Session 1: The History of the
English Language
History of the English Language
• According to the Encyclopedia Britannica,
the English language itself really took off
with the invasion of Britain during the 5th
century. Three Germanic tribes, the
Jutes, Saxons and Angles were seeking new
lands to conquer, and crossed over from the
North Sea.
• During the invasion, the native Britons
were driven north and west into lands we
now refer to as Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.
• The word England and English
originated from the Old English word
Engla land, literally meaning “the land of
the Angles” where they spoke English
OLD ENGLISH (5th to 11th Century)
• Albert Baugh, a notable English
professor at the University of Pennsylvania
notes amongst his published works that
around 85% of Old English is no longer in
use.
• Old English can be further subdivided
into the following:
● Prehistoric or Primitive (5th to 7th
Century) – available literature or
documentation referencing this
period is not available aside from
limited examples of Anglo-Saxon runes;
• Early Old English (7th to 10th
Century) – this period contains some
of the earliest documented
evidence of the English
language, showcasing notable
authors and poets like Cynewulf
and Aldhelm who were leading
figures in the world of Anglo- Saxon
literature.
• Late Old English (10th to 11th Century)
– can be considered the final
phase of the Old English
language which was brought about
by the Norman invasion of England.
This period ended with the
consequential evolution of the English
language towards Early Middle English.
MIDDLE ENGLISH
• It was during this period that the English
language, and more specifically, English
grammar, started evolving with
particular attention to syntax.
• It was during the 14th century that a
different dialect (known as the East
Midlands) began to develop around the
London area.
• Geoffrey Chaucer, a writer we have
come to identify as the Father of English
Literature and author of the widely
renowned Canterbury Tales, was often
heralded as the greatest poet of that
particular time.
• It was during the mid-1400s that the
Chancery English standard was brought
about. The story goes that the clerks working
for the Chancery in London were fluent in
both French and Latin. It was their job to
prepare official court documents and prior to
the 1430s, both the aforementioned
languages were mainly used by royalty, the
church, and wealthy Britons. After this date,
the clerks started using a dialect that sounded
as follows:
• gaf (gave) not yaf (Chaucer’s East
Midland dialect)
• such not swich
• theyre (their) not hir
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
• The changes in the English language during
this period occurred from the 15th to mid-
17th Century, and signified not only a
change in pronunciation, vocabulary or
grammar itself but also the start of the
English Renaissance.
• 16th Century- The Printing Press was
key in standardizing the Englis
language through distribution of the English
Bible. It was when Thomas Malory’s Le
Morte d’Arthur (the Death of Arthur).
• The end of the 16th century brought
about the first complete translation of the
Catholic Bible, and though it didn’t make a
markable impact, it played an important
role in the continued development of the
English language, especially with the
English speaking Catholic population
worldwide.
• The end of the 16th and start of the 17th
century would see the writings of actor and
playwright, William Shakespeare, take the
world by storm.
• Shakespeare started writing during a time
when the English language was undergoing
serious changes due to contact with other
nations through war, colonization, and the
likes.
• It was during the early 17th century that we
saw the establishment of the first successful
English colony in what was called The New
World. Jamestown, Virginia, also saw the
dawn of American English with English
colonizers adopting indigenous words, and
adding them to the English language.
• Migration during the 17th, 18th and 19th
century meant a variety of English dialects
springing to life, this included West African,
Native American, Spanish and European
influences.
LATE MODERN ENGLISH
• The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of
the British Empire during the 18th, 19th and
early 20th-century saw the expansion of the
English language.
• The advances and discoveries in science
and technology during the Industrial
Revolution saw a need for new words,
phrases, and concepts to describe these ideas
and inventions. Due to the nature of these
works, scientists and scholars created words
using Greek and Latin roots e.g. bacteria,
histology, nuclear, biology.
• Colonialism brought with it a double-
edged sword. It can be said that the nations
under the British Empire’s rule saw the
introduction of the English language as a
way for them to learn, engage, and
hopefully, benefit from “overseas”
influence.
ENGLISH IN THE 21st CENTURY
• World Englishes refers to the differences
in the English language that emerge as it is
used in various contexts across the world.
Scholars of World Englishes identify the
varieties of English used in different
sociolinguistics contexts, analyzing their
history, background, function, and influence.
• The inner circle refers to the countries
where English is used as the primary
language (L1), such as the USA, Britain,
Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.
• The outer/middle circle denotes those
countries where English usage has
some colonial history (L2). This
includes nations such as India, Bangladesh,
Ghana, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan,
Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania,
and Zambia.
• The expanding circle includes
countries where English is spoken but
where it does not necessarily have a
colonial history or primary/official
language status. This includes nations such
as China, Japan, South Korea, Egypt, Nepal,
Indonesia, Israel, Korea, Saudi Arabia,
Taiwan, USSR, and Zimbabwe. Any
country where English is regularly spoken
(even in limited contexts— e.g., for
international business) that does not
fall under the first two categories is
considered to be in the expanding circle.
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE IN THE PHILIPPINES
1762- Britain invaded Manila and nearby
port of Cavite for twenty months.
1901- Around 504 US teachers came to
the country.
Between 1920 – 1941- Around 209
Filipino scholars were sent to get a college
degree in various fields like Medicine, Law
and Animal Science.
1940s onwards- golden age of the young
writers of English
21st Century- Philippine English is in the
process of standardization
SESSION 2:
MORPHEMES
Morphology in linguistic is the study of
the forms of words and the ways in
which words are related to other words
of the same language.
- Part, form, structure
ETYMOLOGY: GREEK AND LATIN
ROOTS
ON LATIN
- 3000 years ago it was spoken only in the
small area around rome.
- By AD 400 it was the official language of
the western half of the Roman empire and the
vehicle of a huge varied written literature.
-It was also the LITURGICAL LANGUAGE of
all west european christians until the
protestand reformation of the 16th century and
remaines the predominant liturgical language
of catholics worldwde until the 1970s.
- The study of latin was still a routine part of
what was considered was still a routine part of
what was considered a good education
throughout the English speaking world until
the second half of the twentieth century.
- after the renaissance or revival of learning in
the 15th and 16th centuries it is not surprising
that many words were adopted into english
from latin directly, rather than by way of
French.
ON GREEK
- the Romans revered Greek culture and most
of classical Latin literature emulates Greek
models.
-Greek influence on English started when
Western Europeans began to learn about
Greek culture for themselves in the 15th
century.
- From the pov of word formation, the main
influence of Greek has been in its use in the
invention of scientific and technical words.
Example: Bear
Fer in latin and pher in greek that both means
carry.

MORPHEME
In linguistics, the classic definition of a
morpheme is a minimal structural shape
or piece that expresses meaning.
grammatical effect in various ways
- Affixes, roots, or clitics.
-s, -ed, duce (in deduce), ‘s in she’s

For example, the word dogs contains two INFLECTIONAL

morphemes: dog and –s. - Morpheme that is used to mark
grammatical information (e.g. plurality,
Problems with the traditional definition tense)
of a morpheme include such facts as - All are suffixes.
(1) the meaning contributed by a
morpheme may vary depending on ( PLU)= plural Noun -s boys
other morphemes in the word, and (POSS)= possessive Noun -’s boy’s
(COMP)= comparative Adj -er older
(2) the whole message may be more, less (SUP)= superlatice Adj - est oldest
than, or simply different from the sum (PRES)= present Verb -s walks
of the “meanings” of all the morphemes (PAST)= past Verb - ed walked
in the message. For these reasons, it is (PRES PART)=present participle
appropriate to think of morphology as an Verb -en driven
established system of variations in the (PRES PART)=present participle
shapes of words, rather than simply Verb -ing driving
strings of meaningful pieces. (Payne,
2006) Including irregular forms such as good=better,
drive= drove, sheep=sheep
More about morphemes…
✓ Free and Bound DERIVATIONAL
✓ Derivational and Inflectional - Morpheme that makes fundamental
✓ Lexical and Grammatical
changes to the meaning of the stem (e.g.
✓ Lexeme, Lemma, Lemmatization
noun becoming adjective, noun to another
noun)
FREE MORPHEME - Can be either suffix or prefix
- Morpheme that may not need to be
attached to some other form in order to (ize) attaches to a noun and turns it into verb:
be used naturally in discourse. rubberize

- Essentially the words of the language (ize) also attaches to an adjective and turns it
that may have no additions into a verb: normalize

-Nouns, verb, prepositions. Etc.
Example: dog, sky, eat, on
BOUND MORPHEME
- Morpheme that must be attached to
some other morpheme in order to be used
naturally in discourse.
(ful) attaches to a noun and turns it into an
adjective: playful, helpful.
(ly) attaches to an adjective and turns it into an
adverb: grandly, proudly.
A diffent (ly) attaches to a noun and changes it
into an adjective: manly, friendly.

- Added to free morphemes to alter their English also has derivational prefizes, such as:
(un), (dis), (a), (anti), all of which
indicate some kind of negation: unhappy, Morpheme refers to the smallest unit of
dislike, atypical, anti-aircraft. meaning a word can be broken down into. For
example the word “cats” This can be broken
STEMMING down into “cat-s” “cat” carries the meaning of
- strip prefixes and or suffixes to find the furry four legged animal and “-s” carries the
the base root, which may or may not be meaning of plural.
an actual word.
- Spelling corrections not required.
-It reduces the word to the
Session3: Morphological
“unchangeable part” hence the stem. Processes
- rule-based approach
E. g.
Morphological Process
Dogs- dog
- A morphological process is a means of
Produced-duc
changing a stem to adjust its meaning to
Sees-s
fit its syntactic and communicational
context.
LEMMATIZATION
- Strip prefixes and or suffixes to find the
- Key points to remember:
base root, which will always be an
✓ Murray (1995) states that, “new words can
actual word
enter English in only two general ways: either
- Spelling corrections are crucial.
they are borrowed from another language
- It reduces the word to its dictionary
or they are created from elements that
base form hence the lemma.
already exist in English”.
- Dictionary- based approach
✓ Newly created words entering a language
E,g.
tend to pass through the following stages
Dogs- dog
(Behera & Mishra, 2013):
Produced- produce
Sees-see
• Unstable - very new or being used only by
a small sub-culture (also branded as
protologisms)

• Diffused - having attained a noteworthy

incidence of use, but not yet having gained
pervasive acceptance.

• Stable - having gained recognizable, being

in vogue, and perhaps, gaining lasting
acceptance

• Dated - the point where the word has

Difference between Lexeme and
ceased being novel, entered formal linguistic
Morpheme.
acceptance and even may have passed into
Lexeme refers to a single word and all of becoming a cliché.
its forms. For example the word “go”
“goes” “went” and “going”. • Passé - when a neologism becomes so
All of these words are from the same culturally dated that the use of it is avoided
lexeme “go”. because its use is seen as a stigma, a sign of
 being out of step with the norms of a changed
cultural tradition, perhaps, with the neologism
dropping from the lexicon altogether.

Categories of Morphological Processes:

Concatenative- Linear combination
Nonconcatenative-Internal modification
Concatenate- means add, link, combine

Concatenative Processes:
Compounding- combining two old words to make Nonconcatenative Processes:
one new one
Reduplictaion
1. NOUN-NOUN (earthquake, basketball) − Total/Exact repetition: blah-blah, bye-bye, cha-cha,
2. NOUN-VERB (haircut, rainfall) so-so
3. ADJECTIVE-VERB (dry clean, public − Partial repetition
speaking • Rhyming: hocus-pocus, fuddy-duddy, topsy-turvy,
4. ADJECTIVE-ADJECTIVE (bittersweet, fat- nitty-gritty
free) • Ablaut: Ping-Pong, ding-dong, seesaw
5. ADJECTIVE-NOUN (greenhouse, software)
6. VERB-NOUN (washing machine, swimming Internal Modification
pool) 1. Vowel Modification
7. VERB-PREPOSITION (roll on, stand by) begin- began, sing-sang, ring-rang, sit-sat, find-found
8. PREPOSITION-VERB (on call, in touch)
2. Consonant Modification
1. Closed compound words are formed when mouth-mouth, advice-advise, belief-believe, proof-
two unique words are joined together. prove, offense-offend
e.g. baseball, cannot, sunflower, grandmother
3. Mixed Modification
2. Open compound words have a space catch-caught, seek-sought, life-live, bath-bathe, breath-
between the words but when they are read breathe
together a new meaning is formed.
e.g. ice cream, game plan, contact tracing
4. Stress Modification
3. Hyphenated compound words are words record-record, insert-insert, conduct-
connected by a hyphen. conduct, subject-subject
e.g. over-the-counter, runner-up, in-depth
Conversion
This is the process of changing the function of a
word, such as a noun to a verb, as a way of forming new
Incorporation words, also known as “category change” or
This is a phenomenon by which a word, usually a “functional shift”.
verb, forms a kind of compound with, for
instance, its direct object (object incorporation) I can send you an email.
or adverbial modifier, while retaining its original I can email you.
syntactic function. The researcher had to rewrite her drafts.
e.g. The researcher submitted her rewrites.
You head-cut it (You cut its head). The couples did invite their friends.
She doesn’t meat-eat (She does not eat meat). The couples sent their invites to their
My mother is dish-cleaning (My mother is friends.
cleaning dishes). Please send me a message through
Facebook.
Affixation Please message me through Facebook.
This is the process of adding bound
morpheme (affix) to a word. Back Derivation
Also known as back-formation, this is the
formation of new words by the removal of an  Ablaut/ Apophony
affix from an existing word. - patterns of vowel alteration in the roots of
E.g. inflectionally or derivationally modified words.
editor – edit  Bind-bound, ring, rang for past tense.
Sculptor- sculpt  Goose-geese, foot-feet for plurality
(The words editor and sculptor appeared first in  Sing-song for change of lexical category.
the English language which gave rise to
edit and sculpt, respectively)  Contraction
- is an optional procedure where a
Other examples: Once-free morpheme becomes
typewrite (from typewriter) “bound”, finding a host to which it
housekeep (from housekeeper) attaches itself.
televise (from television)  He is+ He’s
Babysit (from babysitter)  Will not- won’t
 Must have- must’ve
Clipping
This is shortening of polysyllabic words.  Epenthesis
E.g. - Addition/ Insertion of vowel or
Philo – Philosophy consonant sound
ad- advertisement
Aral Pan – Araling Panlipunan
dorm- dormitory
flu- influenza

Acronymization
This is word formation from the initial
letters of the several words in the name.

E.g.  Phonesthemes
AIDS- Acquired Immunes Deficiency Syndrome - particular sound or sound sequence that
COVID- Coronavirus Disease suggests a certain meaning
SCUBA- Self-Contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus /sl/- negative
LASER- Light Amplification by Stimulated Slit.slip,slide
Emission of Radiation /i/- smallness
UPCAT- University of the Philippines College Bit, sip, kit
Admission Test /gl/-light
Gleam,glitter,glisten
Session4: Morphophonological
Processes  Metathesis
- reverse order of segment
Morphology- study of word structure and Eg
formation process. Relevant- revelant
Ask-aks
Phonology – study of the pattern of sounds in a Integral-integral
language. Whisper-whipser
Foliage- foilage
Morphophonology – study of the interaction
between phonology and morphology; sound  Sandhi
changes in morphemes when they - modification of the sound of a morpheme
combine to form words (such as word or affix) conditioned by Syntactic
context in which it is uttered.
Abstraction ed as /d/ in glazed an as /t/ in paced
Morphophonological Processes a in a cow and of an in an old cow.

 Suppletion
- the use of two or more phonetically
distinct roots for different forms of the same c) Folk etymology
word; morpheme is changed instead of - refers to the changing of the word or a phrase
adding an affix. over time which results from the replacement of an
unfamiliar form by a more familiar one.
Good- better-best E,g.
Bad-worse-worst “bryd-guman” from old English was changed
Be-is-are-was-were to bridegroom as the old English word guma (man)
was obsolete.
 Truncation
- akin to clipping(word based morphology) d) Near synonym
Professor- prof - words are almost synonyms, but not quite; very
Brother- bro similar, but not identical, in meaning; not fully
intersubstitutable, but instead varying in their
- deletion of a morpheme if it is internal to shades of denotation, connotation, implicature,
another suffix ( morpheme based morphology) emphasis or register.
E,g.
Removing- ate Fib, lie, falsehood
Evacuate- evaxuee Sleep, snooze, slumber
Nominate- nominee Mist and fog

 Diminutive e) Neologism
- a root word is modified to convey a slighter - Also called ‘coinage’; a new word or expression in
degree of its meaning, emphasizing smallness, a language or a new meaning for an existing word or
(addition of diminutive suffixes) expression.
-duck- duckling
-kitchen- kitchenette E,g.
-book-booklet Dellionaire- one who is rich because of
- red- reddish having stocks at Dell.
Internot- person who refuses to use the
ADVANCE WORD FORMATION internet.
PROCESSES Chillax-relax

a) Analogy f) Novel Creation

- the pattern of correspondence between - Forming a word without starting from other
similar words or constructions that morphemes. It is as if the word is formed out of
enables the language user to make new words ‘whole cloth’, without reusing any parts.
or constructions in conformity with that
pattern. Googol ( mathematical term)
E,g. Landscape- Seascape Slang( no obvious etymology)
Watergate- Irangate Basically any new word that came to exist from
Software- hardware nowhere.
Overwhelm- underwhelm
Prolong- proshort? g) Portmanteau
- Also called ‘blend’; fusion of two morphemes into
b) Creative respelling one so as to combine their meanings as well
- word are formed by simply changing the
spelling of a word to form a new word; E,g.
usually observed among brand names. Guess + estimate = guesstimate
E,g, Smoke+fog= smog
Kleenex (from clean, tissue) Pragmatics+ semantics= pragmantics
Qwikster (movie by mail service)
Krunch( crunch)
Nite- night
Xmas-Christmas h) Punning
4eva- forever - forming of word play that exploits multiple
meaning of a term, or of similar-sounding
words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical
effect.
I was struggling to figure out how lightning
works, but then it struck me.
A bicycle can’t stand on its own because it is
two-tired.
Reading while sunbathing makes you well red.
i) Re-analysis
- Occurs when a complex word is reanalyzed
morphologically, and the components are used
as morphemes themeselves.
E,g.
Hamburger- came from hamburg ( german
city) ( hamburg+er)
It became Hamburger, then burger becomes a
root word ( re analyzed) which makes another
word such as cheeseburger, chickenburger, etc.
Alcoholic- alcohol + ic
Holic- shopaholic, workaholic, chocoholic.
j) Multiple Processes
- combination of two or more processes
Snowball
Snow+ball= compounding
Snowball (verb)- conversion
Internet
International Network- Open compounding
Inter,net= clipping
Internet= portmateau
Session 5: Markedness, Morphological
Typology, and Morphology Models
Markedness
What is markedness in language?
 It is a state in which one linguistic element
is more distinctively identified (or marked)
than another (unmarked) element.
 As Geoffrey Leech observed, "Where
there is a contrast between two or more
members of a category such as a number, case,
or tense, one of them is called 'marked' if it
contains some extra affix, as opposed to the
'unmarked' member which does not. “
In other words…
 The unmarked word is the default or one
with minimum effort; the marked word is the
greater and the distinguished.
E,g.
dog (singular)- unmarked,
dogs (plural)- marked
In this case, the word is marked for plurality but
not marked for singularity.
However, there are other languages where singular
form has its own marking.
In terms of grammatical number, for nouns,
markedness is applied to plurality; for verbs,
markedness is applied to singularity, present tense.
Identify which are marked and which are
unmarked.
Different kinds of marking:
  Plurality – addition of –s or –es to nouns
  Tense- addition of –ed or –d for past tense
(except irregular verbs)
  Case – addition of ‘s for possessive case of
noun, applies to pronouns cases (subjective,
possessive, objective)
  Gender – addition of –ess, woman, lady, etc
for female
  Polarity – addition of in, un, dis, mis to
adjectives
  Comparative & Superlatives – addition
of –er, -est (except irregular adjectives)
  Size- addition of diminutive affixes for less
and modifying words such as mega or –super
for more
  Formality- not common in English;
addition of affixes to indicate degree of
formality
Morphological Typology
  Linguistic typology is a branch of
linguistics that attempts to categorize
languages based on similarities in structure
(phonological inventories, grammatical
constructions, word order, etc.
  Languages have a wide variety of
morphological processes available (e.g. different
 types of affixation, etc.) for creating words
and word forms.
  However, languages vary with respect
to what morphological processes are
available, how frequently they are used,
and what types of information can be
encoded in these processes.
ANALYTIC AND ISOLATING
LANGUAGES
 Analytic languages have sentences
composed entirely of free morphemes,
where each word consists of only one
morpheme.
 Isolating languages are “purely
analytic” and allow no affixation
( inflectional or derivational) at all.
Sometimes analytic languages allow some
derivational morphology such as
compounds (two free roots in a single
word).
 A canonically analytics language is
Mandarin Chinese. Note that properties
such as “ plural” and “past” comprise their
own morphemes and their own words.
SYNTHETIC LANGUAGES
 Synthetic languages allow affixation
such that words may ( though are not
required to) include two or more
morphemes. These languages have
bound morphemes, meaning they must
be attached to another word ( whereas
analytic languages only have free
morphemes).
 Synthetic languages include the three
subcatergories; agglutinative, fusional,
and polysnthetic.
SYNTHETIC LANGUAGE TYPE 1:
AGGLUTINATIVE
 Agglutinative languages have words which
may consist of more than one, and
possibly many, morphemes.
 The key characteristic separating
agglutinative languages from other
synthetic languages is that morphemes
within words are easily parsed or “loosely”
arranged; the morpheme boundaries are
easy to identify. 1: many word to
morpheme ratio; 1:1 morpheme to
meaning
 We often use the metaphor “beads on a
string” to describe agglutinative
languages.
SYNTHETIC LANGUAGE TYPE 2:
FUSIONAL
 Fusional languages, like other synthetic
languages, may have more than one morpheme
per word.
 However, fusional languages may have
morphemes that combine multiple pieces of
grammatical information; that is, there is not a
clear 1 to 1 relationship between grammatical
information and morphemes
FUSIONAL LANGUAGES
 There are four pieces of grammatical
information and four morphs, however the
‘ perfective’ meaning is shared among several
morphs.
Example of fusional property:
Spanish word for to eat is comer. The word
comi means “I ate”. So the suffix –i brings two
grammatical information: 1st person singular I
and past tense of eat.
Also…Internal modifications such as foot-feet,
see-saw, etc. are fusional in nature because the
morphemes that have caused internal change are
difficult to be detached from the root
SYNTHETIC LANGUAGE TYPE 3
POLYSYNTHETIC
 Polysynthetic languages often display a high
degree of affixation( high number of
morphemes per word) and fusion of
morphemes, like agglutinative and fusional
languages.
 Polysynthetic languages may have words
with multiple stems in a single word
(which are not compounds). This may be
achieved by incorporating the subject and object
nouns into complex forms.
For example
- he-catch-fish-nonpast-do ‘ he is fish-catching’
-This is called noun incorporation, where the object
‘fish’ is incorporated in the verb’ catch.
BUT IN REALITY…
 So we’ve looked at canonical examples of four
types of languages: analytical, agglutinative,
fusional, and polysynthetic.
 But, languages often show elements of different
morphological types.
 If a language is hard to classify as one of
the four main types, it may be considered
“mixed”. The properties that distinguish
these types may in fact be gradient rather
than categorical.
Morphological Models
 Morpheme-Based Morphology
− Word-forms are analyzed as arrangements of
morphemes.
− Item-Arrangement Model
− Examples:
▪ Identifying the number of
morphemes
▪ Identifying the types of morphemes
▪ Identifying the affixes attached
(prefix- before, infix- middle, or suffix- end).
▪ Using tree diagram structure

 Lexeme-Based Morphology
− Instead of analyzing a word-form as a set of
morphemes arranged in sequence, a word-
form is said to be the result of applying rules
that alter a word-form or stem in order to
produce a new one.

− Item-Process Model
− Examples:
▪ Identifying the morphological
processes of the words
▪ Identifying the
morphophonological processes of the
words
▪ Identifying the advanced word
formation processes
▪ Lemmatization

 Word-Based Morphology
− This theory takes paradigms as a central
notion. Instead of stating rules to combine
morphemes into word-forms, or to generate
word-forms from stems, word-based
morphology states generalizations that
hold between the forms of inflectional
paradigms.
− Word-Paradigm Model
− Examples:
▪ Identifying the nouns, verbs,
pronouns, prepositions
▪ Doing lexical density (determining
the number of words divided by
the total number of word