Stuvia-370232-Physical-Science-P2-Chemistry-Notes 4

Physical Science P2 (Chemistry)
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Physical Science Paper II

Chemistry Study Notes
Rea’s Notes
Grade 12 Final
2016
3 Hour Exam
200 Marks
Table of Contents
Quantitative Chemistry -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Chemical Bonding -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
Energy Change & Rates of Reactions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
Chemical Equilibrium -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
Acids & Bases ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Electrochemistry --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Organic Chemistry ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 31
PREFIXES COMMONLY USED FOR UNITS ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
from IEB document

italics = learn by heart
(*) definition formula
not on formula sheet

Quantitative Chemistry
Balanced Chemical Equations
Polyatomic ions
Negative ions (anions)
-
OH hydroxide SO42- sulphate
NO3- nitrate SO32- sulphite
NO2- nitrite S2O32- thiosulphate
MnO4- permanganate O22- peroxide
CℓO3- chlorate MnO42- manganate
HCO3- hydrogen carbonate (ion) CrO42- chromate
HSO4- hydrogen sulphate Cr2O72- dichromate
HSO3- hydrogen sulphite CO32- carbonate
CH3COO- acetate / ethanoate PO43- phosphate
Positive ions (cations)

+
NH4 ammonium Ag+ silver
H3 O+ hydronium / oxonium Zn2+ zinc (II)
The Periodic Table

meaning:
• element is sodium
• 23 protons & neutrons in nucleus
• nucleons
• 11 protons & 11 electrons
• neutrons: 23 - 11 = 12
• sodium is 11 on the periodic table
• atomic number (23) = number of protons and number of electrons
• atomic mass (11) = number of protons + number of neutrons
• electronegativity is 2,1
No. Name Sym. No. Name Sym.

1 hydrogen H 22 titanium Ti
2 helium He 24 chromium Cr Diatomic elements
3 lithium Li 25 manganese Mn
Magnetic elements
4 beryllium Be 26 iron Fe
5 boron B 27 cobalt Co
6 carbon C 28 nickel Ni
7 nitrogen N 29 copper Cu
8 oxygen O 30 zinc Zn
9 fluorine F 33 arsenic As
10 neon Ne 35 bromine Br
11 sodium Na 47 silver Ag
12 magnesium Mg 50 tin Sn
13 aluminium Al 53 iodine I
14 silicon Si 54 xenon Xe
15 phosphorus P 74 tungsten W
16 sulphur S 78 platinum Pt
17 chlorine Cl 79 gold Au
18 argon Ar 80 mercury Hg
19 potassium K 82 lead Pb
20 calcium Ca 87 francium Fr
92 uranium U
Rea’s Notes | Page 1

Writing Balanced Chemical Equations

 reactants  products  solid phase
 s
 crystal lattice
 solute
  substance which is dissolved
 state
 precipitate is solid
 gaseous phase
 ↓
 g
 aqueous
 ↑
 aq
 liquid phase
 dissolves in solute
 ℓ
 usually water
 solvent
 does not partake in reaction
 substance in which another
 concentrated acid
substance is dissolved
 c
 Interpret balanced reaction equations in terms of
 conservation of atoms
 The conservation of atoms in chemical reactions leads to the principle of conservation of matter
and the ability to calculate the mass of products and reactants.
 conservation of mass (use relative atomic masses)
 during chemical reaction / physical change,
 sum of masses of reactants = the sum of masses of products
The Mole Concept

mole SI unit for amount of substance
quantity of matter that has same number of particles (atoms, molecules
mole or ions) as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12
quantity of matter that contains Avogadro’s number of formula units
molar mass (*) mass in grams of one mole of that substance
1 mole contains Avogadro's number of particles ( )
n number of moles mol moles

m mass g grams
-1
M molar mass g.mol grams per mole
Molar Volume of Gases

Avogadro’s Law equal volumes of all gases (@ STP) contain same number of units (atoms/molecules)

3
V volume of gas dm decimetres cubed
3 -1
Vm molar gas volume @ STP 22,4 dm .mol dm3 per mole
* STP = standard temperature and pressure
 get molar mass from periodic table
 molar mass of diatomic elements = 2x mass of element
 1000cm3 = 1 dm3 = 1ℓ
 1 mole of gas occupies 22,4 dm3 at 0°C (273 K) and at 1 atmosphere (101,3 kPa)

Volume relationships in gaseous reactions

Explosions
 ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) used for making explosives
 e.g. dynamite Not in IEB doc:
 the huge volume of gas suddenly produced causes explosion Volume
 all products of reaction are gases, none are dangerous relationships in
 2NH4NO3(s)  2N2(g) + 4H2O(g) + O2(g) gaseous reactions
Combustion in car’s engine

 spark plug in car’s engine ignites fuel (C8H18) which reacts with oxygen to produce CO2 gas + water vapour
 volume of gas produced
 large enough to cause pressure build up to push piston down again
 provides needed power to move engine + car
 2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g)  16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
Airbags
 inflation of airbag involves chemical reaction that produces large volume of gas which inflates bag
 sensors at front of car send electric signal to canister containing sodium azide (NaN 3)
 sodium azide then detonated
 ignites + starts decomposition reaction producing gas
 occurs in 0,03 seconds
 2NaN3(s)  2Na(s) + 3N2(g)
Concentration of Solutions
solute substance that is dissolved in solution
solvent substance in which another substance is dissolved, forming solution
number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution
concentration (*)
gives idea of strength of solution
standard solution solution of known concentration
technique where solution of known concentration is used to find info about
titration
solution that it is being reacted with
reaction in which 2 separate solutions are mixed together to form insoluble
precipitation reaction
compound that settles at bottom as solid
precipitate insoluble compound formed during precipitation reaction
chemical that determines how far reaction will go before chemical in question gets
limiting reagent
used up, causing reaction to stop
substance in excess reactant that is left over at end of reaction, once limiting reagent has been used up
c concentration mol.dm-3 moles per dm3

3
V volume dm decimetres cubed
N number of particles
NA Avogadro’s number
 1 mole contains Avogadro’s number of particles
 never changes
 weak acid/base
 strong acid/base
 can change, may add water
 dilute acid/base
 concentrated acid/base

Standard Solution
From IEB document:
Describe quantitatively and
qualitatively how to make up
a standard solution
Stoichiometric Calculations
Calculations based on chemical equations
1. Make sure equation is balanced Note:
2. Write mole ratio using balanced equation total volume of gaseous
3. Calculate “n” for substance that info was given reactants need not equal total
volume of gaseous products
4. Use mole ratio to calculate “n” for needed substance (multiply)
total number of moles of
5. Use “n” to calculate mass/volume
reactant need not equal total
number of moles of products
Calculations involving limiting reagents
1. Balance equation
2. Determine mole ratio
3. Calculate number of moles for both reactants
4. Compare mole ratio of 2 substances
 If n1 = ?? : ?? mol of 2ndsubstance would be required

Percentage yield
measure of extent of reaction, generally measured by comparing amount of product vs amount of
yield
product possible
measures how successful reaction has been
actual and theoretical

yields can be in moles
or mass
1. Balance equation
2. Determine mole ratio
3. Calculate number of moles of reactant
4. Use mole ratio to determine number of moles of product
5. Calculate theoretical mass of product formed
6. Calculate percentage yield
Empirical formula & Molecular formula

empirical formula simplest ratio of substances present in compound
formula based on its molecular weight / relative atomic mass
molecular formula
shows actual number of atoms of each constituent element
Determining empirical formula

1. Convert % into mass (g)
 assume total mass = 100g
2. Obtain molar mass (from periodic table) Not in IEB doc:
 Calculate number of moles Empirical formula
3. Divide each mole value by smallest n calculated & Molecular
4. Round values to nearest whole number formula
 if at .5, multiply by 2
 if between .4 – .6, find LCD
5. Use these numbers as empirical formula
Determining molecular formula

 first determine empirical formula
 compare relative molecular mass of empirical formula compound to relative molecular mass given
 to determine molecular formula:
 multiply compound through by number from molecular formula formula
Percentage purity
 not all samples of chemical are 100% pure

Chemical Bonding
Intramolecular Bonds
Chemical bond
intramolecular bond bond occurring between atoms within molecules
pair of electrons shared between 2 atoms
bonding pair
each atom contributes one electron towards bonding pair
chemical bond net electrostatic force 2 atoms which share electrons exert on each other
electrostatic force force of attraction/repulsion between charged particles
lone pair pair of valence electrons belonging to atom not involved in bonding
electrons in outer energy level of atom that can form chemical bonds with other
valence electrons
atoms
Aufbau Diagram & Lewis Structure

e.g. phosphorus
Aufbau diagram Lewis structure Details
atomic no. / electrons: 15

group no. / valence electrons: 5
valency: -3
Bonding
 atoms always want to be in stable state
 ensure have no unpaired electrons
 electrostatic forces
 attraction: moves closer together
 repulsion: moves further apart
 molecule most stable when potential energy is at lowest
Couper notation
Formula Lewis diagram Couper structure
H2 O
Molecules with multiple bonds between atoms

F2 O2 N2

Molecules with dative covalent or co-ordinate covalent bonds

 atom with incomplete no. of electrons shares lone pair of electrons belonging to another atom
 e.g. formation of ammonium & hydronium ions
Electronegativity of atoms to explain polarity of bonds

a measure of the tendency of atom to attract bonding pair of electrons
electronegativity
ability of atom in molecule to attract shared pair of electrons toward itself
covalent bond sharing of at least one pair of electrons by 2 atoms
covalent bond in which shared electrons are found an equal distance between the 2
non-polar covalent
atoms as atoms have same electronegativity
bond
(pure covalent) equal sharing of electrons
covalent bond in which shared electrons are positioned closer to 1 atom as atoms
have different electronegativities
polar covalent bond
unequal sharing of electrons leading to dipole forming (as result of
electronegativity difference)
ionic bond transfer of electrons and subsequent electrostatic attraction
metallic bonding bonding between a positive kernel and a sea of delocalised electrons
polar bond electron pairs are shared unequally, i.e. partially +’ve side & partially –’ve side
dative covalent bond occurs when shared electron pair between 2 atoms is provided by one of atoms
molecule in which there is unequal distribution of charge
polar molecule resulting in overall +’ve & –’ve side of molecule
has asymmetrical distribution of charge
molecule in which there is equal distribution of charge
non-polar molecule opposite ends of molecule have same charge
has symmetrical distribution of charge
polarity difference in electronegativity
Non-polar covalent bonds

 atoms of bond are identical
 e.g. H2 & Cℓ2
 same attraction
Polar covalent bonds

 atoms not identical
 e.g. HCℓ (H+) (Cℓ-)
 electron pair not halfway
Determining polarity
Difference of Type of bond Explanation
> 2,1 ionic complete electron transfer would take place
1 – 2,1 covalent, polar
<1 covalent, very weakly polar
=0 covalent, non-polar

Bond energy and bond length

bond energy amount of energy absorbed to break chemical bond / released when new bond is formed
bond length average distance between nuclei of 2 bonded atoms in molecule
bond order refers to no. of bonds that occur between 2 atoms
Determining strength of chemical bond

 bond length
 closer  greater attraction  stronger bond
 size of atoms
 smaller molecules  greater bond energy  stronger bond
 no. of bonds between 2 atoms (bond order)
 double bond stronger than single bond
 i.e. greater bond order  stronger bond
Other factors which affect intramolecular bonds

 in giant structures
 e.g. diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide
 melting & boiling points are high
 due to strong covalent bonds being broken
 in giant ionic solids
 e.g. sodium chloride
 melting points & boiling points determined by electrostatic forces of attraction (ionic bonds) between
cations and anions in lattice structure

Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular and interatomic forces
In a liquid or a solid there must be forces between the molecules causing them to be attracted to one
another, otherwise the molecules would move apart and become a gas.
IMF (intermolecular force) – weak force of attraction between molecules/atoms of noble gases
dissociation process whereby ionic compounds break up into ions in presence of water
 intermolecular forces are between molecules, intramolecular bonds are between atoms of molecules
Types of intermolecular forces between molecules and in mixtures of covalent

compounds
dipole pair of equal & oppositely charged / magnetised poles separated by distance
temporary dipole that is only polar for as long as electrons in naturally non-polar
induced dipole atom/molecule are positioned in way to form dipole
i.e. non-polar atom/molecule has electrons positioned more to one side
Type of force Strength Between which molecules

London / induced dipole- weakest induced dipoles
induced dipole forces (van der Waals) can exist between mixture of non-polar substances
weak, short- uncharged molecules
van der Waals forces
range arising from interaction of permanent/induced dipoles
weak polar covalent molecules, there is an electronegativity
dipole-dipole
(van der Waals) difference
weak polar molecule induces dipole in atom/non-polar molecule by
dipole-induced dipole
(van der Waals) disturbing arrangement of electrons in non-polar molecule
special dipole-dipole forces
hydrogen bonds with small highly electronegative atom
hydrogen bonds strongest H with N/O/F
higher boiling points than with other hydride molecules in
same group
Solubility of substances
solubility ability of 1 substance to dissolve in another
solute substance that is dissolves in solution
solvent substance in which another substance is dissolved, forming solution
 like dissolves like
 if both solute & solvent polar or both non-polar
 solute will likely dissolve
 if one is polar other non-polar
 solute will likely not dissolve
Types of intermolecular forces in mixtures containing ionic compounds

Type of force Between molecules Info
 when ionic substance dissolves in water, it dissociates into its ions
 water molecules are unable to remove ions from crystal lattice
 because individual ion-dipole forces are weak & can’t
overcome ionic forces of crystal lattice
ion-dipole ionic compound & polar
 however combined forces of many water molecules will
(van der Waals) covalent compound overcome ionic forces
 pulls ions out of crystal lattice
 ions classified as ‘polar’
 ionic substances dissolve well in polar solvents

 dissociated ions from ionic substance induces non-polar

ion-induced atom/molecule
polar substances &
dipole  there is attractive force
induced dipoles  ions classified as ‘polar’
(van der Waals)
 ionic substances do not dissolve well in non-polar solvents
Physical state and density in terms of intermolecular forces

measure of number of molecules in material per unit of volume
density
/how closely packed molecules are in object
heat conduction transfer of heat energy from one vibrating particle to next in material
Strength of IMFs vs melting/boiling points

 stronger IMFs  greater energy needed to break forces between molecules  higher melting + boiling
points
 solid  stronger IMFs  harder to break  has higher melting + boiling points
Strength of van der Waals forces VS molecular size

 the bigger the molecule, the stronger the IMF
 bigger electron cloud  longer molecule  more points for force contact  stronger IMF
Strength of IMFs vs density

 solids have highest density, gas has lowest density
 solid: molecules held closer together  stronger IMFs
 gas: molecules too far apart  virtually non-existent IMFs
Strength of IMFs vs thermal expansion

 weaker IMFs  less energy required to break apart to undergo phase change
 same within same phase of substance
 in an alcohol thermometer
 heated
 IMFs between alcohol molecules weaken
 moving them further apart
 alcohol expands
 causing movement up tube
 indicate rise in temp
 cooled
 molecules move closer together
 alcohol begins to contract
 IMFs strengthen
Strength of IMFs vs thermal conductivity in metals & non-metals

 metals better conductors of heat than non-metals
 to be able to conduct heat
 must be able to undergo heat conduction
 particles of substance must be able to vibrate as receive energy
 then transfer to neighbouring particles
 seen from metallic lattice
 electrons are free to move within lattice, therefore collide with one another to transfer heat
 metals have stronger IMFs
 metal particle held closely together
 better thermal conductors than non-metals

Chemistry of water
amount of heat energy that must be supplied to 1kg of substance for it to overcome
heat of vaporisation
its IMFs and change from liquid to gas/vapour
 water contains hydrogen bonds
 very strong
 boiling point of water is higher than expected
Not in IEB doc:
 without H-bonds, all water on earth would be in gaseous phase Chemistry of
 causes solid water to have more open crystalline structure water
 ice is less dense than water
 angular shape of water molecules + hydrogen bonds between them
 causes molecules to arrange selves into 3D hexagonal lattice, large spaces in centre
 presence of H-bonds & shape of lattice is reason ice floats in water
 water has high heat of vaporisation

Energy Change & Rates of Reactions

Energy Changes in Reactions
enthalpy heat content / amount of energy within substance
net change of chemical potential energy of system
heat of reaction (ΔH)
change in enthalpy or amount of heat absorbed/released during a chemical reaction
reaction in which energy is absorbed ( )
endothermic reaction
reaction which transfers thermal energy into potential energy
reaction in which energy is released {heat given out as product} ( )
exothermic reaction
reaction which transfers potential energy into thermal energy
thermodynamics science of heat / energy flow in chemical reactions
compound which speeds up reaction without taking part in reaction
catalyst lowers activation energy in reaction
substance that increases rate of reaction but remains unchanged at end of reaction
H enthalpy / heat of reaction kJ kilojoules

H = Hproducts Hreactants Hproducts energy of products kJ kilojoules
Hreactants energy of reactants kJ kilojoules
OR
H enthalpy / heat of reaction kJ kilojoules
activation energy / energy
H= activation given out activation kJ kilojoules
taken in
given out energy given out kJ kilojoules
 in chemical reactions
 existing bonds are broken requiring energy
 new bonds are formed releasing energy
 stronger bond requires more energy to break and releases more energy when formed
 if energy absorbed = energy released; reaction is reversible
Endothermic and exothermic reactions

Endothermic
 net energy absorbed (as reactant)

 energy of products is higher than energy of reactants
 Hproducts > Hreactants
 ΔH is +’ve
 existing bonds are broken
Exothermic
 net energy released (as product)
 energy of products is lower than energy of reactants
 Hproducts < Hreactants
 ΔH is –’ve
 new bonds are formed
 e.g. of exothermic reactions

 combustion of fuel: fuel + O2  CO2 + H2O + energy
 respiration: C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
 e.g. of endothermic reaction
sunlight energy
 photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Activation energy
activation energy ( ) minimum energy required to start chemical reaction
temporary transition state between reactants & products
activated complex transition state for molecules in reaction which have already broken apart & are no
longer reactant molecules, nor are they yet product molecules
 for substances to react molecules must
 collide with one another
 have correct orientation
 have kinetic energy activation energy
 if not enough energy to collide successfully, must absorb some energy
 activation energy is required for exo- & endothermic reactions
Endothermic
 reactants not have enough energy to break bonds
between them
 so need to absorb energy before able to react
 absorb activation energy
 increase their potential energy
 when molecules reach activated complex
 able to collide
 reactant molecules broken apart
 particles @ activated complex bond to form products
 release energy
 energy absorbed in reaching activated complex >
amount of energy released
Exothermic
 energy needs to be absorbed before reaction can occur

 energy absorbed in reaching activated complex <
amount of energy released

Rates of Reaction
reaction rate (*) change in concentration per unit time of either reactant or product
the speed at which a reaction occurs is directly proportional to:
collision theory number of collisions per unit time between reacting particles
fraction of these collisions that are effective
Factors Affecting Rate

 nature of reacting substances
 factors which determine speed that particles have to collide with for reaction to be effective
 type, strength, number of chemical bonds between atoms
 e.g. simple ions’ reactions are usually instantaneous
 +’ve & –’ve charges attract each other & no bonds have to be broken to create new substances
 e.g. NaCl(aq) becomes Na+ and Cl– ions
 but reaction between molecules are slower
 bonds must be broken & new bonds must form
 by affecting frequency of collisions
 concentration
 if conc. is increased, particles are closer together
 more effective collisions per unit time reaction rate increases
 only for solutions
 because
 conc. of solids cannot be changed
 conc. of gas only changed by changing pressure
 pressure
 if pressure is increased, particles are closer together
 only for gases
 surface area
 solid broken up into little pieces increase total surface area of reactants
 total number of particles available for reacting increases
 only for solids
 + temperature (below)
 by affecting energy of collisions
 temperature
 as temp increases, kinetic energy increases, speed of molecules increases
 therefore molecules collide more frequently
 more effective collisions
 reaction rate increases
 temperature increase of 10°C usually doubles rate of reaction
 catalysts
Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curve

Measuring Rates of Reaction
or
 experimental techniques for measuring the rate of a given reaction

 volume of gas liberated over time
 colour change seen over time
 volume of precipitate formed over time (turbidity)
 loss in mass of reactant over time (if product released as gas)
 gain in product mass over time
 rate at which product is formed = rate at which reactant is used up
Effect of a Catalyst
catalyst substance that increases rate of reaction but remains unchanged at end of reaction
 catalysts
 takes part in reaction but remains unchanged at end
 do not cause reaction to take place that wouldn’t have taken place already
 function by interacting with reactants so reaction follows alternative path of lower activation energy
 i.e. lowers activation energy needed for reaction
 do not change enthalpy ( ) of reaction
 do not affect volume of product formed, only speed at which products form
 graphs show how adding a catalyst affects the rate of reaction
 energy profile graph
 Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curve
 rate vs time
 quantity vs time
 mass of catalyst before = mass of catalyst after

Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Equilibrium
one in which system is isolated from its surrounding environment in such a way
closed system
that there is no mass transferred into or out of system
one in which mass or energy can be transferred into or out of system during
open system
reaction
reaction that does not go to completion and occurs in both forward and reverse
reversible reaction
direction
reaction in which the forward and reverse reaction continue to take place
dynamic equilibrium
simultaneously, at the same rate
 reaction can only reach equilibrium if
 reaction is reversible
 system is closed
 reaction has reached equilibrium if
 rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction
 or volume/concentration of reactants & of products are constant (not necessarily equal)
Application of Equilibrium Principles

Le Chatelier's when external stress (change in pressure / temperature / concentration) is applied to
principle system in chemical equilibrium, equilibrium point will change so as to counteract the stress
 use Le Chatelier's principle to predict the effects of changes of ___ on the concentrations and amounts of
each substance in an equilibrium mixture
 pressure
 increase in pressure: reaction that proceeds towards least number of moles of gas is favoured
 decrease in pressure: reaction that proceeds towards most number of moles of gas is favoured
 if number of moles of reactants = products, equilibrium is maintained despite pressure
 increasing pressure increases both forward & backward reaction rates, but one is favoured (moles)
 when comparing moles of products/reactants, ignore (s) & (l) as not affected by pressure
 temperature
 a value means that forward reaction is endothermic
 a value means that forward reaction is exothermic
 increase in temp favours endothermic reaction
 decrease in temp favours exothermic reaction
 exothermic reaction produces heat which relieves stress of low temperature
 increasing temp increases rates of both forward & backward reactions, but one will increase more
 concentration (common ion effect)
 reaction that favours counteracting the change will be favoured
 e.g. add more reactant, forward reaction favoured
 adding (s) or (l) has no effect on equilibrium position
 NB: [molecule] = concentration of molecule
 common ion effect
 if compound added to equilibrium system contains ion already present in system
 reaction which uses up that ion will be favoured (NB dissociation)
 CATALYSTS DO NOT AFFECT EQUILIBRIUM POSITION
 speeds up both forward and reverse reactions equally
 so have no effect on equilibrium
 cause equilibrium to be reached sooner
 graphs
 rate graphs
 rates of both forward and backward will become equal when equilibrium occurs
 amount vs time graphs
 in closed system
 amounts become constant when equilibrium occurs (not necessarily equal)

 use collision theory to explain changes predicted by Le Chatelier's principle
measure of extent of reaction, generally measured by comparing amount of product vs amount of

yield
product possible
Industrial Processes
used in preparation of fertilisers
 Haber process
 formation of ammonia (NH3)

 conditions that will bring about high product yield:
 high pressure
 compressors that can withstand very high pressures are expensive so not economical to
increase pressure higher than 200 times atmospheric pressure
 low temperature
 too low temperature lowers reaction rate too much
 Ek of molecules too low, not enough activation energy to form activated complex
 takes too long to reach equilibrium & uneconomical
 moderate temperature of 500°C is chosen for this reaction
 removal of NH3
 addition of N2 or H2
 addition of catalyst (iron (Fe) or iron oxide (FeO))
 enlarge surface area of catalyst (more finely subdivided)
 Contact process
 formation of sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 only part of process which is reversible:
 conditions that will bring about high product yield (sulphur trioxide): (same as with Haber)
 high pressure
 ideal: 1 times atmospheric pressure
 low temperature
 ideal: 450°C
 removal of SO3
 addition of O2 or SO2 (sulphur dioxide)
 addition of catalyst (vanadium pentoxide, V2O5)
 enlarge surface area of catalyst (more finely subdivided)
 Ostwald process
 formation of nitric acid (HNO3) in 3 steps:

Equilibrium Constant
expression of concentration of products over concentration
equilibrium constant of reactants for reaction that is in equilibrium
tells us equilibrium ratio of products to reactants
: at equilibrium, more products than reactants

: at equilibrium, more reactants than products
 when calculating equilibrium constant
 equation must be balanced
 only gases and aqueous solutions are included in the KC equation
 KC changes as temp changes
 temperature is the only factor which influences the value of equilibrium constant
 if change in temp causes KC to increase
 forward reaction was favoured
 caused conc. of products to increase & conc. of reactants to decrease
 KC increased
 (endothermic forward reaction)
 is written as
 calculate KC given
 equilibrium concentrations or moles and volumes of all relevant species
 calculate concentrations stoichiometrically
 or use below steps
 initial concentrations (or moles) of all species and the equilibrium concentration (or moles) of one
species
 set up table as shown
 use balanced equation to determine mole ratio
 put given info into table
 calculate what is possible to calculate
 mole ratio only applies to used / formed row
 once number of moles (n) @ equilibrium known, use to calculate conc. @ equilibrium
 then use conc. of each substance @ equilibrium to calc. KC

Acids & Bases

Grade 10-11 Revision
ampholyte substance that may act as acid or base
conjugate acid-base pairs compounds that differ by presence of 1 proton / H + ion
salt ionic compound produced by reacting acid with base
Acids Bases
sour taste slippery feel
corrosive to metals
Ampholytes
 some substances can act as acid or base
 e.g. water
 able to donate/accept protons
 depends on what substance reacting with
 said to be “amphoteric”
 e.g. with H2O
 acid:
 base:
Conjugate acid-base pairs

 all acids have conjugate base which is formed when proton has been donated
 all bases have conjugate acid, formed after have accepted proton
 e.g.

 pair 1:
 acid = HCℓ
 conjugate base = Cℓ-
 pair 2:
 base = NH3
 conjugate acid = NH4+
 to find conjugate base
 take away H+
 to find conjugate acid
 add H+

Grade 12 Work
Lowry-Brønsted theory
acid is defined as a proton donor
Lowry-Brønsted theory of acids and bases
base is defined as a proton acceptor
 acid: any substance that can donate hydrogen ion
 base: substance that accepts hydrogen ions
Common Names
Common Strong Acids Common Strong Bases
hydrochloric acid HCℓ sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) NaOH
nitric acid HNO3 potassium hydroxide KOH
sulphuric acid H2SO4 magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
group 1 hydroxides
Common Weak Acids Common Weak Bases

ethanoic acid / acetic acid / vinegar CH3COOH ammonia NH3
hydrofluoric acid HF sodium carbonate Na2CO3
phosphoric acid H3PO4 sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3
sulphurous acid H2SO3 carbonates
Ionisation and Dissociation (Arrhenius’ theory)

 acids ionise in solution to produce H+ ions
 & ultimately H3O+ ions
 hydrogen ion
 bases dissociate in solution to produce OH- ions
 hydroxide ion
 e.g.
 acid (ionise)
 HCℓ(aq)  H+(aq) + Cℓ-(aq)
 H+ cannot exist on own in solution, so combine with water molecule:
 H+(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq)
 hydronium ions give acids their properties
 base (dissociate)
 NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Acidity
strong acid acid that ionises almost completely in aqueous solution
strong base base that dissociates almost completely in aqueous solution
weak acid acid that only ionises partially in aqueous solution
weak base base that only dissociates partially in aqueous solution

 never changes
 strong acid/base
 have high Kc values
 weak acid/base
 have low Kc values
 can change, may add water
 concentrated acid/base
 indicates how many acid/base molecules there are per unit volume in the liquid
 ratio of amount of solute to volume of solvent in solution
 concentrations usually >4-5mol.dm-3
 dilute acid/base
 when acid/base is in small proportion to water
 concentrations usually <2mol.dm-3
 using equilibrium constant to determine strength
 of pure acid: Ka = ionisation constant of acid = Kc
 of pure base: Kb = dissociation constant of base = Kc
 K > 1: strong acid/base
 K < 1: weak acid/base
 NB H2O is a pure liquid so [H2O] = 1
 conductivity and acid strength
 acid which strongly conducts electricity
 contains a greater number { higher concentration} of ions in solution (high degree of ionisation
{dissociation for bases})
 strong acid
polyprotic acids acids that are able to donate 2+ protons e.g. H2SO4 can donate 2 protons in 2 separate steps
Auto-ionisation of water
auto-ionisation
when substance transfers 1 proton from 1 molecule of its own to another of its own
(autoprotolysis)
 H2O(ℓ) + H2O(ℓ) H3O+(aq) + OH– (aq) (water must be at 25°C)

 dissociation constant for water = KW = [H3O+][OH–] (because H2O is pure liquid)
KW = [H3O+][OH–] = at 298 K (25°C)
pH
 pH scale runs from 0 to 14

 acidic solutions: because
neutral solutions: because
basic solutions: because
 Explain pH scale as measure of hydronium ion (H3O+) concentration in water @ 25°C
 Explain qualitatively pH range of 0-14
salt substance in which hydrogen of acid has been replaced by cation

point where acid & base have reacted so neither is in excess
neutralisation
equivalence point
hydrolysis of salt reaction with water where water itself is decomposed

Reactions to remember
acid + metal hydroxide  salt + water HCℓ + NaOH  NaCℓ + H2O
acid + metal oxide  salt + water 2HCℓ + CaO  CaCℓ2 + H2O
acid + metal carbonate  salt + water + carbon dioxide HNO3 + Na2CO3  2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
acid + active metal  salt + hydrogen NB: A redox reaction
Indicators
 chemical pigment which is a weak acid with differently coloured acid and conjugate base forms
Colour in pH range where colour

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali
neutral solution change occurs
litmus red purple blue 7,0
bromothyl blue yellow green blue 6,0 – 7,6
methyl orange orange yellow yellow 3,1 – 4,4
phenolphthalein colourless colourless pink 8,3 – 10,00
methyl red red yellow yellow 4,4 – 6,2
Use Le Chatelier's principle to predict the colour of the indicator in different acidic and basic media
Acid-base titrations
 titration determines concentration of acid/base by exactly neutralising the acid/base with a base / acid of
known concentration
 equivalence point: where equal molar amounts of the acid and base have reacted according to the molar
ratio
 end point: point where indicator changes colour
 ideally end point must also be equivalence point
 pH of equivalence point can be estimated using:
indicator to use
strong acid + strong base  neutral solution bromothyl blue
strong acid + weak base  acidic solution methyl orange
weak acid + strong base  basic solution phenolphthalein
Titration reactions
 at equivalence point:
 number of moles of H+ = number of moles of OH-
Step 1. write balanced equation for reaction

Step 2. determine mole ratio
 a acid + b base  products

Step 3. substitute into:
Step 4. calculate unknown quantity

Electrochemistry
Redox Reactions
oxidation loss of electrons
reduction gain of electrons
substance that accepts electrons
oxidising agent
substance that will assist oxidising process by itself undergoing reduction
substance that donates electrons
reducing agent
substance that will assist reduction process by itself undergoing oxidation
oxidation number charge that atom would have if compound was composed of ions
only used as a tool, not scientific
ion that remains unchanged on both sides of equation & does not participate in
spectator ion
redox reaction
electrode half-cell
anode electrode where oxidation takes place
cathode electrode where reduction takes place
electroplating process of coating substance with thin layer of metal
decomposition reaction compound divides into elements
displacement reaction 1 substance displaces an element from another compound
synthesis reaction 2 / more substances combine to form compound
OIL RIG
Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is Gain
Oxidation numbers
 = measure of electron richness
 = oxidation state of atom
 = number of charges atom would have in molecule if bonding electrons were transferred completely
Rule / State Oxidation Number Example(s)

single unbonded atoms / unreacted element 0 Na, Fe, S
diatomic molecules 0 Cℓ2, H2
oxygen in compound 2-
hydrogen in compound 1+
elements in group 1 1+
elements in group 2 2+
elements in group 7 1-
sum of ONs in neutral compound 0
sum of ONs in polyatomic ion charge of ion
Redox reactions
 involve transfer of electrons
 oxidation  reduction
 loss of electrons  gain of electrons
 increase of ON  decrease of ON
 substance that loses electrons is said to be  substance that gains electrons is said to be
oxidised reduced
 takes place at anode  takes place at cathode
 ANOX  REDCAT

e.g.
 Mg loses 2e-  Ni2+ gains 2e-

 oxidised  reduced
 ON increases  ON decreases
 reducing agent  oxidising agent
Synthesis reaction
Na = oxidised, reducing agent

Cℓ2 = reduced, oxidising agent
Decomposition reaction
H2O = oxidised; O2- loses 2e-  O2

H2O = reduced; each H+ ion gains 1e-  H2
H2O = both oxidising & reducing agent
Displacement reaction
Fe = oxidised, Fe loses 2e-  Fe2+
Cu2+ = reduced, Cu2+ gains 2e-  Cu OHR: Fe0  Fe2+ + 2e-
SO4 = spectator ion RHR: Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu0
electroplating would occur
Balancing redox reactions

 assign ON to reactant & products
 separate equation into half equations
 oxidation half reaction (OHR)
 reduction half reaction (RHR)
 balance each separately
 add 2 half reactions together to give balanced overall reaction
Galvanic Cells
 consists of 2 half-cells connected by salt-bridge & external conductor
 salt-bridge filled with inert solution
 does not react with anything in half-cells
 separates electrolytes so don’t mix
 completes electric circuit
 supplies path through which ions move
 ensures electrolytes remain neutral
 anions move towards anode
 cations move towards cathode
 e.g. NaNO3, KNO3, NH4NO3, Na2SO4
 each half-cell contains solution with respective metal
 spontaneous reactions occur in half-cells
 chemical energy is transformed to electrical energy
 +’ve ions (cations) flow through salt bridge to cathode
 –’ve ions (anions) flow through salt bridge to anode

Cell notation
in active electrodes:
e.g. Zn(s) | Zn2+(aq) || Cu2+(aq) | Cu(s)

+ -
in inactive electrodes (usually Pt or C)
Relation of Current and Potential to Rate and Equilibrium

 galvanic cell
 has capacity to deliver current until reaction reaches chemical equilibrium or has run to completion
 after this, voltage is 0
 explain using Le Chatelier's principle:
 factors that favour the forward reaction increase voltage of galvanic cell
 factors that favour the reverse reaction decrease voltage
 e.g. concentration
 increasing surface area of terminals increases rate of reaction
 which increases cell’s capacity to deliver current
 but does not affect emf of cell
 wider, shorter and more conductive salt bridge lowers internal resistance
 which increases cell’s capacity to deliver current
 but does not affect emf of cell
Example of Galvanic Cell (Zn/Cu)
net reaction:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
sulphite ion (SO42-) is spectator ion so can be omitted

Standard Electrode Potentials (SEP)

 when 2 half-cells are set up and each of the metal electrodes are placed in an electrolyte the
 electrode can either donate ions (is oxidised)
 OR metal ions in electrolyte can accept electrons (be reduced)
 the more reactive metal (of the 2 electrodes) will go into solution more readily (is oxidised)
 forming positive metal ions, while leaving electrons in the electrode
 reduction will take place in other half-cell
 and vice versa
 potential difference forms between negative electrode and positive solution
 = electrode potential =
 indicates how easily reduction/oxidation takes place in specific half-cell
 large +’ve indicates substance will probably be reduced; stronger oxidising agent
 large –’ve indicates substance will probably be oxidised; stronger reducing agent
 half-reaction cannot take place on its own
 electrode potential for specific half-cell cannot be measured on its own
 2 half-cells must be connected to form electrochemical cell
 potential difference between them is cell potential =
 measured with voltmeter
 aka emf / potential difference
 provides driving force that causes electrons to move from anode to cathode
θ
 represents standard conditions
Standard conditions under which SEP are determined

 concentration: 1,00 mol.dm-3
 temperature: 25°C / 298K
 pressure (gases): 1 atmosphere / 101,3 kPa
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

 standard hydrogen electrode chosen as reference electrode
 H2 is in middle of reactivity range
 so used to determine SEPs of single half-cells
 process
 hydrogen gas is bubbled into a solution of H+ ions (diluted acid)
 platinum electrode is used
 provides surface on which reduction of H + ions can take place
 electrical conductor to external circuit
 because it is inactive precious metal which absorb H 2 gas onto its surface, enabling it to be in
contact with ions in solution
 reading on voltmeter is the standard electrode potential for the specific half-cell
 +’ve reading shows that other electrode is +’ve and hydrogen electrode –’ve
 electrons move from hydrogen electrode (anode) to other electrode
 H2 is oxidised

 –’ve reading shows that other electrode is –’ve and hydrogen electrode +’ve
 electrons move from hydrogen electrode (cathode) to other electrode
 H2 is reduced

 under standard conditions, potential for reduction of H + is taken to zero
 shortened cell notation: Pt | H2 | H+

The meaning of values

 = measure of how easily reduction or oxidation can take place
 more positive
 easier to reduce substance on LHS of the half-equation
 greater tendency for this half-equation to proceed in forward direction (undergo reduction)
 more negative
 easier to oxidise substance on RHS of the half-equation
 equilibrium
 the larger the value is, the further the reaction is from equilibrium
 values are at standard conditions, thereafter the reactions progress and conditions change e.g.
concentration changes
 eventually cell potential becomes 0 and reaction stops
 then reaction is at equilibrium and cell is flat
 when values are small, changes in conc. and temp. can change the direction of the reaction
 so equilibrium shifts
 a normally non-spontaneous reaction with a –’ve value can then take place spontaneously
Table of Standard Electrode Potential

 all half-reactions are written as reductions
 all substances on left of double arrows are oxidising agents
 all substances on right of double arrows are reducing agents
 for spontaneous reaction, stronger oxidising agent will react with the stronger reducing agent
 is +’ve and exothermic
potential difference of galvanic cell V volts

θ
= E value of cathode half-reaction V volts
θ
E value of anode half-reaction V volts
OR
potential difference of galvanic cell V volts
θ
= E value of oxidising agent V volts
θ
E value of reducing agent V volts
Electrolytic Cells
 contains 2 unreactive electrodes
 e.g. carbon/platinum which will not react with electrolyte or the products of electrolysis
 carry current into and out of electrolyte
 +’ve electrode (anode)  –’ve electrode (cathode)
 connected to +’ve terminal of battery  connected to –’ve terminal of battery
 attracts –’ve ions (anions)  attracts +’ve ions (cations)
 oxidation takes place  reduction takes place
 e- are donated by anions to electrode  excess e- on cathode are transferred to
 e- move via external circuit to cathode cations
 e.g. ℓ ℓ  e.g.
 net reaction: ℓ ℓ
 electrical energy is converted to chemical energy
 anions and cations conduct current in electrolyte
 in solid phase, ionic compound cannot conduct electricity because ions are trapped in crystal lattice
 in molten state or in solution, ions are free to move around and can conduct electricity

Applications of Electrolytic Cells

Electrolytic Processes
Electrolysis of Water (Saline Solution)
 if ionic salt dissolved in water, the +’ve and –’ve ions from salt and the H+ and OH– ions from water are
present in solution
 during electrolysis, the H+ and OH– compete with ions from the salt to be oxidised or reduced
 at cathode:
 +’ve ions migrate towards –’ve cathode
 metal ions that are stronger oxidising agents than H2O are reduced
 H2O remains in solution
 else H2O is reduced to form H2 and OH-
 RHR of H2O at cathode: ℓ
 at anode:
 –’ve ions migrate towards +’ve anode
 –’ve ions of halogen with high concentrations are oxidised more easily than H2O
 e.g. Cℓ–, Br–, I–, except F–
 following –’ve ions are not oxidised:
 F–, SO42– (sulphate), CO32– (carbonate), NO3– (nitrate), PO43– (phosphate)
 so H2O is oxidised instead to form O2 gas and H+
 OHR of H2O at anode: ℓ
The electrolysis of copper chloride solution

Electroplating
EPNS =
electroplated
nickel-silver
 = metal object is coated with another metal to improve appearance, protect or give it other useful qualities
 object which needs to be coated is the cathode (connected to negative terminal of battery)
 anode consists of the metal which will form the coating (e.g. silver or copper)
 electrolyte is a solution of a compound containing the metal (silver/copper)
 in electroplating, the same metal is oxidised and reduced
The refining of copper

Industrial Process
The Production of Chlorine (Chlor-alkali processes)
 must separate anode and cathode compartments to avoid these problems:
 H2 and Cl2 will explode if they are mixed
 so extracted through separate tubes into separate containers
 if OH- migrated to anode, it would lead to the production of oxygen
 this would oxidise (corrode) the anode
 Cl2 can react with NaOH to form sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
Mercury Cell
(most modern, economic and environmentally friendly)
Diaphragm Cell
Membrane Cell
Recovery Of Aluminium From Bauxite
 Given a schematic diagram of any cell used in industrial processes for the production of chlorine (ie.
mercury cell, diaphragm cell, membrane cell):
 Write the electrochemical reactions taking place at each electrode and the possible competitive
reactions that may occur
 Deduce the overall net cell reaction
 Identify the potential risks to the environment and the industrial constraints of running each process
 Given a schematic diagram of a cell used in industrial processes for the recovery of aluminium from
Bauxite:
 Write the electrochemical reactions taking place at each electrode
 Deduce the overall net cell reaction
 Identify the potential risks to the environment and the industrial constraints of running this process
READ 4.60 TO 4.63 IN PHYSICAL SCIENCES ANSWER SERIES BOOK
Galvanic Cells vs Electrolytic Cells

Organic Chemistry
catenation ability of element to form long chains of its own atoms
cracking breaking up of large hydrocarbon atoms into smaller & more useful molecules
Uniqueness of Carbon
 organic molecules
 = molecules containing carbon compounds
 excluding
 CO2 (carbon dioxide), CO (carbon monoxide), CO32- (carbonates), CN- (cyanides), diamond,
graphite, carbides
 hydrogen is present in most organic compounds
 if both carbon + hydrogen = hydrocarbons
 can contain other elements
 oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine
 carbon is basic building block of organic compounds
 recycles through earth's air, water, soil, living organisms
 Why carbon atom is so special:
 has valency of four in tetrahedral arrangement
 non-metal element
 in group 4 of Periodic table
 has electron structure 1s22s22p2
 has 4 valence electrons
 can share electron pairs
 can form maximum of 4 covalent bonds with other atoms
 can form single, double or triple bonds
 can bond with self to form chains of its own atoms
 i.e. catenation
 can form long chains, branched chains or ring structures
 can also form double / triple bonds between self
 covalent bond between two carbon atoms is quite strong
 carbon compounds are not extremely reactive under ordinary conditions
 when drawing structural formula, remember that carbon can form maximum 4 bonds
methane: tetrahedral
molecule

Organic Molecular Structures – Functional Groups, Saturated

and Unsaturated Structures; Isomers
functional group atom / group of atoms that form centre of chemical activity in molecule
series of similar compounds which have same functional group & have same
homologous series
general formula, in which each member differs from previous one by 1 CH 2 unit
hydrocarbon compound containing only carbon & hydrogen atoms
compound in which all bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds
saturated compound
stable and do not react easily
compound in which there is at least one double and/or triple bond between
unsaturated compound carbon atoms
bonds can be broken and more atoms can bond with molecule
isomers compounds having same molecular formula but different structural formulae
Methods of representing organic molecules

Formula Type Explanation Example
Structural  shows exactly where each atom within molecule is

formula found
 lists carbon atoms in molecule individually

Condensed  shows how many hydrogen (or other) atoms are
structural connected to each carbon without showing bonds CH3CH2CH2CH3
formula  for side chains, put it in brackets
 aka semi-structural
 shows how many atoms of each element there are
Molecular within molecule
C4H10
formula  gives no indication as to where atoms are in relation to
one another
Empirical
 simplest ratio of elements present in molecule C2H5
formula
Classification of organic molecules

 necessary to classify millions of organic compounds
o by grouping together compounds which have similar characteristics & properties
 classified by functional group and homologous series

IUPAC Naming and Formulae

prefix – – root/stem name – – suffix
relates to side chains number of carbons in longest chain relates to functional group
Root name relates to longest chain
1 meth- 5 pent-
2 eth- 6 hex-
3 prop- 7 hept-
4 but- 8 oct-
Naming substituents / side chains
1 methyl CH3 – CH3
2 ethyl CH3 – CH2 – C2H5
3 propyl CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – C3H7
Basic rules for naming organic compounds

1. identify & name longest carbon chain
 aka parent/principal chain
 (or the chain containing all functional groups)
2. identify & name branches
 aka side chains / alkyl radicals / substituents
 number carbons in parent chain that gives branches lowest numbers
 if 2+ branches in equivalent positions
 assign lowest number to 1 which comes first in name (see step 4)
3. if same type occurs 2+ times
 location of each branch is given
 number of times substituent group occurs indicated by prefix
 di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-
4. if 2+ different branches
 listed in alphabetical order according to base name
 ignore di-, tri- etc.
5. functional groups
 numbering
 number carbons such that functional group gets lowest number
 position of functional group takes preference over branches
 naming
 number goes after root, before suffix
 sometimes not necessary to add number: e.g. ethanol, propene
 functional group could occur on any carbon atom without difference to name
 for alcohols:
 if 2 hydroxyl groups: -diols
 number each double bond before the word -diol
 for alkenes:
 indicate after which carbon atom the double bond is
 if 2 double bonds: -diene
 number each double bond
 for carboxylic acids: carboxyl group is always at end so don’t need number
 for haloalkanes: position of halide goes before name of halide
6. assemble name
 hyphens between different parts
 commas between numbers

Summary of naming organic compounds

Homologous General
Functional Group Suffix Extra Information
Series Formula
 simplest homologous series
o consists only of C-atoms & H-atoms
alkanes -ane
 saturated hydrocarbons
o only single covalent bonds between C-atoms
 have double bonds, therefore more reactive
o double bonds have potential to be broken & join with other atoms
alkenes -ene
 unsaturated hydrocarbons
 exception to formula are dienes
haloalkanes / chloro-ane, F fluoro- Cl chloro-

alkyl halides bromo-ane Br bromo- I iodo-
alcohols -anol
carboxylic  organic acids (weaker than inorganic acids)

-anoic acid
acids  identified by carboxyl group (-COOH)
 pleasant characteristic smell

esters -yl-anoate
 occur freely in nature in fruits + flowers

More Information:
Alkanes
General properties and uses of alkanes:
 occur as natural oil/petroleum or natural gases
 generally used as fuels
 long chains of natural crude oils are cracked to form shorter, more usable chains
 consist of non-polar molecules
 do not readily react with polar molecules in water, acids, etc.
 relatively unreactive, have corresponding chemical properties
 because saturated
 as alkane chains become longer, molecular mass increases
 certain physical properties change
 including melting and boiling points, viscosity, density etc.
Alkenes
Alcohols
 identified by hydroxyl (-O-H) functional group
 Primary alcohols (1°)
 carbon atom which carries -O-H is only attached to one other carbon atom
 i.e. at end of longest carbon chain
 Secondary alcohols (2°)
 carbon atom which carries -O-H is attached to 2 other carbon atoms
 Tertiary alcohols (3°)
 carbon atom which carries -O-H is attached to 3 other carbon atoms
Carboxylic acids
 carboxyl group = -COOH
 carboxyl group always at end so don’t need number
 organic acids
 weaker than inorganic
 (H2SO4, HNO3, HCl)
Esters
 derived from carboxylic acids & alcohols reacted together
Isomerism
isomers compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
 chain isomerism
 isomers arise because of possibility of branching in carbon chains
 in alkanes, alkenes
 position isomerism
 basic carbon skeleton remains unchanged
 functional group(s) moved
 in alkenes, alcohols, esters, haloalkanes
 functional group isomerism
 isomers contain different functional groups
 i.e. belong to different homologous series
 in carboxyl acids and esters

Relationship between Physical Properties and Structure

physical properties: melting point, boiling point, viscosity and solubilities
Type of force Strength Explanation Examples

London / induced non-polar with electron clouds randomly
Waals’ forces
alkanes
dipole-induced dipole weakest moving around, when together creates polar
Van der
molecule alkenes
forces
dipole-induced dipole weaker
esters
dipole-dipole weak permanent dipole, permanent connection
haloalkanes
flouro-anes
hydrogen bonds strongest between H and N, O, F, alcohols
carboxyl acid
Answering IMFs questions

Step 1. Identify type of IMFs in molecules
Step 2. Refer to strength of IMFs
Step 3. Explain energy needed to break IMFs
Step 4. Answer questions
Solubility
 like dissolves like
 ethanol can dissolve in water & carbon tetrachloride
 London forces on one side (CCl4)
 Hydrogen bonds on other side (H2O)
Vapour pressure
vapour pressure pressure that enclosed vapour exerts on surface of liquid
 substances with weak IMFs will vaporise easily
 have higher vapour pressure
 also depends on temperature
 increasing temp will cause evaporation to increase so vapour pressure increases
Odour
 weak IMFs more likely to evaporate
 therefore more likely to have odour
Flammability
 most organic compounds are flammable & burn in oxygen
 octane, butane = fuels (petrol, gas)
 shorter chained hydrocarbons most flammable, have lowest molecular weight
 alkenes more reactive than alkanes
 highly flammable + burn readily in air
Melting & Boiling points

 stronger IMFs  greater kinetic energy needed to break forces between molecules  higher melting +
boiling points
Number and type of functional groups

 C-H is non-polar bond
 if has functional group  polar bond
 if have more than one functional group, IMFs depends on shape

 alcohols, carboxylic acids very polar because of –O-H & -COOH

 carboxylic acids stronger hydrogen bonds than alcohols because two hydrogen bonds can form
between adjacent carboxylic acid molecules
Chain length
 longer main chain  more points of contact  stronger IMFs  higher melting + boiling points
Branched chains
 more branched molecule  smaller surface area  fewer points of contact  weaker IMFs  lower
melting + boiling points
 “squashed form”
Organic Chemical Reactions

primary carbon carbon atom bonded to 1 other carbon atom
secondary carbon carbon atom bonded to 2 other carbon atoms
tertiary carbon carbon atom bonded to 3 other carbon atoms
Bromine test
 used to test for double/triple bond
 bromine is red-brown
 add bromine water
 alkane
 single bond
 stays red-brown for while
 slow substitution reaction
 alkene
 double bond
 goes clear immediately
 fast addition reaction
Combustion Reactions
 fossil fuels
 are important because can transfer chemical potential energy into heat energy
 i.e. exothermic reactions occur
 in an ideal reaction: combustion of coal & petrol would only be H 2O + CO2
 but not pure so many toxic by-products
 e.g. mercury, arsenic, (in combustion of sulphur found in fuels) toxic SO 2
 used in home heating, power plants, hot air balloons
 propane + butane = cooking gas
 ethyne used in welding
 general equation: (i.e. +energy on RHS – energy is released)
 use alkanes (short-chained) because smaller & easier to burn
 NB balance equation!
 in order: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Substitution Reactions
 atom / ion / group of atoms/ions in molecule replaced by other atom / ion / group
 between saturated compounds only
 e.g. alkanes, haloalkanes, alcohols
 2 reactants  2 products
alkanes  haloalkanes
 alkanes react with free atoms (F, Cl, Br, I) more readily than ions / acids / bases
 therefore react with diatomic halogens which form radicals
 substitution reaction: hydrogen atoms in alkane are replaced one by one by halogen atoms
 difficult to stop additional substation reactions, will continue until all H atoms substituted
 mixture of all different products at end
 if more than 2 carbons
 halogen could substitute onto any carbon atom
 e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary
 i.e. many isomers
 reaction conditions:
 needs to occur in presence of heat/light
 causes dissociation of halogen molecules into radicals
 or
between alcohols & haloalkanes

 -O-H and halogen can occupy similar positions in molecule
 interconversion reaction can occur (vice versa)
HX (X = Cl, Br) + alcohols  haloalkanes + H2O

 tertiary alcohols
 use HBr/HCl at room temperature
 this type of reaction works best with tertiary alcohols because doesn’t require heat
 primary/secondary alcohols
 high temperature

 react slowly
bases + haloalkanes  alcohols + salt

 base (e.g. NaOH / KOH) dissolved in ethanol/water & treated with haloalkane
 mixture then warmed
 i.e.
 if concentration of base is too high, hydrogen/halogen would be eliminated

Addition Reactions
 atoms are added to molecule by breaking double/triple bond between carbon atoms
 new atoms are added to 2 carbon atoms on either side of double/triple bond
 unsaturated compounds (e.g. alkenes & cycloalkenes) undergo addition reactions
 form saturated compounds
 2 reactants  1 product
Hydrogenation
 hydrogen (H2) added to alkene
 alkene must dissolve in non-polar solvent
 with catalyst
 e.g. platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), nickel (Ni)
 heating required
 reaction must be done in inert (no O2) atmosphere
 e.g. N2(gas) atmosphere
 i.e.

Halogenation
 halogen (Cl2, Br2) added to alkene
 easy at room temperature
 -
Hydrohalogenation
alkene in which the 2 carbons of double bond are not equivalently substituted (both
unsymmetrical alkene
are either 1° / 2° / 3° carbons)
 HX (X = Cl, Br, I) added to alkene
 no water must be present

when unsymmetrical alkene reacts with HX, hydrogen atom adds to least substituted
carbon atom, X adds to more substituted carbon atom
Markovnikov’s rule
i.e. hydrogen atom adds to carbon atom that has greater number of hydrogen atoms
least substituted = primary; most substituted = tertiary
Hydration
 H2O added to alkene
 must take place in dilute acid solution
 i.e. acid acts as catalyst
 must be strong acid
 e.g. H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) or H3PO4 (phosphoric acid)
 i.e.
 Markovnikov’s rule


Elimination Reactions
 atoms / molecular fragments removed from adjacent atoms in molecule leaving double bond
 saturated compounds undergo elimination reactions to form unsaturated compounds
 1 reactant  2 products
Dehydrohalogenation
alkene in which the 2 carbons of double bond are not equivalently substituted (both
unsymmetrical alkene
are either 1° / 2° / 3° carbons)
 HX (X = Cl, Br, I) eliminated from haloalkane
 heating
 under reflux
 i.e. vapours condense & return to reaction vessel
 with concentrated solid strong base
 sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH)
 in pure ethanol as solvent
 i.e.

when unsymmetrical alkene reacts with HX, hydrogen atom adds to least substituted
carbon atom, X adds to more substituted carbon atom
Markovnikov’s rule
i.e. hydrogen atom adds to carbon atom that has greater number of hydrogen atoms
least substituted = primary; most substituted = tertiary
Dehydration
 H2O eliminated from alcohol
 acid catalysed
 heat alcohol with excess of acid
 i.e.
 Markovnikov’s rule

Cracking
 crude oil = long chains of hydrocarbons
 short chains best for fuels
 cracking = breaking up of large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller + more useful molecules
 thermal cracking
 high pressures (70 atmospheres)
 high temperatures (450°C-750°C)
 catalytic cracking
 around 450°C
 1-20 atmospheres of pressure
 usually zeolites as catalyst

Esterification Reactions
condensation reaction reaction in which water / other small molecule is eliminated


 + + H–O–H
 acid (sulphuric acid / H2SO4) acts as catalyst
 dehydrating agent
 condensation/elimination reaction
 water is eliminated

PREFIXES COMMONLY USED FOR UNITS
G □ □ M □ □ k h D m d c m □ □ μ □ □ n □ □ p □ □ f
giga- mega- kilo- 1 milli- micro- nano- pico- femto-
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ - ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1cm3 = 1mℓ
1000cm3 = 1dm3 = 1 litre
cm = km
= km
= above side diagonal

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Positive ions (cations)

The Periodic Table

No. Name Sym. No. Name Sym.

Rea’s Notes | Page 1

Writing Balanced Chemical Equations

The Mole Concept

1 mole contains Avogadro's number of particles ( )

n number of moles mol moles

Molar Volume of Gases

n number of moles mol moles

Rea’s Notes | Page 2

Volume relationships in gaseous reactions

Combustion in car’s engine

c concentration mol.dm-3 moles per dm3

Rea’s Notes | Page 3

Rea’s Notes | Page 4

actual and theoretical

Empirical formula & Molecular formula

Determining empirical formula

Determining molecular formula

Rea’s Notes | Page 5

Aufbau Diagram & Lewis Structure

atomic no. / electrons: 15

Molecules with multiple bonds between atoms

Rea’s Notes | Page 6

Molecules with dative covalent or co-ordinate covalent bonds

Electronegativity of atoms to explain polarity of bonds

Non-polar covalent bonds

Polar covalent bonds

Rea’s Notes | Page 7

Bond energy and bond length

Determining strength of chemical bond

Other factors which affect intramolecular bonds

Rea’s Notes | Page 8

Types of intermolecular forces between molecules and in mixtures of covalent

Type of force Strength Between which molecules

Types of intermolecular forces in mixtures containing ionic compounds

Rea’s Notes | Page 9

 dissociated ions from ionic substance induces non-polar

Physical state and density in terms of intermolecular forces

Strength of IMFs vs melting/boiling points

Strength of van der Waals forces VS molecular size

Strength of IMFs vs density

Strength of IMFs vs thermal expansion

Strength of IMFs vs thermal conductivity in metals & non-metals

Rea’s Notes | Page 10

Rea’s Notes | Page 11

Energy Change & Rates of Reactions

H enthalpy / heat of reaction kJ kilojoules

Endothermic and exothermic reactions

 net energy absorbed (as reactant)

 e.g. of exothermic reactions

Rea’s Notes | Page 12

 energy needs to be absorbed before reaction can occur

Rea’s Notes | Page 13

Factors Affecting Rate

Rea’s Notes | Page 14