<film
such films result from the interference of waves reflected
from the two surfaces of the film. A
Film
Consider a film of uniform thickness t and indx of refraction t
ø, as shown in figure. Let us assume that the light rays
B
travelling in air are nearly normal to the two surfaces of the
film. To determine whether the relfected rays interfere Air
constructively or destructively, we first note the following
facts.
WAVE OPTICS
 18 MARKS
(i) The wavelength of light in a medium whose refractive index is ø is,


 


where  is the wavelength of light in vacuum (or air)

(ii) If a wave is reflected from a denser medium it undergoes a phase change of 180. Let us
apply these rules to the film shown in figure. the path difference beween the two rays 1 and
2 is 2t whilte the phase difference beteween them is 180. Hence, condition of constructive
interference will be,


2 t  (2 n  1) n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2

 1 
or 2 t   n    as.   
 2 

Similarly, condition of destructive interference will be,

2t  n n = 0, 1, 2...

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 5

Calculate the minimum thickness of a soap bubble film (ø = 1.33) that results in contructive
interference i the reflected light if the film is illuminated with light whose wavelength in
free space is  = 600 nm.
Solution :
For constructive interference in case of soap film,

 1
2t   n    n = 1, 2, 3, ...
 2

For minimum thickness t, n = 1


or 2t 
2

 600
or t 
4  4  1.33

= 112.78 mm Ans.

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 19

Exa mpl
plee 6

 where
Distance between the slits shown in figure is d = 20 
 is the wavelength of light used. Find the angle  where 45
d
(a) central maxima (where path difference is zero) is
1
obtained
(b) third order maxima is obtained 2

Solution :
Ray 1 has a longer path than that of ray 2 by a distance d sin 45, before reaching the slits.
Afterwards ray 2 has a path longer than ray 1 by a distance d sin . The net path path difference
is therefore, d sin   d sin 45 .
(a) Central maximum is obtained where, net path difference is zero,
or d sin   d sin 45 = 0
or  = 45 Ans.
(b) Third order maxima is obtained where net path d9fference is 3, or
d sin   d sin 45 = 3

3
 sin  = sin 45 +
d

Putting d = 20

3
we have sin  = sin 45 +
20 

or   59 Ans.

DI
DIFF
FF
FFRRA CT IO N

If an opaque obstacle (or aperture) is placed between a source of light and a screen, in accordance
with rectilinear propagation of light, usually a sharp shadow or an illuminated region is obtained
on the screen as shown if the size of an obstacle or aperture is comparable with the wavelength
of light, light deviates from rectilinear propagation near the edges of the obstacle (or aperture)
and enters the geometrical shadow. This flaring out or encroachment of light in the shadow zone
as it passes around obstacles or through small apertures is called diffraction.

A´ Light
No light
A A
A´
Light Shadow
S S B´
B B
No light
B´
Light
(A) Aperture (B) Obstacle

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 20 MARKS
As a result of diffraction, the edges of the shadow (or illuminated region) do not remain well
defined and sharp but become blurred and fringed.

Di ffraction a
att A Si
Sinngle S
Sllit

Consider a narrow slit AB of width d kept perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Lat a plane
wavefront of monochromatic light be incident normally on this slit. As the width d of the slit is
comparable to the wavelength of the light, the light gets diffracted on passing through the slit.
The converging lens L2 helps in focusing the diffraction pattern on the screen. The diffraction
pattern consists of a bright band at its centre (O) with alternate dark and bright bands on both
sides. The intensity of the bright bands decreases very sharply as one move away from O on both
sides.

W2 L2
P
A  t
d 
S O
M
B N screen
slit
L1 W2 D
Plane wave front

Explanation : As the plane wavefront W 1 W2 is incident normally on the slit, the entire slit AB
gets, illuminated. According to HygenÊs principle, each point on the portion AB of the wavefront
becomes the source of secondary disturbance. The secondary wavelets start spreading from AB in
all directions.

Pos
osttion of Ce
Cenntra l Maxi ma

The secondary wavelets travelling parallel to MO are focussed at O by the converging lens I 2.
Actually, the secondary wavelets orginating from any two points equidistant from the centre of
the slit M (one each in MA and MB) cover equal distances before converging at O. Hence, thepath
difference between them is zero. As a result, they produce the brightest band at O on the screen.
This is called the central maximum.

Pos
osiition o f Second
ndaary Maxima and M ini
nimma

Consider the secondary wave travelling in a direction makig an angle  with MO. All these waves
are focussed by lens L1 at point P. Such waves start from all the points of slit AB in the same
phase but travel different distances in reaching the point P. The intensity at point P will, therefore,
depend on the path difference between the secondary waves emitted from the corresponding
points (equidistant from M) of the wavefront AB.

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 21

Let us calculate the path difference between two secondary waves emitting from points A and B
of the wavefront. Draw AN perpendicular to the wave coming from B.
 Path difference between the secondary wavelets which originate from A and B and reach
point P on the screen, BN = AB sin  = d sin .

Secondary minima : Let this path difference be equal to 1  i.e.

 d sing  = 
Hence the path difference between the wavelets orginating from points A and M and reaching
point P will be /2. Similarly, the path difference between the wavelets originating from M and
B and reaching P will also be /2. Thus for each point in the upper half of the slit AM, there exists
a corresponding point in its lower half MB such that the wavelets originating from such points
reach point P out of phase i.e. having a phase difference of . Therefore, destructive interference
takes place at point P and it represents the first secondary minima.
Similarly, if d sin  = 2.
The slit AB can be imagined to be divided into four equal parts. The path difference between the
wavelets originating from corresponding points in two adjacent parts will be 2/4 = /2. Hence,
the wavelets cause destructive interference and point P again represents the second minima.
In general, for nth minima, we have d sin  = n.
Where n = 1, 2, 3, ........
Hence the direction of nth secondary minima


sin  n
d


 For small values , sin n = n  n
d

Secondary maxima : Let the path difference between the wavelets originating from A and B
and reaching an off  point P1 (not shown in the figure) be 3/2.

 d sin  = 3/2

We assume that the slit AB is divided into three equal parts so that the difference between the
wavelets originating from the corresponding points in the first two parts is /2. Such wavelets
cause destructive interference at P1. However, the wavelets originating from different point of the
third part reinforce each other (not completely as for them, 0 > d sin  < /2) and give rise to the
first secondary maxima at P1. The intensity at the first secondary maxima is much smaller than
that of the central maxima.
Similarly, d sin  = 5/2 give the second secondary maxima with much lower intensity than the
first maxima.
In general, for n th secondary maxima the have d sin  = (2n + 1)/2

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22 MARKS
Where n = 1, 2, 3 ....
The direction of n th secondary maxima is

(2n  1)
sin  =  n =
2d

Thus, the diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of central maxima flanked by alternate
minima and secondary maxima. The intensity distribution in the pattern on the screen in shown
in figure.

Intensity

Ist minima

I st maxima
IInd minima
nd
II maxima

3 2  0  2 3

Path difference (d sin  )

The graph shows that as we go away from the central maxima O on both sides, the intensity of
secondary maxima decreases very rapidly.

Width o
off central ma
maxxima

It is the distance between the first secondary manimum an either side of the central maxima
Let y be the distance of a first minimum from the centre (O) of the central maxima.

D
 d sin  =  and sin    
d

Let f be the focal length of the converging lens L2 (placed very close to slit AB) and D is the
distance of the screen from AB.
 D = f

y y
Hence,   
f D

y  D
Comparing equation, we get  ,y
D d d

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 23

2 D 2f
 width of central maxima = 2y = ,y
d d

Figure shows the widths of the central maxima (CD) and the first secondary maximum
(DE or CF)
Let y1 and y2 respectively be the distance of the first minima and the second minima from O. Then

2 D D D
width of the first secondary maximum = y2  y1 =   .
d d d

The width of the central maxima is twice the width of the first secondary maximum.

Di
Difffraction P
Paattern A
Att S
Siing
nglle Sl
Sliit D
Duue T
Too M
Moono
nocchroma
matti c L
Liight a
and
nd W
Whhite L
Liight

When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on the slit, the diffraction
pattern obtained on the screen consists of alternate bright and dark bands of equal width. The
intensity is maximum at the central bright band and it decreases very rapidly for successive
secondary bright bands i.e. maximum.
When the beam of white light is incident on the slit, the diffraction pattern is coloured.The central
maxima is white but the other bands are coloured. As the band width  the red band will be
wider than the violet band (as  R >  v ).

Int
nteens
nsiit y o
off Sing
nglle Sl
Sliit D
Diiffr action Patt erns

We can use phasors to determine the light intensity distribution for a single slit diffraction
pattern. The proof is beyond our syllabus, we are just writing here the intensity at angle .

2
 sin  / 2   a sin 
I  I0   Here 
 /2  2 

2
 sin   a sin  /   
or I  I0   (at angle )
  a sin  /  

Here I0 is the intensity at =0 (the central maximum).

From this result we see that minima occurs when,

a sin 
 m



or sin   m m   1,  2,...
a

which is in agreement with the formula derived earlier

WAVE OPTICS
 24 MARKS

 a sin 
Note : The sin  = 0, corresponds to central maxima while   , corresponds to first minima.

I

I0


2   2 2

Diffraction Grating : It consists of large number of equally spaced parallel slits. If light is
incident normally on a transmission grating, the direction of principal maxima is given by.

d sin  = n

Here d is the distance between two consecutive slits and is called grating element.
n = 1, 2, 3, ... is the order of principal maximas.

Resolving P
Pow
ow
owee r of tthe
he D
Diiffr action G
Grr ating

The diffraction grating is most useful for measuring wavelengths accurately. Like the prism, the
diffraction grating can be used to disperse a spectrum into its wavelength components. Of the two
devices, the grating is the more precise if one wants to distinguish two closely spaced wavelengths.
For two nearly equal wavelengths 1 and 2 between which a diffraction grating can just barely
distinguish, the resolving power R of the grating is defined as

 
R 
2  1 

where  = (1 +  2)/2 and  = 2   1.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 7

Light of wavelength 6328 AĈ from a He-Ne LASER falls on a single slit of width 0.4 mm and
the resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 1.8 m away. Find the (a) distance
between the firt dark fringes on either side of central bright firnge and (b) distance of
second order brihgt fringe from the (centre of) central bright fringe, assuming a small angle
of diffraction.
Solution :
Give  = 6328 A = 6328  10 10m

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 25

d = 0.4 mm = 0.4  103m

D = 1.8m
(a) Distance between the first dark fringes on either side of central bright fringe is also the
width of central maximum and, for small angle of diffraction, it given by

2 D
x
d

2  6328  1010  1.8


0.4  10 3

= 5.69  103m
= 5.69mm Ans.
(b) Second order maximum is formed between second and third minima.
Condition for minima can be expressed as
d sin  = n

n
sin  
d

y
For small , sin  tan  [y is the distance of any point]
D

yn n
 
D d

n D
 yn  3rd minimum
d 2nd maximum
2nd minimum
Hence second order minimum is fromed at
O
2 D 3 D
distance from O and formed at distance from O.
d d
Therefore, second order maximum, formed between second
and third minima, will be at distance, D

2D 3D

d d  5 D from O.
2 2d

5D 5  6328  10 10  1.8

i.e., y 
2d 2  0.4  10 3

= 7.1  103m
or, y = 7.1 mm Ans.

WAVE OPTICS
 26 MARKS
Exa mpl
plee 8

A screen is placed 50 cm from a single slit, which is illuminated with 6000 A light. If distance
between the first and third minima in the diffraction pattern is 3.00 mm, what is the width
of the slit ?
Solution :
In case of diffraction at single slit, the position of minima is given by
d sin  = n  
and for small : sin  =  = (y/D) ...(2)
So from Eqs. (1) and (2), we have :

 y D
d    n , i .e., y   n 
D d

D D
So that, y3  y1  3     (2 )
d d

0.50  (2 6  107 )

and hence d 3
 2  104 m
3  10

= 0.2 mm Ans.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 9

A single slit is illuminated with a parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890 A and a
diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen 1.2 m from the slit. The distance between positions
of zero intensity on both sides of central maximum is found to be 3.5 mm. Find the (a) width
of slit (b) angle of diffraction for third order bright fringe (c) angular width of the thrid
order bright fringe, assuming small angles of diffraction.
Solution :


Given  = 5890 A = 5890  10 10m

D = 1.2 m
(a) Distance between positions of zero intensity on both sides of central maximum is also the
width of central maximum.
Here it is 3.5 mm, i.e., 3.5  103 m.

2 D
Width of central maximum =
d

WAVE OPTICS
 MARKS 27

2  5890  10 10  1.2

 3.5  10 3 
d

 d = 0.0004 m
 Width of slit d = 0.4 mm

(b) Condition for nth order minimum can be expressed as path difference  = d sin  = n.
For 3rd dark fringe
d sin  = 3
3rd bright fringe is formed between third and fourth minima.
For 3rd bright fringe.

3  4 7 4th dark
d sin   
2 2 3rd bright
3rd dark

7
 sin  
2d O

7  5890  10 10

2  0.4  10 3
D
[d = 0.4  103m]
= 0.0051
  = 2.29

Unpo lar is ed Lig ht

The ordinary light also called as unpolarised light, consists of a very large number of vibrations
in all planes with equal probability at right angle to the planes with equal probability at right
angle to the direction of propagation. So unpolarised light is symmetrical about its direction of
propagation.

Pola ri se d Li ght

The light which has acquired the property of one sideness is called polarised light or the lack of
symmetry of vibration around the direction of wave propagation is called polarisation. Polarisation
of light waves exhibits that they are transverse waves. When the vibrations are confined only to
a single direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, it is called a plane
polarised light. A plane passing through the direction of propagation and perpendicular to the
plane of vibration is known as plane of polarisation.

WAVE OPTICS
 28 MARKS
Produ
ducction of Pl ane Polari se
sedd Lig ht

The plane polarised light can be produced by the following methods :

(a) by reflection : BrewsterÊs law ø = tan p, where p is the angle of polarisation (BrewsterÊs
angle) and ø is refractive index of the reflecting medium.
(b) by refraction (piles of plates)
(c) by double refraction (NicolÊs prism)
(d) by scattering.

Nic ol
ol’’s Pri sm

NicolÊs prism is a device for producing and analysing a plane polarised light. It is based on the
phenomenon of double refraction. Bartholinus discovered that when a beam of ordinary unpolarised
light is passed through a calcite crystal, the refracted light is split up into two refracted rays. The
one which always obeys the ordinary laws of refraction and having vibrations perpendicular to
the principal section is known as ordinary ray. The other, in general does not obey the laws of
refraction and having vibration in principal section is called as extra-ordinary ray. Bot the rays
are plane polarised. The phenomenon is known as double refraction. The crystals showing this
phenomenon are know as doubly refracting crystals.

WAVE OPTICS
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