Lesson Study and Curriculum Management in Japan

― Focusing on Action Research

Published on 5, October, 2014

The Authours: Tetsuo Kuramoto and Associates

The Publisher: FUKURO Publishing

1-23, Takayanagi-Nishimachi, Kitaku, Okayama City, Okayama Prefecture, Japan,
700-0035
http://www.296.jp e-mail: info@296.jp
Phone: 81-86-255-2181 Facsimile: 81-86-255-6324

ISBN978-4-86186-615-9 C3037

Copyright (C) Tetsuo Kuramoto and Associates, 2014.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, reprinting, or on any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from publisher.

Printed in Japan.
Acknowledgement

Imported pedagogical research is a typically Japanese style of research,

which became very popular since before World War Ⅱ. Actually, following this
tendency, my PhD dissertation was as follows.
“A Study of Curriculum Management in the USA – From the Perspectives of
Service-Learning- Printed in Japanese.”

However, since the beginning of the 21st century, the exporting of Japanese
educational practices and research results has gradually increased. Some
Japanese educational concepts are gaining attention in international
educational societies. Typical popular concepts are Lesson Study and
Curriculum Management which are the main topics of this book. Lesson
study and curriculum management are based on using teachers’professional
communities to improve school systems. This means that exporting pedagogical
research styles is also essential to developing Action Research strategies. For
instance, these concepts are very commonly discussed at the“World Association
for Lesson Studies”which is gaining attention regarding Japanese educational
results and achievements.
In order to study the concepts analyzed in this book, and to theorize the
educational practices based on cases of school improvement, the key factor for
my research is to establish methodologies for action research. It is possible to
define action research metaphorically as educational research“of the teachers,
by the teachers, for the teachers”. In addition, future research visions should
suggest integrating“theory and practice”in educational reforms from the
perspectives of action research interests.

Taking everything above into consideration, I am happy and honored to

publish this book in order to research these concepts with my associates, who
were my PhD student (Lander, Bruce) and master students (Trang N, Huong
N, Kawakami T), at Saga University where I was previously a graduate school
instructor. Also I am grateful to Dr. Tsuyuguchi, who is my good research friend
and colleague, is a specialist of educational empirical research, and contributed
I
a chapter to the final work. I appreciate all of them very much.
Since I was transferred to the Aichi University of Education Graduate School
for Practitioners of Education, which especially focuses on the educational
training of“In-service teachers as action researchers”
, I would like to reflect on
what I had done in my previous work for students, local teachers and schools.
I hope this book brings back good memories for my research associates
including my students and stakeholders, and is a significant contribution for the
researchers and practitioners who are interested in international educational
activities.

Tetsuo Kuramoto, PhD

(Aichi University of Education, Professor)

II
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Introduction: A Research of Lesson Study and Curriculum

Management in Japan ··················· (Tetsuo Kuramoto) 1
1. Introduction ________________________________________ 1
1.1 Project Management （In Chapter 3） ____________ 3
1.2 Curriculum Leadership（In Chapter 4） __________ 4
1.3 Curriculum Development / Blended Learning
(In Chapter 5) ___________________________________ 4
1.4 School and Community / Service-Learning
(In Chapter 6) ___________________________________ 4
1.5 Action Research (In the Final chapter) ____________ 5
References 7

Chapter 1: Summary of Lesson Study and

Curriculum Management ·············· (Tetsuo Kuramoto) 11
1. Introduction to -Curriculum Management Theory- ___ 11
2. Curriculum Management and Lesson Study _________ 14
3. A case study of “Curriculum Management”
-An Action Research Study of “Curriculum Leadership” in
Japan- ____________________________________________ 16
3.1 Introduction ____________________________________ 16
3.2 Theoretical Framework - Curriculum Leadership - 17
3.3 Research Question (Purpose) ____________________ 18
3.4 Method _________________________________________ 19
3.4.1 Part 1 (Pre-survey) __________________________ 19

III
I
 3.4.2 Part 2 (Main-survey) ________________________ 20
3.5 Results _________________________________________ 20
3.6 Discussion ______________________________________ 25
3.7 Conclusion (Scholarly significance of this study) __ 25
References 27

Chapter 2: Action Research of a Lesson Study in Japan

–From the Point-of-View of Student Achievement and
Teacher Professional Development–
············································· (Tetsuo Kuramoto) 31
1. Research Purpose
- student achievement through “Lesson Study” _______ 31
2. Theoretical Framework _____________________________ 33
3. Summary of Research Methods -Part1- ______________ 35
4. Results -Part 1- ____________________________________ 35
5. Summary of Research Methods -Part 2- ______________ 42
6. Results -Part 2- ____________________________________ 43
7. Conclusions ________________________________________ 46
8. Educational importance of the study ________________ 46
Reference 47

Chapter 3: A study on“ Project Management” a Case Study

on School Integration by Board of Education
············ (Nguyen Huyen Trang, Tetsuo Kuramoto) 49
1. __________________________________________________ 49
2. Research method ___________________________________ 51
2.1 Research object _________________________________ 51
2.2 Quantitative research ___________________________ 52

IV
 CONTENTS

2.3 Qualitative research ____________________________ 53

2.4 Empirical research procedure ____________________ 54
3. Analysis results ____________________________________ 55
3.1 Quantitative analysis results ____________________ 55
3.1.1 Quantitative analysis results ________________ 55
3.1.2 Factors analysis ____________________________ 58
3.1.3 Path analysis _______________________________ 60
3.1.4 Conclusion __________________________________ 63
3.2 Qualitative analysis results _____________________ 64
3.2.1 In-service training __________________________ 64
3.2.2 Interview with project leader ________________ 68
3.2.3 Conclusion __________________________________ 70
4. Findings ___________________________________________ 71
4-1. ________________________________________________ 71
4.2 Limitations and future development _____________ 71
Notes 72
References 73

Chapter 4: Fostering Lesson Improvement through

Leadership Practices:
A Distributed Leadership Perspective
············································ (Kenji Tsuyuguchi) 75
1. INTRODUCTION __________________________________ 75
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK _____________________ 76
Distributed Leadership Perspective __________________ 76
Gross Model _______________________________________ 77
Practice Model _____________________________________ 78
Professional Community and Lesson Study __________ 80

V
 Lesson Improvement as Performance Indicators ______ 82
3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS __________________________ 83
4. METHOD _________________________________________ 83
Quantitative Research ______________________________ 83
Qualitative Research _______________________________ 86
5. RESULTS _________________________________________ 86
Lesson Improvement Effects by LS at the Team Level _ 86
Process from LS Practices to Lesson Improvement ____ 88
1) Preparation of LST and Creation of Common
Issues. _________________________________________ 88
2) TMT’s Leadership. _____________________________ 90
3) Utilization of Designed-Artifact at LST. _________ 92
4) Utilizing of Designed-Artifact at Research
Conference. ____________________________________ 94
6. DISCUSSION ______________________________________ 95
1) TMT’s leadership. ______________________________ 95
2) Leadership in LST. _____________________________ 96
7. CONCLUSION ____________________________________ 98
APPENDIX A Measurement Items 99
References 100

Chapter 5: Development of the Autonomous Learner

Through Blended Learning
······················ (Bruce Lander, Tetsuo Kuramoto) 105
Introduction 105
1. Learner Autonomy ________________________________ 106
1.1 Autonomy _____________________________________ 106
1.2 Misconceptions ________________________________ 107

VI
 CONTENTS

1.3 Methods used to introduce Autonomy ____________ 108

2. ___________________________________________________ 109
2.0 Technology in Education ________________________ 109
2.1 Digital Wisdom ________________________________ 110
2.2 Criticism of technology and learning ____________ 110
2.3 How Technology has changed the way we learn __ 112
2.4 Mind Evolution ________________________________ 112
3. ___________________________________________________ 112
3.0 Blended Learning ______________________________ 112
3.1 Criticism of a the Blended Learning Approach ___ 113
3.2 Blended Learning Course Design _______________ 114
3.3 The Micro Level _______________________________ 115
3.4 Meso level _____________________________________ 116
3.5 Macro level ____________________________________ 116
4. Theoretical Framework ____________________________ 116
Conclusions _________________________________________ 118
References 118

Chapter 6: Findings from Case Study of Service-Learning

in Japan
-From the point of view of Action Research-
········ (Tetsuo Kuramoto, NguyenThi Thu Huong) 121
1. Introduction ______________________________________ 121
2. Findings from Minamata-Learning
(Emprical research) _______________________________ 122
2.1 Empirical Research ____________________________ 122
2.1.1 The purpose of the empirical research 122

VII
 2.1.2 Research scope and Limitations of
the empirical research _______________________ 123
2.1.3 Student Profile ____________________________ 123
2.1.4 The structure of the empirical research ______ 123
2.2 The purpose and methodology of
the empirical research _________________________ 124
2.2.1 Text-mining and discourse analysis were
used to analyze the impact of M/S-L.
-Using text-mining to analyze the impact of M/S-L
in 35 students _____________________________ 125
2.2.2 Findings from text mining __________________ 125
2.2.3 Data analysis ______________________________ 126
3. ___________________________________________________ 127
3.1 Part 2 Analysis the impact of Minamata-Learning
in sample 1 and sample 2 using of
discourse analysis _____________________________ 127
3.1.1 Analysis of the impact of Minamata-Learning
in student 1 _________________________________ 129
3.1.2 Analysis of the impact of Minamata-Learning
in student 2 _________________________________ 132
3.2 Using semi-structure interviews to analyze
the impact of Minamata-Learning in student 3 __ 134
3.2.1 The first interview _________________________ 135
3.2.2 The second interview _______________________ 137
Notes 143
References 143

VIII
 CONTENTS

Final Chapter: Future Study Focused on Action Research

·············· (Tetsuo Kuramoto. Tomoko Kawakami) 145
1. The structure of this Study of Action Research ______ 145
2. First, Second, and Third-person Action Research ____ 148
3. Additional aspect of action research ________________ 150
4. Action research template and a dissertation example 152
5. An example of Action research
–focused on classroom management– _______________ 156
References 161

Action Research Appendix 1:

全国 19 国立／教職大学院の比較調査（国内調査編）
－カリキュラムマネジメントと Action Research の視
点から－ ·································· (Tetsuo Kuramoto) 165

Action Research Appendix 2:

USA・Ball State University における事例研究
··········································· (Tetsuo Kuramoto) 185

Action Research Appendix 3:

Action Research による「理論と実践の融合・往還」の指導事例
··········································· (Tetsuo Kuramoto) 207

IX
Introduction
A Research of Lesson Study and Curriculum
Management in Japan
1. Introduction
A recent trend in Japanese educational culture is a growing interest in
“Lesson Study”and“Curriculum Management.” Lesson study and curriculum
management are based on using teachers’professional communities for
improving school systems. The theory behind curriculum management involves
managing all school functions, by incorporating individual teacher＇s specialties
and morale, promoting each student＇s personal development and academic
achievement, and establishing collaborative relationships with parents and
communities (Takano, 1970; Nakatome, 2002, 2005; Gelsthorpe & Burnham,
2003; Tamura, 2011).

Actualization of educational goals

Fundamental Axis Components of the Axis in a school Curriculum

The basic principle of curriculum
Contents of
P educational
activities
Relevancy P-D-C･A cycle Method of
C･A D educational
activities
Connected
School Leaders

Leadership (Principal)
Management
Collaboration Leadership (Middle-leaders)
4M (Man/ Material/
Power  of  Organization Money/ Management)
Organizational structure Organizational culture as providing and
(Collaborative system) (Collaborative culture) maintaining the
conditions
Linkage

Home and community Curriculum Administration

Figure 0-1　The Structure of Curriculum Management

　　　　　 （Nakatome, Kuramoto, Tamura2011）

1
 Concerning school management, the school＇s educational goal should be
established first (Plan). Second, it is necessary to make a strategic teaching plan
and curriculum, to implement the curriculum and teaching the actual lesson
(Do), and to evaluate the educational effectiveness (Check). Finally, an improved
qualitative curriculum development and teaching strategies should be completed
within a school year (Action). This typical paradigm is called curriculum
management (Takano, 1988; Nakatome, 2001; English, 2000; Kuramoto, 2008).

The concept of curriculum management involves promoting all of the

functions of the school organization, not only focusing on individual teacher
efforts, but also focusing on collaborative teacher-team learning communities
within the school organization.
In brief, when considered within a comprehensive educational field such
as curriculum, instruction, students’learning and school management study,
the relationship of these concepts, which are needed to achieve the school＇s
educational goal through the curriculum PDCA cycle, is the most important
part of school management and administrative theory. In conclusion, the above
factors are generally considered to be key concepts for development of school
education research and practice.
Conversely, researching“Japanese lesson study”is internationally
becoming an important issue in the fields of teacher education, curriculum and
instructional design, school management, and in other fields. Lesson study has
its origins in Japan (Fernandez & Yoshida, 2004; Akita & Lewis, 2008; Lewis,
Perry, & Friedkin, 2011), which is a direct translation of the Japanese Jugyo-
Kenkyu. Lesson study is one of the most remarkable achievements to come
out of Japanese educational culture. The goal of lesson study is to effectively
improve the quality of teaching, such as by demonstrating teacher＇s model
techniques for other teachers. Working in groups, teachers collaborate with one
another by, meeting to discuss learning goals, planning actual classroom lessons,
observing how lessons work in practice, and then revising and reporting on the
results so that other teachers can learn something new through their practical
research. Since lesson study means a Japanese style of researching curriculum
and instruction, or in service teacher training in the school, the concept will
2
 Introduction

contribute to supporting school improvement. (Lewis & Tsuchida, 1998; Stigler

& Hiebert, 1997,1999; Akita & Lewis, 2008).　
Significant steps have been made since the introduction of Lesson Study
to the international teaching community through the establishment of the
World Association of Lesson Studies (WALS) in 2008. Since the international
recognition of WALS as a profound teaching methodology was first established,
educators meet every year at an annual conference in various worldwide
locations to discuss research and to further develop pedagogical methods.
Therefore, lesson study is a necessary component of the concept of
curriculum management. In other words, the concepts of lesson study and
curriculum management indicate the building of positive School Cultures (O’
Neill & Kinston,1996; Steven, 1998), and also of having teacher autonomy,
learning problem solving skills for the school organization, and lastly, being
accountable for the communities (Kratzer & Teplin, 2007; Kuga, 2007; Kuramoto
& Tsuyuguchi, 2009).
As a result, lesson study and curriculum management may prioritize
academics and aid in the character growth of students, preparing them for
their social participation within their communities in the future. In addition,
since chapter 1 and 2 discussed the conceptual relationship between curriculum
management and lesson study, the following chapters will emphasize other
features of curriculum management within the context of lesson study.

1.1 Project Management（In Chapter 3）

The other aim of curriculum management/lesson study is to find out how
educational administrators can operate curriculum development between
schools from the point of view of Project Management theory. Project
management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to
project activities in order to meet or exceed stakeholder＇s needs and expectations
for a project (Ballard, 2002). Project management is a familiar term which
has been accepted in the business research field as“project activities to meet
project requirements”(Barnes, 2002). It is a theoretical suggestion concerning
how educational administrators can influence the effectiveness of curriculum
management /lesson study through Project Management.
3
1.2 Curriculum Leadership（In Chapter 4）
To implement a curriculum management/lesson study project, it is possible to
transform regular schools into positive and active organizations that implement
the positive attributes of lesson study by having an educational vision of
teaching and learning, and also by evaluating the curriculum delivery. One of
the main factors in the curriculum management process is considered to be
the theory of Curriculum Leadership (Bernhardt, 1998; Henderson, 2000). The
theory of curriculum leadership falls within the interdisciplinary study area,
which is integrated into teaching activities and school managerial activities.
Also, curriculum leadership contains a PDCA cycle, which effectively improves
the process of school systems and school culture, as well as promotes students’
achievements (Kuramoto, 2008). The whole process is made easier if the school
principal supports teachers wherever possible. Improving school culture based
on collaboration among teachers is also very effective.

1.3 Curriculum Development / Blended Learning (In Chapter 5)

Current literature implies that the continuous onset of technology can be
beneficial to students no matter the subject matter. However, there is a gap in
the research involving the use and positive effects that technology can have in
the foreign language classroom. Integrating elements of technology into any
foreign language based syllabus can enhance the learning experience by making
learning more autonomous and perhaps more importantly, enjoyable for all
involved. This chapter summarized current literature in the field of technology
and education, blended learning and how these two elements can be combined
to make students more autonomous and independent learners. Finally it ended
with a theoretical framework of the proposed research of the author.

1.4 School and Community / Service-Learning (In Chapter 6)

The course of study in Japan is a curriculum standard based on educational
contents and goals which are proposed by the Ministry of Education in Japan
(MEXT) (Kuramoto, 2007). In a revision to this standard in 1998, stress was
placed on“abilities for living”, which meant the voluntary ability to adjust to
rapidly changing social movements. Also, this change defined the method for
4
 Introduction

managing flexible curriculum development within each school that allows the
schools to have individuality. Accordingly, the course of study＇s general vision
states that all educators have to make an effort to develop education systems
which encourage student individuality, and to teach fundamental learning
contents responsibly.
The Ministry of Education in Japan (MEXT) declared the movement of
educational reform because the emphasis on student-centered education has
been very important. However, the course of study was once again partially
renewed in 2003. The modification criticized student-centered education,
especially representative comprehensive learning. The issue of student-
centered education, which critics believe could be the cause of lower academic
achievements, is still controversial within Japan.
According to the movement of School & Community, which is an external
collaboration of curriculum management, the course of study established
Comprehensive Learning which features an integrated curriculum between
student interests and the subject matter. Also, it defined how to manage
flexible curriculum development in each school that would allow schools to
obtain individuality. One well-founded method in curriculum development is
Service-Learning, which involves community volunteer-enlivened learning and
inspires students by making school fun, relevant, and meaningful. In addition,
community volunteer learning (Service-Learning) helps to motivate students,
in turn helping them to learn more about themselves and to build a sense of
community within their classrooms and their neighborhoods (Kuramoto, 2004).
As a result of these Service-Learning principles, the curriculum management
/lesson study integrated educational goals into the learning process to engage
students in community volunteer experiences in order to help them understand
social issues, to develop feelings of pride in their own community and to act as
responsible citizens.

1.5 Action Research (In the Final chapter)

Recently, Action Research is becoming a distinguished pedagogical
issue, discussed at all levels of educational practice (Uchiyama, 2003, 2008;
Reason, and Torbert, 2001; Reason, P., and Bradbury, 2001; Torbert, 2004).
5
 Figure 0-2　The structure of concepts（Kurmaoto, 2009）

Whereas, in general, action research focuses on the process of problem solving,

because action research is spontaneously based on each individual teacher＇s
specific personality and specialty. In addition to action research, curriculum
management and lesson study include reflective educational practitioners and
collaborating in the knowledge of educational research. In conclusion, action
research exemplifies problem solving strategies for improving individual teacher
practices (Kuramoto, 2011b)
In order to foster student growth academically and in order to complete
the educational goals of schools, the most important facilitating factor is to
transform school culture into one emphasizing positive practical teaching action
research. Finally, the improvement of any educational institution needs to be
begun by forming cooperative ties and obtaining a common consensus among its
professional teaching community.
Concerning the scholarly significance of this study, the theoretical structures
of the relationship between curriculum management and lesson study must
be discussed. The value of this research was in finding new academic fields
from the point of view of the integration between teaching instruction and
6
 Introduction

educational management. In addition, this book discussed other features of

curriculum management and lesson study within the relationship between
components of curriculum development and school structure. The theory of
curriculum management has two main types of concepts, which are Curriculum
Design and Curriculum Delivery. As a result, school improvement was the goal
of curriculum management.
“Figure 2”, regarding school improvement, was based on theoretical
research, which discussed the conceptual structure of curriculum management/
lesson study. It can be concluded that there was a theoretical structure of
curriculum management with lesson study, which included positive and
collaborative school cultures. Each individual teacher was able to share his/her
professional visions and missions for improving their teaching skills and morale,
and finally to advance student achievement.
In order to create a positive school culture, the roles of curriculum leadership
of principal and middle leaders were indispensable for the progress of the
curriculum management/lesson study system. In general, the curriculum
management/lesson study focused on individual school cases. However, in the
case of the school integration project, where the educational administration had
to play the most important role in various areas of curriculum development and
collaboration with school teachers, the concept of project management (chapter 3)
in curriculum management/lesson study was necessary.
In a conclusion, it was possible to interpret that transformative school
culture was effective in facilitating school management through supportive
curriculum management/lesson study. Also, successful collaboration among
schools was dependent upon each school culture, especially concerning positive
teacher cooperation, which was dependent on the professional learning
community.

References
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Barnes, M. (2002). Keynote speech: A long term view of Project Management- its last and likely

7
 future, in 16th world congress of Project Management, Berlin Germany.
Bernhardt, R., Hedley, C. N., Cattaro, G., & Svolopoulos, V. (1998). Curriculum Leadership:
Rethinking Schools for the 21st Century: Cresskill, NJ, Hampton Press.
English, F. W. (2000). The Curriculum Management Audit: Improving School Quality, : Lanham,
Maryland, The Scarecrow Press.
Fernandez, C., & Yoshida, M. (2004). LESSON STUDY, A Japanese Approach to Improving
Mathematics Teaching Learning, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate.
Gelsthorpe, T. & Burnham, W. (2003). Educational Leadership and the Community: Strategies
for School Improvement through Community Engagement, New York: Pearson Education.
Henderson, J. (2000). Transformative Curriculum Leadership, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Kratzer, C. C. & Teplin, A. S. (2007). From lesson study to lesson link : Classroom-based profes-
sional development, 2007 Annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association（Chicago, IL, April 9-13, 2007）
Kuga, N. (2007). “A study about the "model of reflective practitioner" in the specialty of the teacher:
Based on the suggestion from the knowledge study of the teacher, Bulletin of Center for
Collaboration in Community, Naruto University of Education, 22．
Kuramoto,T. (2004). Service-Learning Conference, “Citizens not Spectators – Fulfilling the Prom-
ise of Democracy”, National Youth Leadership Council presents the 15th Annual,
Orlando, FL, USA.
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istration, Japanese Association for the Study of the Education Administration, Thomson
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Kuramoto, T., & Tsuyuguchi, K. (2009). “A case study of lesson study in Japan : From the point
of view of student achievement” 2009 Annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, San Diego, USA.
Kuramoto, T. (2011 b). An Action Research of Lesson Study in Japan –From the Point of View
of Student’s Achievement and Teacher’s Professional Development– Collaborative Action
Research Network, London, UK.
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 Introduction

Japan International Yearbook, Japanese Educational Research Association, No6.

O’Neill, J., & Kinston, N. (1996). Effective Curriculum Management, co-coordinating learning
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Reason, P., and Torbert, B. (2001). The action turn toward a transformational social science: A
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versity, Japan.
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ership, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehier Publisher.
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improvement through curriculum development) Meiji Tosyo.
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Teacher Inquiry and Lesson Study), Tokyo: Akasisyoten.
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Curriculum Management in the USA), Okayama: Fukuro Press..
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(Tetsuo Kuramoto)

10
Chapter 1
Summary of Lesson study and Curriculum
Management
1. Introduction to -Curriculum Management Theory-
From the points of view of the conceptual structures between Lesson Study
and Curriculum Management, it is necessary to understand what the concept of
curriculum management is.
Historically, curriculum management is often discussed within educational
research associations such as Japanese Curriculum Study Association and
Japanese Educational Management Association. (Kuramoto, 2008; Tamura, 2011).
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan
(MEXT) officially recognizes the concept of curriculum management nationwide
in documents concerning the local board of education and schools. There are also
in-service teacher training systems concerning how curriculum management
improves school education for the middle leaders of schools within every
prefecture (Murakawa & Tamura, 2011).
According to Nakatome, a well-known researcher in the field, curriculum
management consists of two aspects: the first is curriculum design as content
development and teaching instruction and the second is the managerial aspects
of facilitating a school culture that supports the first aspect (Nakatome, 2002,
2005, 2011). Also, Dr. English, an educational researcher in the USA, mentioned
that curriculum management has two main conceptual factors: one is based on
the theory of Curriculum Development and Instruction, and the other is the
theory of School Management (English & Larson, 1996; English, 2000). The
basic paradigms and the functions of curriculum management are
typically explained as an interactional theory about School Management and
Curriculum Development used to improve the holistic educational performance
of an educational institution (Kuramoto, 2011a).
A school organization system based on the curriculum management theory
needs to have clear managerial vision, such as how teachers should design the
school curriculum, share their knowledge and collaborate with each other to
cultivate a united school culture. It also encompasses the typical“Plan, Do,
11
 Figure 1-1　The structure of curriculum management of a school level

12
 Chapter 1

Check, and Action”system, also referred PDCA management cycle (Kuramoto

2009).
Taking all factors into consideration, the conceptual structure of curriculum
management is shown in figure 1-1 above. In addition, from research
perspectives concerning the Input and Output Theory, the educational
effectiveness of curriculum management indicates the significant importance
of both the teachers’professional developments and students’achievements
(Marks & Louis, 1997; Louis & Marks, 1998; Leithwood & Mascall, 2008).
The fundamental factors of curriculum management are divided into three
clusters. These three clusters consist of (1) Input factors (e.g. curriculum
philosophy, mission, vision, strategy), (2) Black box factors (e.g. lesson study,
curriculum leadership & school culture, professional learning community,
knowledge management), and (3) Output factors (e.g. students’academic
achievement and personal growth, and the enhancement of teachers’
professional skills). Details of the functional structure of the input and output
theory in curriculum management are shown in figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2　“Input and output theory”of“Curriculum management”

13
2. Curriculum Management and Lesson Study
Lesson study needs to be recognized as a part of curriculum management
theory based on School Management. The theory is not only the individual
teacher＇s responsibility to educate students, but also the entire school
organization＇s attempts to manage their school＇s curriculum and instructional
design. In this way, lesson study has a significant role in carrying out curriculum
management within the school. For that reason, it is also important to discuss
the conceptual structures between the Professional Learning Community and
lesson study (Nakatome, Kuramoto, & Tamura, 2011).
As discussed above, lesson study focuses on the collaborative work of
teachers with the premise of forming professional learning communities through
sharing experiences and knowledge. Internal collaboration within the school
organizational structure relating to lesson study can be understood through
school culture theory (Deal & Peterson, 1999), which is based on teachers’
Professional Learning Communities. Examples of positive outcomes within
school culture are as follows:
“The communication opportunities increased, allowing for the discussion of
school issues and teaching instructions.”
“Our school came to have a positive
atmosphere when teachers challenged new ideas.”
“Our school was able to effectively employ our teachers’abilities by our
principal＇s leadership”(Nakatome, 2002, 2005).
If researchers and teachers could grasp the whole structure of lesson study
as a set of factors related to school culture encompassing the personal values
of teachers, the principal＇s leadership, protocol for in-service teacher training
systems, and the effectiveness of the teacher＇s instruction, it would likewise
positively affect the teacher＇s professional development.
Lesson study, from the perspective of the Professional Learning Community,
is a powerful tool in enhancing the professional development of teachers, and,
further, for improving the school organization as a whole (Marks, & Louis,
1997; Louis, & Marks, 1998). Lesson study is central to a growing, positive
school culture. Also, lesson study focuses on the point that teachers must work
together to build professional learning communities, which collectively refers to
Knowledge Management Theory.
14
 Chapter 1

In the knowledge management theory there are four phases, which

are Externalization, Combination, Internalization, and Socialization.
Correspondingly, the strategies to complete the mission of each phase are
“dialogue, linking explicit knowledge, learning by doing, and team building”
(Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
From the perspective of the knowledge management theory, strategies of
lesson study have a similar learning process for teachers. The professional
learning methodology for teachers occurs through sharing their experience
and knowledge, such as by preparing lesson plans, pre-researching for lessons,
teaching lessons in which all teachers in related fields observe, and reflecting
on results so that other teachers can learn something new through practical
research. By improving all functions of the school organization, managing the
teachers’practical knowledge does not only focus on individual teacher efforts,
but also on collaborative professional learning communities within the school
organization as important factors of the knowledge management method.

Finally, knowledge management theory is directly related to the concept

of school improvement (Nakatome, 2002; Kuramoto, &Tsuyuguchi, 2008).
School improvement in the school management and administration study
fields consist of factors that are related to the theories of“problem solving
school competence,”
“positive school culture,”
“independent and voluntary
school organization system,”
“collaborative teacher＇s community,”
“partnership
between school and community,”
“school based curriculum development,”and
several others.
In addition, to define excellent model schools, one has to consider not only
school organizational management issues, which are of ultimate significance
to school educational roles and goals, but also how to foster intellectual and
personal student development. Since lesson study is recognized as a special
school-based, in-service, professional development program, it is one of the key
concepts for empowering teachers and leading to instructional improvement in
Japanese schools. This is why lesson study has such a strong impact on research
involving school improvement.

15
 Figure 1-3　The structure of curriculum management and lesson study
（Individual/Single School Case）

Consequently, the structures of curriculum management and lesson study,

which have been understood from the discussion above, describe the process
involved in a typical lesson study of an individual school case. Lesson study is
also central to factors for the concept of curriculum management. The details
of the structure of the curriculum management and lesson study are shown in
Figure 1-3.

3. A case study of “Curriculum Management”

-An Action Research Study of “Curriculum Leadership” in
Japan-
3.1 Introduction
The Japanese education system has been adapted from the USA＇s one after
World War Ⅱ . The system is composed of a 6-year elementary education and
3-year junior high school education. On the contrary, in the current educational
movement of the USA, there has been a shift from the traditional system to the
16
 Chapter 1

Middle School system, which is based on various forms of grade divisions. The
Middle School Reform Movement in the USA has led to new American public
educational reforms (Lindelow, 1981; Malan, Ogawa, & Franz, 1990.).
Currently, Japan is undergoing a nationwide movement towards re-arranging
school grades using new transformative institutional strategies which combine
the elementary and junior high schools, known as the movement to“Integrate
systems between Elementary and Junior High Schools”(IEJHS) (e.g., Kuramoto,
Moriyama, 2010.).

3.2 Theoretical Framework - Curriculum Leadership -

To implement the IEJHS project, the school organization needs to have a
clear vision of how to design the school curriculum, how teachers should share
their knowledge, and how they will collaborate with each other to cultivate a
school culture. It is possible to transform regular schools into positive and active
organizations by having an educational vision of teaching and learning and
also by evaluating the curriculum delivery. The main factors of the curriculum
process, which are plan, do, check, and action, are recognized as the theory of
“Curriculum Leadership”(Bernhardt, 1998; Gelsthorpe, & Burnham, 2003).
The definition of“Curriculum Leadership”is the educational supportive
leadership of a“Curriculum Coordinator”(CC) toward school organization to
achieve educational goals, by developing and implementing the curriculum
and instruction, and also by activating a school organization which arouses a
positive professional culture, including internal collaboration among teachers
and external collaboration within communities (Henderson, 2000; Halverson, R,
2006).
The theory of“Curriculum Leadership”falls within the interdisciplinary
study area, which integrates teaching activities and school managerial
activities. Also,“Curriculum Leadership”has a PDCA cycle, which effectively
improves the process of school systems and school culture, and promotes student
achievements (Kuramoto,2008).
The“Curriculum Leadership”of the CC is different from the leadership
of the principal. This is because, the CC is a type of middle leader in
school organizations and needs to consult with other teachers about school
17
 Figure 1-4　Structure of curriculum leadership theory

management issues to design a curriculum efficiently. Therefore, the definition

of“Curriculum Leadership”in this research is referred to as a specific type
of the CC leadership which focuses on curriculum development and school
management. The details of the structure are stated above. (e.g. Kuramoto &
Moriyama 2010).

3.3 Research Question (Purpose)

When curriculum leaders use their own“Curriculum Leadership”to improve
their schools, it can have positive effects on the schools. Due to this, the school＇s
culture needs to be discussed from the perspective of“Curriculum Leadership.”
This research style is based on action research, which practitioners use to
improve their own school＇s practices. The main purpose of this study is to clarify
facilitating and preventing factors of school improvement and curriculum
management, by“Curriculum Leadership”whose roles are to design a
curriculum, and to promote the teachers’professional community.
The first sub-purpose of the research, and from the point-of-view of school
18
 Chapter 1

culture theory, is to analyze the validity between“Collaboration of Teachers”in

the school and“Curriculum Leadership Approach.”
The second sub-purpose this research analyzes is the effective influencing
process of“Curriculum Leadership”of the CC for the IEJHS project. For
example, the effectiveness of the coordinator＇s“Curriculum Leadership”are
determined by whether it cultivates the teacher＇s working motivation and
morale for managing their school.

3.4 Method
3.4.1 Part 1 (Pre-survey)
① Purpose of the pre-survey
The purpose of this survey was to clarify the current status regarding
IEJHS. Especially, how it relates to the leadership of the CC, collaboration
between teachers, and curriculum development for IEJHS.
② Method
The questionnaires were randomly delivered to school districts in Saga
prefecture, Japan. Each city＇s board of education requested individual
schools in their district to respond to the survey. The population of the
study included 727 teachers out of approximately 1200, and was made up
of those who had continuously implemented their own IEJHS project.
③ Period of the survey
2009, December -2010, January.
④ Questionnaire
The question items consist of the following four categories.
1) Current status of School Culture (15 items).
2) Current status of“Curriculum Leadership”for school improvement
(14 items).
3) Attitude of teachers regarding their IEJHS (11 items).
4) A free-answer question.
⑤ The analysis method of this survey
Factor analyses and correlations by SPSS version 19.

19
3.4.2 Part 2 (Main-survey)
① Purpose of the main survey
The purpose of the main survey was to clarify the validity of“Curriculum
Leadership”of the CC, who is the first person practitioner to carry out
IEJHS. When considering the quantitative data of the pre-survey, this
study needs to inspect in what direction the CC should take leadership to
facilitate the IEJHS project.
② Method
The main methodology in this research was based on action research.
Action research gradually becomes an objective understanding of
educational issues by“Triangulation,”which is an inter-subjective
c o g n i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r a n d t h e r e s e a r c h e r. A l s o ,
“Triangulation”depends on the First-Second-Third person theory.
Therefore, it analyzes the qualitative narrative story of the CC of a
junior high school with an interpretation of the triangulation role below.
-First person: the CC of junior high school (N. Moriyama)
-Second person: the CC of elementary school (K. Yamamoto)
-Third person: Research advisor (T. Kuramoto)
③ Period of the survey
2010, April -2011, March (Japanese School Year).
④ Analysis of the survey
The school of the first person has implemented a lesson study project for
IEJHS that takes place almost every Wednesday. After each lesson study,
the first person reflects on the purpose of the meeting with the second
person who keeps records of the meetings. Then, the third person has a
discussion with both of them to analyze the reflection each Friday. (The
discussions occurred more than 30 times during the school year.)

3.5 Results
Part 1 (Pre-survey): Analyzing the data obtained from the pre-survey is
useful when promoting integration between elementary schools and junior high
schools. These surveys facilitate data regarding school improvement, such as
how curriculum leaders lead to positive morale among teachers, and how they
20
 Chapter 1

TABLE 1-1　Factor’s Correlations

F１ F2 F３ F４ F５ F６ F７ F８

Pearson 1 .760** .572** .613** .207* .523** .267* .383**

1: Collaboration Correlation
among teachers Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 720 720 712 711 704 704 705 705

Pearson .760 1 .659** .561** .148* .557** .220* .347**

2: Independency of Correlation
teachers Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 720 720 712 711 704 704 705 705

Pearson .572 .659 1 .762** .279** .544** .151* .316**

3: Transformative Correlation
Leadership Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 712 712 718 717 710 701 702 703

Pearson .613 .561 .762 1 .322** .473** .200** .361**

4: Supportive Correlation
Leadership Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 711 711 717 717 710 700 701 702

Pearson .207 .148 .279 .322 1 .210** .083* .133*

5: Conservativeness Correlation
of teachers Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .028 .000
N 704 704 710 710 710 694 695 697

Pearson .523 .557 .544 .473 .210 1 .282** .397**

6: Cooperation Correlation
between schools Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 704 704 701 700 694 709 707 707

Pearson .267 .220 .151 .200 .083 .282 1 .719*

Correlation
7: Vision for
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .028 .000 .000
students
N 705 705 702 701 695 707 710 709

Pearson .383 .347 .316 .361 .133 .397 .719 1

8: Progressive Correlation
schools Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 705 705 703 702 697 707 709 711

** p<.01 *p<.05

helped develop and manage the curriculum at each school.

Factor Analysis: First, the descriptive statistics of the variables used in

the analysis needed to be confirmed. As a result of factor analysis（principal
factor method, Promax rotation）for the measurement of this study, an 8-factor
structure was found. These factors are shown in the table below.
F1: Collaboration among teachers. F2: Independence of teachers.
F3: Transformative Leadership. F4: Supportive Leadership.
F5: Conservativeness of teachers. F6: Cooperation between schools.
F7: Vision for students. F8: Progressiveness schools.

21
 Factor Correlations: One of purposes of this study was to analyze the
validity between the“collaboration of teachers”in schools and the“curriculum
leadership approach.”Therefore, it analyzed strong positive factor correlations
(.760) between“F1: Collaboration among teachers,”which is related to their
teamwork and cooperation, and“F2: Independence of teachers,”which is their
progress in self-learning for improving their teaching skills.
It is possible to interpret that teachers need to support one another to
establish their own educational specialties, as well as to respect their different
teaching skills. Therefore, school culture must be improved by positive morale
from teachers. On the issue of“Curriculum Leadership,”there is a strong
correlations (.762) between“Transformative Leadership,”which enhances the
constructive organizational transition, and“Supportive Leadership,”which is
when the CC helps other teachers to be highly motivated.
To the contrary, when the CC was included in conservative actions, it
generally showed low correlations between“F5: Conservativeness of teachers”
and other factors. Particularly, the correlations with“F7: Vision for students”
(.083) and with“F8: Progressive schools”(.133) are remarkable.
Since the CC is in an important position, if the CC is not positive in
reforming the school curriculum＇s culture, which is related to the vision and
mission for fostering students, it begins to promote negative and conservative
teacher values, which are not wanted when changing any situation.

Part 2 (Main-survey/Action Research as Triangulation): The School

which Mr. Moriyama “First
( person”and the CC in this Action Research) is
teaching at has been implementing lessons for the IEJHS project almost every
Wednesday.
The main survey is based on action research＇s triangulation methodology,
which is the First-Second-Third person theory. After each lesson study, the first
person reflected on the dialogs of the meeting with the“Second person”to keep
the records objective. Then the“Third person”had a discussion with both of
them to analyze the reflection. After analyzing the qualitative narrative story
about the leadership of the CC by action research triangulation, the theoretical
components and typical episodes were placed on a table below.
22
 TABLE 1-2

Main Category Concepts of the CC Typical Episode Consideration about the CC

The ability of At Lesson Studies, CC produced teachers (This is "Transformative Leadership". The
Collaborative communication, are given learning opportunities by the CC tried to motivate teacher’ s work ethics
School Culture (facilitating GTA method to discuss the school 's and morale.)
organizational culture) integration issues.

Discussion about supporting special (Necessity of building a school goal and

needs students. vision for students' futures)

Discussion about the differences between (Coaching skill for discussion with less
Elementary and Junior High Schools. experienced younger teachers)

(The meetings are held by both CCs more

Criticism of junior high students. than 30 times in the year. Because both school's
CCs want to understand the other's school.)

The ability of
situational adjustment, (The necessity of school management to
Criticism of school integration.
(collaborative follow Up/Down strategies)
organizational culture)

(Distributed leadership is important to

Difficulty of making time for meetings
manage, especially curriculum development
between teachers.
and implementation)

(The CC limited each meeting time to within

Efficiency of meetings.
60 minutes, because it's efficient.)

Reformative The ability of curriculum

Necessary proposed learning method
Curriculum development, (The necessity of creative ideas)
and student guidance.
Development (teaching professionalism)

23
Chapter 1
24
Disagreement about greeting (It has limitations of educational leadership
campaign. and supporting leadership)

(As Curriculum Leadership, the CC needs to

Importance of collaborative curriculum
have a professional ability of curriculum
design.
design.)

(The CC proposed that the most important issue

"Large vision" for school integration.
of curriculum management is school vision.)

(The CC recognized that teachers need to be

Struggle to implement the project,
more honest about their feelings toward each
because of lack of common sense.
other.)

The ability of positive Negative opinions of teachers when We have limitations on both sides of the soft
thinking and attitude, visiting a School using the integrated and hard systems. Besides, we positively
(transformative model school, the teachers complained need to organize the situations using current
organization) "it is too high levelfor us. Impossible." resources.

The CC emphasized that fostering student

The great cultural gap between schools.
abilities is necessary.

The CC manages to free them from Flexible talent to adjust to many situations
stress. is important.
 Chapter 1

3.6 Discussion
It is necessary for the IEJHS project to focus on the strong correlation
between“vision for students”and“reforming new curriculum.”Most teachers
understood the importance of project IEJHS. However, they did not have enough
discussion time or opportunities for the lesson studies. For this reason, the
different teaching styles and philosophies of the elementary school and junior
high school teachers caused difficulties when implementing project IEJHS.
Typical discussions during this action research are below.
-When teachers have collaborative attitudes, and recognize each other as
respected professionals, schools have a tendency to improve their cultures.
-If the CCs support teachers as much as possible, a transformative
“Curriculum Leadership”also takes place. It is a very effective way to improve
school culture based on collaboration among teachers.
-If the CC uses a negative type of leadership, which is a conservative action
to prevent the current school from improving its culture, it might end up
blocking student development.
-To foster student growth academically, the IEJHS has to be compulsory to
exploit the collaborative subject curriculums and career guidance programs.
In order to complete the educational goals of the schools, the most important
facilitative factor is to transform the schools culture into positive and practical
ethics for teachers.
Finally, the improvements schools need to make first are cooperative
harmony and common consensuses among teachers.

3.7 Conclusion (Scholarly significance of this study)

These are the necessary and functional conditions that will drive“Curriculum
Management”to be realized.
a)“Curriculum Management”will be actualized in the autonomy and
independence of schools.　
That is to say, each school＇s capacity and accountability measure itself
against a challenge together with its enlargement of discretion in
curriculum planning for each school.
b)“Curriculum Management”will be an effective method of school
25
 improvement in order to achieve an educational goal that is based on
curriculum. It is a challenge of how educational problems reflect on the
basic principles of the curriculum.
c)“Curriculum Management”will be actualized when the curriculum＇s
content, method of educational activities and management by providing
and maintaining its conditions are effectively complementary to each
other. The type of combinations of relevancy and collaboration should be
made into a pattern and its necessary conditions should be extracted.
d) By corresponding the curriculum to the management cycle P(plan) ,
D(do), C(check), and A(action), the dynamic force in this cycle will work
effectively and make it easier to solve the various problems that each
school has. In this sense, there is some time when the D-CA cycle should
be repeatedly implemented rather than the PDCA cycle. This means
that if the first D does not work well, checking(C) out factors caused
by the problem will lead to actions (A) that will improve the defective
parts in D. Collaboration in the curriculum management paradigm is
attributed to two parts: organizational culture (collaborative culture) and
organizational structure (collaborative system)
e) In order to fulfill the function of curriculum management effectively,
connecting organizational culture (collaborative culture) and
organizational structure (collaborative system) to the curriculum as
content, method of educational activities, capacities and abilities of school
leaders, especially school middle leaders’leadership, will be essential.
These two parts are enhanced by their capacities and abilities for
constructing curriculum.
f ) The collaboration of the school and community assisted by the
Educational Administration will be essential when activating the
function of the curriculum management.

The purpose of the narrative analysis, which is the main survey and action
research＇s triangulation methodology, is school improvement by means of
curriculum leadership with analysis of the pre-survey.
According to the results of the correlations among factors, it was found that
26
 Chapter 1

each pair of 1)“Collaboration among teachers”and“Independence of teachers,”

2)“Transformative Leadership”and“Supportive Leadership,”and 3)“Vision
for students”and“Progressiveness schools,”has strong positive correlations.
On the contrary, the correlations between“Curriculum Leadership”and
“Conservativeness of teachers”are still negative.
The CC paid careful attention to other colleagues as much as possible for the
concepts of“Collaboration among teachers”and“Independence of teachers,”
from the narrative analysis, and tried to improve the school. Especially, at lesson
studies, the CC often used strategies, which were grounded theory approaches,
in order to motivate teachers at lesson study meetings.
On the“Transformative Leadership”and“Supportive Leadership”of
“Curriculum Leadership,”the first person is the CC who takes an important
role in transforming the school. In addition to educating students, fostering
teacher motivation is the key concept for school management.
The first person adapts a unique type of leadership, which helps to
understand the feelings of colleagues, and to support them with coaching
techniques. To also understand the hidden feelings of his colleagues toward the
IEJHS project, the method of“Coaching and Mentoring”was very available to
reform the school organizational culture.
As a conclusion, from the perspective of the scholarly significance of this
study, it is possible to interpret that the transformative school culture is
an effective way to facilitate school management by supportive curriculum
leadership.

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Chapter 2
Action Research of a Lesson Study in Japan
–From the Point-of-View of Student Achievement and Teacher
Professional Development–

1. Research Purpose - student achievement through “Lesson

Study” -
According to J. Stigler, and J. Hiebert,“Cross-national studies of
academic achievement continue to place U.S. students far behind those in
the top-performing countries”(Stigler, and Hiebert, 1997). It is difficult to
prove whether this is true or not, but this report will research a significant
educational strategy that originated in Japan called the“lesson study”system.
It is a professional development process that Japanese teachers engage in to
systematically examine their practices. Lesson study is credited with dramatic
success in improving classroom practices for the Japanese school system. The
goal of lesson study is to improve the effectiveness of the experiences that the
teachers provide to their students.
Lesson study is used very commonly for the professional development
of teaching and school improvement in Japan. Working in groups, teachers
collaborate with one another, meeting to discuss learning goals, to plan actual
classroom lessons, to observe how lessons work in practice, and then to revise

Figure 2-1　Structure of lesson study

31
and report on the results, so that other teachers can learn something new from
it (Stevenson, and Stigler, 1992; Hiebert, 1999; Lewis, 2002;,Fernandez and
Yoshida, 2004; Akita and Lewis, 2008).
This research show teachers’professional development and school

<Individual Teacher Level> <Subject Team Level> <Whole School Level>

STAGE1 (Perception of teaching issues)

Teaching Design for the 2 Concepts

The Goals and Hypothesis of LS are

The teacher who
established by theoretical frameworks
was collaborated
based on Literature reviews and the
with the subject
contexts of his own students.
team perceives
useful skills on
how to develop
STAGE2 (Recognition of teaching issues) the curriculum Collaborate with other teachers
Teaching Design for the 2 Concepts and teaching Adapt new teaching methods
plan to adapt
The recognition of the educational into his own All teachers should try
directions to improve one's own practice. to practice lessons
practices are found by analyzing the matching student's
validities of Hypothesis through an conditions, according
individual teacher's practice. The teacher who to each subject
was collaborated team's results.
with each
subject team According to each
recognizes how subject team's results,
students learn which are fundamental
subject skills skills and knowledge,
and knowledge. the entirety of the
school reconsider
educational activities.

STAGE3 (Understanding teaching issues)

Teaching Design for the 2 Concepts Managing teacher research teams for the school

The individual teachers understand to The teacher who Choose the contents
redesign their whole research framework was collaborated of curriculum designed
through practical perception and with the subject by subject teams, then,
recognition. Particularly, for team understands categorize them into
understanding situations, the most how to manage individual practices and
important factors are real student the whole common school
improvements. classroom practices.
teaching
including student The common practice
Then, Individual teachers take further study behaviors. at the whole school
steps to collaborate with other level is completed.
teachers.
Redesign the reserch framework for next year

Figure 2-2　Whole structure of lesson study at school level

32
 Chapter 2

improvement, and in a limited way, they discuss student achievement in

mathematics and science.
This research not only tries to examine student achievement in the
Language Arts, but also examines the effectiveness of lesson study as a teacher
development tool. School improvement and teacher development are not the
only goals of lesson study. Student development is also an important goal of the
strategy.
The author (Kuramoto) is the superintendent of Honjyo Elementary School
(HES) which is well known as a research school for lesson study and school
improvement in southern Japan. The structure of lesson study at HES is
shown in Figure 2-1 above. HES lesson studies are structured and conducted
based on research and observation. In this way, long-term goals for actual
classroom practices, and particular, academic areas have been created.　HES
has established two main concepts for lesson study. One is Independence/
Individuality, and the other is Collaboration/Harmony.
The objectives of this research are to investigate the effectiveness of lesson
study from the empirical point-of-view of student achievement through using
detailed data obtained through National Standardized Test scores of Language
Arts.

2. Theoretical Framework
According to the theoretical lesson study framework of HES, the goals are to
teach students the following skills: Problem Solving, Independence/Individuality,
and Harmony/Collaboration. The students should have proficient interests and
abilities, including positive attitudes, understand how to solve personal issues
independently and how to collaborate with others to build a better democratic
society. The most important definitions in this research are shown below.

① Independence/Individuality
Students should be able to solve significant issues by establishing their
own goals and choosing proper methods. Also, the students should be able
to reflect on their own learning process, and understand who they are. For
instance,“I can recognize my own strengths,”
“I have future dreams and
33
 Figure 2-3　Theoretical framework of educational goals of HES

visions,”
“I have experienced completing something,”
“I can try something
new without worrying about failing, even in hard situations.”
② Collaboration/Harmony
The students should be able to solve common issues among themselves
or between themselves. In addition, children should learn to recognize
good qualities in others and appreciate different ideas, and develop
perceptions, cognitions, and understanding of the situations around them.
For instance,“I can positively cooperate to help someone who faces
problems,”
“I want to be a better person at understanding others’feelings
well,”
“I want to build a sense of human rights: any kind of bullying is
wrong,”
“I want to contribute to society when I grow up,”
“I can keep
promises with my friends.”

The final purpose of the lesson study of HES is to integrate Independence/

Individuality and Collaboration/Harmony to achieve problem solving abilities.
Connection between school and community is an important factor in reaching
educational goals from the point-of-view of curriculum management.
34
 Chapter 2

When developing a core-curriculum which meets national academic

standards,“The Course of Study”must also be considered.

3. Summary of Research Methods -Part1-

① Purpose:
To discuss the effectiveness of lesson study at HES from the points-of-
view of students’personal achievements, including the main concept of
Independence/Individuality and Collaboration/ Harmony.
② Date:
April 24th 2007
③ Methods:
There were 91 sixth grade students at HES. The entire Saga school
district had 1,480 sixth grade students during the 2007 school year.
This research used the Principle Component Analysis/Varimax Rotation
and the Correlation Coefficient methods to analyze Independence/
Individuality, Collaboration/Harmony, and Language Arts Test Scores.
Saga school district data of 1,480 sixth grade students was compared to
the HES student data.
National Standard Testing (NST) scores from 21,952 elementary schools
with 1,171,000 sixth grade students (99.64% of all public elementary
school students in Japan) were used. The NST included Language Arts,
Mathematics, and Attitude toward School. For this research, Language
Arts scores were compared to the NST scores which were available to Dr.
Kuramoto, who was in charge of Saga prefectural data analysis.
④ Questionnaire items:
The NST included 102 items related to students’attitudes toward
school. The research undertaken at HES included 20 items using a
Likert scale of strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree
response types. Each item was related to the concepts of Independence/
Individuality, Collaboration/Harmony, and Problem Solving Ability.

4. Results -Part1-
Table 2-1 shows the Principle Component Analysis and Varimax Rotation.
35
 Four factors were abstracted: Independence/Individuality, Collaboration/
Harmony, Community/Participation, and School culture. Four of the original
20 questions were excluded from this table because the data did not relate
significantly the four factors.

Table 2-1　The results of principle component analysis of“Lesson Study”at HES

Principle Component Analysis/ Varimax Rotation

F1 F2 F3 F4
ndependence/Individuality NO10 0.664959 0.012052 0.413874 0.190243
NO11 0.745025 0.250503 0.03492 0.042942
NO46 0.620242 0.274163 0.2682 0.199162
NO47 0.60387 0.330996 0.353173 0.018922
NO48 0.706672 0.466365 0.125414 0.069414
Collaboration/Harmony NO9 0.346136 0.583333 0.386961 0.152242
NO36 0.198905 0.832858 -0.02705 0.216584
NO37 0.174695 0.671686 0.231798 0.312191
NO49 0.237747 0.638711 0.262351 0.149843
NO50 0.548999 0.6298 0.169462 -0.01035
Community/Participation NO43 0.12901 0.071104 0.829559 0.095159
NO55 0.239605 0.321607 0.6144 0.015442
School culture NO6 0.041368 0.079199 -0.02891 0.760898
VNO32 -0.00923 0.254382 0.322744 0.647644
NO44 0.583486 0.093456 -0.02695 0.594434
NO45 0.334689 0.340437 0.146988 0.514042

The contributing rate of each factor is 22.5 for F1, 19.1 for F2, 14.3 for F3, 9.9 for F4. The
total contributing rate is 65.8. In addition, DI scores of each questionnaire item are as
follows.

※ DI method : strongly agree=　1.0, agree=　0.5, disagree= － 0.5, strongly disagree= －

1.0, total processing for each questionnaire item
HES DI=Honjyo Elementary School DI・SD DI=School District DI・Na DI=National DI

36
 Chapter 2

Table 2-2　The comparative scores of HES, Saga school district and national DI

HES SD Na
Questionnaire entries
DI DI DI
F1. Independence/Individuality 0.50 0.50 0.48
I can try something new without worrying about
No10 0.324 0.325 0.321
failing, even in hard situations.
No11 I can recognize my own strengths. 0.360 0.344 0.323
No46 I can cooperate to help someone who faces problems. 0.361 0.367 0.364
No47 When I meet neighbors, I will greet them. 0.772 0.757 0.683
I want to be a better person at understanding others’
No48 0.726 0.728 0.725
feelings well.
【F2. Collaboration/Harmony】 0.80 0.79 0.80
No9 I have experienced completing something. 0.764 0.760 0.776
No36 I have enjoy spending time with my friends at school. 0.863 0.860 0.872
No37 I have some favorite subjects at school. 0.798 0.777 0.799
I believe in human rights: any kind of bullying is
No49 0.843 0.831 0.821
wrong.
No50 I want to contribute to society when I grow up. 0.748 0.746 0.742
【F3. Community/Participation】 0.49 0.47 0.37
No43 I participate in community events, or volunteer work. 0.405 0.399 0.204
No55 I can take care of little children, or elderly people. 0.571 0.556 0.538
【F4. School culture】 0.55 0.55 0.54
No6 I can manage my study time by myself. 0.015 0.028 0.056
No32 I do homework at home. 0.892 0.888 0.856
No44 I follow school rules. 0.551 0.550 0.510
No45 I keep promises with my friends. 0.759 0.754 0.755
Table 2-2 Data Analysis:
Independence/Individuality
　The top 5 items measured Independence and individuality. They are items 10, 11, 46,
47, and 48.
Collaboration/Harmony
　The second 5 items measured collaboration and harmony. They are items 9, 36, 37, 49,
and 50.
School Cultur
　The last 4 items are related to School culture. They are items 6, 32, 44, and 45.
　Note that HES scores (are) higher than the Saga District Standard Deviation and the
National DI.
　The DI average four factors which were found by Principle Component Analysis/
Varimax Rotation, discussed above, are higher scores than the other two comparative
categorized DI scores.

37
Table 2-3　The correlation coefficient of factors

Validity(LA) Cram Independency Collaboration Community School Language

Validity
1 .155 .515(**) .544(**) .360(**) .399(**) .310(**)
(Language Arts)
Cram School .155 1 .243(*) .314(**) .225(*) .411(**) .300(**)
Independence/
.515(**) .243(*) 1 .712(**) .523(**) .503(**) .262(*)
Individuality
Collaboration/
.544(**) .314(**) .712(**) 1 .523(**) .535(**) .470(**)
Harmony
Community/
.360(**) .225(*) .523(**) .523(**) 1 .538(**) .315(**)
Participation
School Culture .399(**) .411(**) .503(**) .535(**) .538(**) 1 .385(**)
Language Arts
.310(**) .300(**) .262(*) .470(**) .315(**) .385(**) 1
Score
** significant at the .01 level * significant at the .05 level (N=91) Pearson CC

The average score of Language Arts of HES 6th grade students is 80.7. Saga
school district＇s average is 81.1. The national average is 81.7. HES is very close
to the national average for Language Arts.
Table 2-3 shows that there was a high correlation coefficient between
Independence/ Individuality and Collaboration/Harmony. The correlation
number between Language Arts Score and Collaboration/harmony is 0.470 and
between Language Arts Score and Independence/Individuality is 0.262. This
means that the goal of lesson study of HES didn’t reach the school goal, however
the Validity (Language Arts), which shows students thought that,“the contents
and skills I learned from Language Arts are useful for my future,”shows a
very high score. (The DI score is 0.680 of HES, 0.672 of Saga SD, and 0.666 of
National DI.)
This is one of the successful results of the HES lesson study.
The dissemination graph shows comparisons to Saga school district in 3
correlation factors. HES had higher results in Independence/Individuality and
Collaboration/Harmony in Language Arts.
　In figure 2-3, the correlation between“Language Arts”,“Independence/
Individuality”and“Collaboration/Harmony”, shows HES improvement. The
transverse axis of each figure shows the average score of“Language Arts”of
Saga School District. It is set as 0.00.
Also, the red vertical axis shows that the 3rd level from the 4 level
38
 Chapter 2

questionnaires is set as 3.00. (Strongly Disagree=1.00, Disagree=2.00,

Agree=3.00, Strongly Agree=4.00) At same time, each“○”shows one student
who participated in the survey＇s examination. Figure 2-3 shows the distribution
of the 3 dimensions. It is necessary to compare with the School District to prove
the effective distribution of the 3 dimensions at HES.
Figure 2-4 shows the comparison between HES and the Saga School District.
Figure 2-4 is a special graph to compare the 2 dimensions in order from
“Language Arts”,“Independence/Individuality”and“Collaboration/Harmony”.
Figure 2-4) the comparison of 3 dimensions between HES and Saga School
District
The distributive results of Figure 2-3 and Figure 2-4 show the concepts of
“Independence/Individuality”and“Collaboration/Harmony”from HES’school
goal are more effective than the average of SSD. This result shows that the
vision of lesson study at HES improved school teachers’professional culture
and student achievements.
But, it is important to mention that the average scores of“Language Arts
and Mathematics”are below the average of the Saga School District, even
though the 2 concept scores which are“Independence/Individuality”and
“Collaboration/Harmony”are above average.
On“The Check Level”of the PDCA cycle of lesson study which means
“Curriculum Management”of HES, they deeply discussed how to improve the
two subject＇s scores and the two concepts which are goals of their lesson study.
This research discusses the dialogs that took place in March of 2008 and
again in March of 2009 at the meetings about the lesson study by comparing the
dialog records using“Text Mining”. This“follow up research”is used to prove
the effectiveness of the Lessen Study over two years.

39
40
 Chapter 2

D isse m in a tio n fo r 3 fa cto rs (H E S )

Score
independence

.00
.11
.39
.50
.56
.61
.67
.72
collaboration

.78
.83
.89
.94
1.00
language

N=911
independency collaboration language

D isse m in a tio n fo r 3 fa cto rs (S ch o o l D istrict)

Score
Independence

.06
.11
.17
.22
.28
.33
.39
.44
collaboration

.50
.56
.61
.67
.72
.78
.83
Language

.89
.94
1.00

N=1480
Independency collaboration Language

Figure 2-4　The comparison of 3 dimensions between HES and Saga school district

41
 LA(A) LA(B) Math(A) Math(B)
HES 0.807 0.612 0.762 0.601
SSD 0.826 0.610 0.815 0.626
Figure 2-5　The comparison of the average scores for“language arts and mathematics”
(2007)

5. Summary of Research Methods -Part 2-

① Purpose:
As shown in Figure 2-5, the scores of“Language Arts and Mathematics”
of HES were slightly lower than the average of Saga School district,
even though HES’school goals,“Independence/Individuality”and
“Collaboration/Harmony”, had better distributions than SSD. The mission
of HES over the two-year period has been to create a balance between
subject needs and achievement.
The purpose of this research is to analyze their transformative
consciousness to achieve their own goals through a comparison of 2008
and 2009.
② Date:
First year: 2008/March, Second year: 2009/March
③ Methods:
This research analyzes the teacher＇s reflection through“text mining”
used to analyze written dialogs. Since the records are from 2008 and 2009,
it discusses the comparison over 2 years. The analysis software is“word-
42
 Chapter 2

miner1.0”and it analyzed a free style questionnaire distributed to all of

the HES teachers.
④ Questionnaire items:
The free style questionnaire is fundamentally based on
teacher＇s consciences after performing lesson study. The letters“A,B,C,D”
distributed on the coordinates stand for“Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
and Strongly Disagree”respectively, regarding school improvement,
achievement, and lesson study success.

6. Results -Part 2-
Figure 2-6 (2008) shows high correlations between“Cluster 4”and“A”
which means“Strongly Agree”of effective lesson study.“Cluster 4”contains
keywords that are“study, teachers, much”, it is possible to interpret the data
as meaning that some leaders among the school teachers took the initiative and
that younger less experienced teachers were following along to learn something
new from them.
On the other hand, clusters 1, 2, and 3 show strong correlations with“A&B”
containing the important keywords“children, class, important, reflection,
development, opportunity”, that are related to curriculum development, even
though there are some keywords about“study, teachers, much”which mean
young teachers’following along.
As a result, teachers’work ethics and motivation in 2009 became higher
than in 2008, because they collaborated with each other as lesson study
colleagues.

43
 Figure 2-6　The distribution of the components cluster of
Lesson Study  (2008)

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 5 Cluster 6 Cluster 7

1 Second
semester Subject STAGE2 Much All subjects Research Before
2 Respect Children Observation Myself Substitute Time Only one
3 Data Teaching Teachers Study by Hypothesis
yourself
4 Level Very Necessity Collaboration
5 Safety Study Blanch Repeating
6 Opinion Honjyo Method
Plan
7 Subjects Independence/
Individuality
8 Now Hands
Lesson study
9 Practice for all
teachers
10 Lesson
Study Important
11 Unit Beginning
12 Middle Dialog
Lesson study
13 Effort for subject
teachers
14 Direction Empowerment

44
 Chapter 2

Figure 2-7　The distribution of the components cluster of

lesson study (2009)

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 5 Cluster 6 Cluster 7

1 Respect Subjects A little Opinion Common
more Understanding Necessity More then

2 Much Teacher Advice Research All Teachers Living

curriculum
3 Research
Leader Opinions Opportunity Myself Whole
school Part
4 Teaching Observation Perspective Upper Year Assumption
5 Lesson
Study Reference Children Next years Honjyo Discussion
6 Teachers Materials View
7 Very Maybe Realization
important
8 Dialog Important Teacher
9 Study Variety Development
10 Point
Lesson study
11 for subject
teachers
12 Reflection

45
 7. Conclusions
Lesson study is becoming a well-known strategy around the world. However,
only surveying teachers’subjective impressions or to discuss theoretical teacher
development taking place with the use of lesson study is not enough.
The lesson study at HES was somewhat effective in achieving a greater
problem solving ability and meeting academic standards. School culture and
community participation were important factors.
With regards to student achievement, the lesson study of HES had a school
educational goal of“raising student abilities to improve their futures,”meaning
“the ability to solve their own problems to build a better society.”
This research was effective in these areas: Language Arts, Independence/
Individuality, and Collaboration/Harmony. In future inquiries, it would increase
reliability to investigate the outcomes in all subject areas, rather than just
Language Arts. This research is focused on curriculum and instruction. Often,
lesson study is used as a professional development strategy for teachers.
However, in this lesson study, student improvement was also focused on.
This research additionally proved the teachers＇ professional engagement
through lesson study at HES. This is important because the concept of lesson
study has become well known throughout the world.

8. Educational importance of the study

It is important here to mention one important factor involved in education
in Japan. Outside of the public school curriculum, many students study at cram
schools. One of the questionnaire items asked students if they were attending
cram school and found the following results. HES students had a lower DI score
for the cram school item as seen below.
It is necessary to analyze the correlation coefficient to examine the effects
of cram schools in relation to the other four factors, including Language Arts
scores. The correlation between cram schools and Language Arts was 0.300. The
correlation between cram schools and Independence/Individuality was 0.243.
The correlation between cram schools and Collaboration/Harmony was 0.314.
The significance was at the 0.01 level.

46
 Chapter 2

Questionnaire entries HES/DI SD/DI NA/DI

No24 I am studying at cram school after school, or 0.546 0.562 0.564
weekend.

Cram school culture is still strong in Japan, this means that there is slight
validity between cram schools and other factors.
In conclusion, the case study of HES shown by this research was somewhat
successful in reaching the school educational goals to improve“students’
problem solving abilities”through lesson study. Lesson study in Japan is
summarized as effective for Japanese teachers to develop their own teaching
skills, and to teach students intellectuality and humanity.

References
Lewis, C. 2002. Lesson study: A handbook of teacher-led instructional improvement.
Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools
Stigler, J., and Hiebert, J. 1997. Understanding and Improving Mathematics Instruction:
An Overview of the TIMSS Video Study. In: Phi Delta Kappan79 (1), 14-21.
Stigler, J., and Hiebert,, 1999. The Teaching Gap, Best Ideas from the World＇s Teachers for
Improving Education in the Classroom, NY, THE FREE PRESS.
Fernandez, C., and Yoshida, M., 2004, LESSON STUDY, A Japanese Approach to
Improving Mathematics Teaching Learning, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Inc.
Stevenson, W. H and Stigler, J., 1992, THE LEARNING GAP Why Our Schools Are Failing
and What We Can Learn from Japanese and Chinese Education, NY, SIMON &
SCHUTER PAPERBACKS.
Akita, K., and Lewis, C., 2008, Learn from Lessons, Teacher Inquiry and Lesson Study,
(Jyugyo no Kenkyu, Kyosi no Gakusyu.) Tokyo, Akasisyoten.
Honjyo Elementary School, 2008, The annual research book, the creation of“Honjyo Plan”
to open the student＇s future, Saga, Japan.
(Tetsuo Kuramoto)

47
Chapter 3
A study on“Project Management” a Case Study on
School Integration by Board of Education

Projects are relevant today to all fields and sectors nowadays, and the application of
Project Management in the education field is getting more notice. The case study in
this research is a project of school integration carried out by the Board of Education
of Tosu city. At the level of the Board of Education,“Project Management”is perhaps
an effective managerial approach. The main research purpose is how to apply the
concept of“Project Management”into the concepts of the educational field through
empirical research examining the Tosu schools’integration. The aim of this study
is to find out how educational administrators can operate curriculum development
between schools from the point of view of Project management theory, using both
qualitative research methods and quantitative research methods.

1.
Up to now, curriculum development was pointed out as playing one of the
most important roles in achieving educational goals for every teacher and/or
school. This term is studied worldwide by many educators and researchers,
but mainly focuses on the role of teachers as curriculum is considered to
be the framework in which students gain information through different
methodologies, assessments, and instructions. A curriculum can be seen as
“a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils
will attain, so far as possible, certain educational and other schooling ends
or objectives”(Grundy, 1987). This is basically true, but the question of how
to define the needs, the ends (objective) to meet the requirement from pupils
and parents remains unanswered. Besides, the logic of this definition is for
the curriculum to be designed outside of the classroom or school, which is not
the case for school management. For example in school integration, because
educational administration plays a more important role in varying degrees for
curriculum development and serving as a liaison between school teachers and
administration, the concept of“curriculum management”must be reconsidered.
The aim of this study is to find out how educational administrators can
49
manage curriculum development between schools from the point of view of
project management theory using both qualitative and quantitative research
methods. These aims will be achieved following these following research
questions:

① What category of Project Management theory in the education field,

especially considering curriculum management as a project to operate on?
② How can the Board of Education manage the school integration project,
from the point of view of project management theory?
③ How educational administrators can influence the effectiveness of
curriculum management as projects- programs?
Project Management is a familiar term which has been defined within
the economic research field as an application of knowledge, skills, tools, and
techniques to project activities for the purpose of meeting project requirements
(from the Project Management Institute).The demands of completing projects
are often referred to as the triple constraint of project management. Resources
(time, cost, or human) are always two sides of the triangle. Depending on the
case, the third side is either scope, performance, quality or sometimes output.
Schools and universities are under considerable pressure to manage
projects to successful completion- both on time and within budget. Considering
integrated curriculum development as a project means educational
administrators have to approach planning and guide project processes from
start to finish. The board of education in both areas has been said to have strong
determination in successful school integrations projects, so it is important to
elaborate on their management style.
The case study in this research is a school integration in Tosu city, located
in the eastern part of Saga Prefecture, Japan. Tosu has been one of the major
transportation hubs of Kyushu with a large population. According to the Tosu
city Board of Education, about 10% of the top 6th grade students choose private
junior high schools or schools outside of the district. In order to attract more
students to the public junior high school, a project of school integration between
8 elementary schools and 4 junior high schools has been being carried out since
2010 with much effort from the Board of Education. This project is also expected
50
 Chapter 3

to foster the quality of 9 year integrated curriculum and lead to a more effective
management of budget and facilities as well. School integration here can be
described as the collaboration between Elementary (below as E) and Junior high
schools (below as J) in order to reduce the Chuichi Gap1 and improve teachers’
attitude and behavior2.
There is also the possibility of observing one school in each area in order
to grasp more concrete information about the effectiveness of the curriculum
management as a type of project management and then to give out suggestions
to other schools while continuing to carry out this kind of project.

2. Research method
2.1 Research object
The purpose of this research is to describe the concept of Project Management
in education research through empirical research of a school integration
project. It is intended for 12 elementary and junior high schools in the Tosu
district, which includes 8 elementary and 4 junior high schools which have been
taking part in the school integration project since 2010. In order to assess the
effectiveness of this project, an attitude survey was distributed to teachers and
parents. Since the purpose of an effective 9 year integrated curriculum is to
serve them, a survey related to students’attitude survey was also used.
Furthermore, among the 3 surveys for teachers, parents and students, in this
research I want to focus on the survey＇s results and analysis for teachers first;
primarily for the reasons below:
① A growing body of research shows that student achievement is more
heavily influenced by the teacher＇s quality than by students’race, class,
prior academic record, or the school a student attends (Center for Parent/
Youth Understanding, 2007)
② According to the interview with BOE Chef of School Division who
is considered to take charge in schools integration project, teacher
improvement is said to be the most important factor that can bring
community and parents trust, as well as student growth3.
As stated by Soy (1997), the case study method brings the advantages of
the applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public
51
Table 3-1　Size of survey sample

Teachers Parents Students

2011 291 3051 3315
2012 328 3986 3723

accessibility through written reports. In Japanese education, there are 3 types

of school integrations: integrated schools, cooperated schools and combined
schools. The case of an elementary school and junior high school using the same
facility is still a minority (up to 2012: 279 cases, points 1,3% elementary school
and 2,8% junior high school4) while cooperated schools or combined schools make
up the majority. According to these upper categories, the school integration style
in Tosu city is mostly cases 2 and 3 which can bring some applicability to real-
life situations if researched carefully.

2.2 Quantitative research

Quantitative data in this study will be used to assess the effectiveness of
school integration by collecting opinions of teachers, students and parents.
There are 3 parts included in the survey for teachers:
① Questions about in service- training and educational practice (21
questions),
② Questions about school culture (18 questions)
③ Questions focus on school integration between elementary and junior high
school (14 questions)
The purpose of this survey is to investigate the effectiveness of school
integration and how it is performed each year, especially through investigating
what teachers and parents think about the project.
Using an average value of each part as a database, researchers analyzed
the correlation among these 3 factors in order to find out what teachers in each
area think about each factor and especially focus on the relationship between
school integration and the other two. The analysis method used here consists
of using IBM SPSS Amos software to reflect the relationship among school
integration while observed and latent can be used to predict any other numeric
variables. The survey＇s analysis is also designed to have a pre-test and post-
52
 Chapter 3

test comparison which uses 2011 as the beginning point of the project and 2012
as one year after intervention. This series of design comparisons can not only
help describe changes over time and establish a baseline measure of project
effectiveness, but it can also keep track of current trends and forecast future
short-term trends5.

2.3 Qualitative research

Qualitative data will emerge from observed instances of interactions
with education administrators from the Board of Education and through
questionnaires, recorded interviews, observational notes, and dialogue journals.
Researchers have had a chance to interview the Superintendent of Board of
Education,Chairman of Board of Education about how they carry out the project.
Excerpts will be transcribed, categorized and coded to determine importance.
The purpose of qualitative research is to conduct how each educational
administrator can influence the effectiveness of the project as a whole.
A special qualitative method of“Meta Cognition”lesson study is also taking
place by the Tosu city board of education. Speaking of curriculum management
and lesson study, Action Research is a method which brings validity to the
educational research approach6. In Action Research,“reflection”is considered

Figure 3-1　Empirical research’s procedure

53
the most important keyword and its psychological perspective is called“meta-
cognition”( Torbert, 2004).
J. H. Flavell first used“Meta- cognition”to refer to one＇s knowledge
concerning one＇s own cognitive processes or anything related to them, e.g., the
learning-relevant properties of information or data7. According to R Phelps, the
Impact of the Metacognitive approach to learning and instruction is to translate
one＇s own experiences and reflections into espoused values for teaching one＇s
own students8.
In this research, data collected from in-service training is analyzed based on
the logic of the connection of“subjectivity”and“subjectivity”can transform into
an“inter-subjective”meta-cognitive approach. Figure 3.2.1 shows the structure
of the meta-cognition lesson study operated in this school integration project.

2.4 Empirical research procedure

Up to now, the research program and its progress overall over the two-year
time span of this study can be summarized as follows. According to the request
from the BOE of Tosu city in April 2011, I have a chance to join an expert team
and give advice and instruction to teachers about the school integration project
from the very first workshop. After a period of conducting, surveys were sent to
every school in the district, BOE has the responsiblity of collecting data from
teachers, parents and students from June to July 2011. In September, 2011,
analyzed data was presented to teachers in the second workshop (in service
training) under the metacognitive lesson study which is mentioned in 2.3
above. During that time, a special workshop was also operated in the Kizato
schools as experiment schools in this project. The process continued on with
the same schedule in 2012 in order to make comparisons about efficiency and
effectiveness. Data analysis is another complicated and important issue to be
considered, given that both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used
in this research.

54
 Chapter 3

3. Analysis results
3.1 Quantitative analysis results
3.1.1 Quantitative analysis results
As mentioned above, the surveys were taken from 2011 to 2012 from all
teachers, parents and students involved in this project.
Questionnaire surveys have advantages in gathering information and
examining the influence of various factors over dependent variables (Mitchell&
Jolley, 2004). For example, these are questions for part 3, which is emphasized
as the most important goal of this investigation by explaining how school
integration can affect students and school culture through its concrete activities:
The number ① , ② , ③ , ④ , ⑤ here stands for the statistic scale: ① Strongly

Table 3-2　Survey about school integration for teachers

1 Have discussion between J and E about the student＇s model. ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

Have discussion between J and E about particular strategies
2 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
in order to create proper basic lessons.
Have discussion between J and E about systematical activities
3 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
like integrated learning.
Have discussion between J and E about student guidance in
4 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
school life.
Have discussion between J and E about career education and
5 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
counseling.
Have discussion between J and E about special needs, educa-
6 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
tion and educational counseling.
7 Put emphasis on the exchange between J and E students. ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
8 Cooperation among E in J district. ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
Have team teachings by E and J teachers at least one time per
9 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
term.
School integration tightly cooperates with families and com-
10 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
munities.
Communities and Families are fully informed about the coop-
11 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
eration between J and E.
Thanks to the school integration, student＇s learning motiva-
12 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
tion, interest and attitude can be improved.
Thanks to the school integration, student＇s learning motiva-
13 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
tion, interest and attitude can be improved.
Thanks to the improvement of school integration, student
14 ① ② ③ ④ ⑤
achievement can be improved.

55
disagree ② Disagree ③ No Opinion ④ Agree ⑤ Strongly Agree9. Figure 3.1.1a
are the results of the survey for part 3, asking about the attitude of teachers
in regards to school integration. It＇s clearly to see that scales in 2011 were
lower than in 2012, especially questions number 1 to 8, which are mainly
about activities related to school integrations. It can be said that in 2011 the
effectiveness of school integration was highly acknowledged but the actual
practical educational activities weren’t operated widely and properly yet. In
2012, there are a significant change from the previous year, because possibly
teachers had actually done more activities like having integrated lessons, having
more discussions about career education/ student guidance through 9 years with

Figure 3-2a　Comparison between 2011 and 2012

Figure 3-2b　Comparison through the year between J and E

56
 Chapter 3

more cooperation among elementary and junior high schools teachers.

The next figure 3.1.1b is another example of comparisons of the responses
of teachers in elementary schools and junior high schools concerning school
integration. One thing that is very important to the integrated curriculum is
the collaboration of teachers in elementary and junior high school. The fact is,
on account of lacking information about elementary schools (from junior high
school teachers) or junior high schools (from elementary teachers), teachers may
misjudge and misestimate each other＇s roles, tend to not fully understand what
students should experience over the 9 years deeply, and make the gap in the
common understanding between teachers bigger10 (Oshima, 2010).
It can be seen from this figure that there is a significant gap between the
response from elementary school teachers and junior high school teachers,
which means that the common understanding between teachers hasn’t become
tightly bounded yet. But as the year approaches 2012, the gap becomes smaller
and from questions 9 to 14 there is almost no gap at all. This can be pointed to
as an improvement in many discussions among teachers. Actually, these results
also reflect high responses from questions 1 to 9 which are about concrete
educational activities. This can also point out that having the same vision about
students can improve discussions about the actual, practical process of teaching.
According to the survey about school integration that the Japanese Ministry
of Education carried out in 2010 among 1763 Districts Board of Education11,
75% responded that it＇s difficult to maintain schedules for meetings between J
and E and develop teaching plans that related to school integration. In the case
of the Tosu district, 328 teachers answered positively to having more discussion
between J and E to a more common understanding about students and
teaching methods. This is indeed a good sign of a positively developing project,
particularly in developing a shared vision in communication for members in the
project.
Up to this point, it can be said that teachers in elementary and junior high
schools are reaching for a common understanding about the effectiveness of
school integration, especially about practical teaching.

57
3.1.2 Factors analysis
There are in total over 50 questions in these surveys for teachers and
parents. Even though it is easy to compare multiple continuous data sets, the
analysis method of line charts may be difficult to summarize the results, because
there are simply too many variables. Factor analysis, which is technically called
principal components analysis, is a statistical technique that essentially reduces a
set of variables to a smaller number of underlying factors and detects structures
in the relationships between variables12.
A common method is varimax rotation, where each factor will tend to have
either large or small loadings on any particular variable. This means that
this method will produce several very distinct factors. Numerical data were
analyzed with SPSS 20.0 at a significance result taken from KMO and Bartlett＇s
test13 (refer to SPSS User＇s Guide). Alpha reliability analysis was conducted to
examine the internal consistency reliability, i.e. Cronbach＇s alpha or α, and to
examine the correlation between items, and the correlation between items and
scale (Pett et al., 2003).
It was suggested that a combination of rules should be used to make the
most reasonable decisions about the extraction of factors (Kim & Mueller, 1994;
Thompson, 2004). According to Kaiser criterion (eigenvalue should be greater
than 1.0) and Cattell Scree-plot criterion (factor extraction should be stopped
at the point where there appears a leveling of the plot) (Blaike, 2003; Kim &
Mueller, 1994; Sapp, 2002), three factors could be extracted.

Table 3-3a　KMO and Bartlett’s Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure
.866
of Sampling Adequacy.

Approx.
1621.950
Chi-Square
Bartlett＇s Test
of Sphericity
df 91
Sig. .000

Figure　3-3

58
 Chapter 3

In the end, a total of 14 items were selected to constitute the factors about
school integration from the point of view of teachers. Three factors were
extracted which explained 43.79%, 14.52%, 8.28% of variance respectively.
Overall 66.6% of variance could be explained. The Cronbach＇s α14 for Factor 1,
Factor 2, Factor 3 and the overall was 0.847, 0.844, 0.856, 0.895 respectively.

Table 3-3b　Factors analysis’result

Corrected
Factors and the items (α,% variance) Factor
item-total
(N= 328) loading
correlation
Factor 1: Shared vision (0.84, 43.79%)
1 Have discussions between J and E about the Student＇s model. 0.794 .663
2 Have discussions between J and E about particular strategies
0.882 .708
creating proper basic lessons.
4 Have discussions between J and E about student guidance in
0.866 .690
school life.
5 Have discussions between J and E about special needs
0.84 .675
education and educational counseling.
7 Put emphasis on the exchange between J and E students. 0.647 .629
8 Cooperation among E in J district. 0.563 .645
Factor 2: Practices of integration (0.84, 14.52%)
3 Have discussions between J and E about systematical
0.807 .608
activities like integrated learning.
6 Have discussions between J and E about career education and
0.7 .543
counseling.
9 Have team teachings by E and J teachers at least one time
0.805 .553
per term.
10 School integration tightly cooperates with the families and
0.843 .733
communities.
11 Communities and families are fully informed about the
0.815 .660
cooperation between J and E.
Factor 3: Integration effectiveness (0.85, 8.28%)
12 Thanks to school integration, students’learning motivation,
0.828 .305
interest and attitude can be improved.
13 Thanks to school integration, the problem of the Chuuichi
0.905 .483
Gap is solved.
14 Thanks to the improvement of school integration, student
0.861 .394
achievement can be improved.
The overall α is 0.895 and totally 66.6% variance was explained.
59
 The first factor includes questions number 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8. It is obviously that
teachers are putting effort into overcoming the wall between J and E, in order
to have a common understanding, or the same point of view about students
or schools. For that reason, researchers named this factor“shared vision”.
The next factor includes questions number 3, 6, 9, 10, 11 which can relate to
practical educational activities within the project of school integration. For that
reason, Factor 2 is named“practices of integration”. The last factor is called
“integration effectiveness”in related questions number 12, 13, 14. According
to another survey taken by Ministry of Education, 95% teachers believe that
schools integration between J and E is for the sake of student achievement15.
In summary, there are 3 factors underlying the 14 items in these surveys
about school integration, with satisfying content validity, internal consistency
reliability and interpretable factorial structure.
In this study, the survey for teachers was also taken with more content of
“in-service training and practical education”
,“school culture”
. So it＇s important
to point out what the relationship is between school integration with other
elements, especially when researchers have found out just 3 of the factors
underlying the attitude about school integration from the points of view of
teacher-practitioners.

3.1.3 Path analysis

The main aim of this section is to analyze the relationship among 5 elements:
“In-service training and practical education”,“school culture”
,“shared vision”,
“practice of integration”and“integration effectiveness”in order to provide
a graphical way to represent the assumed theory, and empirically estimate
the relationships which one variable has the assumed causal effect on other
variables.
With SPSS AMOS 19.0, researchers would like to examine both of these 2
hypotheses:
① The three factors of shared vision, practices of integration and integration
and the effectiveness that was extracted from the survey have a close
relationship with the concept of school integration. In another way,
research about these factors means investigating about the school
60
 Chapter 3

integration projects themselves.

② The causal effect of school integration includes 3 factors: shared vision,
practices of integration and integration effectiveness to in-service
training, educational practice and school culture. Provided that school
integration actually causes or affects positively educational practices and
school culture, the project of school integration will have reached its goal.

Test 1:
The sample for 2011 is 291 and 2012 is 328. Independent variable here will
be“Schools Integration”, dependent variables are 3 factors that were extracted
from Factor Analysis.It is important to refine the measurement scales such as
its reliability and validity for use in a particular circumstance. The Cronbach＇s
α coefficient (suggested for Likert-scale (Gliem & Gliem, 2003)) was employed
to validate reliability. None of the variables were found to score low and they
were highly correlated with each other. The Cronbach＇s α coefficients of the 3
factors through 2011, 2012 were 0.325 and 0.754 respectively, which is good, as
it achieved a reasonable score of reliability (George & Mallery, 2003).
With the assistance of AMOS 19.0, the path diagram was developed as below:

Table 3-4a　Test 1 analysis’result

2011 2012

e1 e2 e3 e1 e2 e3

.76 .66 .65 .93 .78 .69

shared Practices of Integration Shared Practices of Integration
Visions Integration Effectiveness Visions Integration Effectiveness

.87 .81 .81 .97 .88 .83

Schools Integration Schools Integration

Chi-square=50.600,Df=3 Chi-square=152.369,Df=3
CMIN/Df=16.87,NFI=0.76 CMIN/Df=50.79,NFI=0.48
CFI=0.78,RMSEA=0.22 CFI=0.49,RMSEA=0.39

61
 According to the figure above, it can be stated that the relationship between
school integration and each factor is relatively strong. For example, in 2012,
the relationship between the independent variable and the variable“shared
visions”is 0.97, an increase of 0.1 over 2011 (0.87). This can be understood to
be caused by the fact that sharing the same visions about schools or students
is very important to the success of school integration. Respectively, practices of
integration and integration effectiveness also have stronger relationships with
school integration variables throughout the year.
In summary, the assumed theory of school integration in Tosu city＇s case
study fit measures.

Test 2:
Test 2 has the same sample as test 1, with 5 dependent variables: shared
vision, practices of integration and integration effectiveness, in-service training,
educational practice and school culture. The purpose of this test is to estimate
the causal effect of the 3 factors related to school integration on in-service
training, educational practice and school culture. The Cronbach＇s α coefficients
for the 3 factors through 2011 and 2012 were 0.528 and 0.676, respectively,
which is good as it achieved a reasonable score of reliability (George & Mallery,

Table 3-4b　Test 2 Analysis’result

2011 2012

.00 e4 .00 e4
Shared .29 Shared .34
e1 .30 e1 .30
Visions In-service training Visions In-service training
.33 Educational .37 Educational
.00 .00
Practice Practice
Practices of .31 Practices of .30
e2 e2
Integration .30 .31 Integration .34 .34

.00 .34 School culture .00 .37 School culture

Integration .31 Integration .34
e3 e3
Effectiveness Effectiveness

e5 e5
Chi-square=1340.7,Df=10 Chi-square=1973.56,Df=10
CMIN/Df=134.07,NFI=-4.9 CMIN/Df=197.35,NFI=-4.68
CFI=0,RMSEA=0.638 CFI=0,RMSEA=0.775

62
 Chapter 3

2003).
With the assistance of the AMOS 19.0 program, the path diagram was
developed as below:
From the above figure, it is important to note that the shared visions,
practices of integration and integration effectiveness variables actually cause
the in-service training and school culture variables. According to Nakatome &
Kuramoto (2001), the most important factor about the functions is collaboration
that builds up positive relationships between organizations and teachers,
and among teachers, which would have direct and indirect impacts on school
improvement. Based on the quantitative results above, it can be translated that
teachers in J and E schools in Tosu have put a lot of effort in working together in
many different activities of this project, in order to contribute to a better, larger
professional development activity. This means that the collaboration between
J and E has effective impact on school improvement where not only student
academic achievement is necessary, but teachers’improvement as well are
needed. In other words,,“student achievement is the product of formal study by
educators”(Joyce andShowers, 2002).

3.1.4 Conclusion
Through the 3 methods of quantitative data analysis method, I want to state
some conclusions below:
- The project of school integration has progressed through the year with more
and more collaboration of teachers through acknowledging the importance of

Shared
Visions In-service training
Educational Practice
Practices of
Integration

School culture
Integration
Effectiveness

Schools Integration

Figure 3-4　Conclusion of quantitative data analysis’result

63
school integration to the approach of more effective practical activities.
- From the point of view of teachers, school integration has an influence on
professional development activities (in-service training) and each school culture,
specifically, it encourages having a common understanding about students
(shared vision) and a practical integration; integration effectiveness.

Up to now, the general picture about the project of school integration,

particularly, what teachers in J and E schools think about this project, was
provided by quantitative data analysis results. It＇s necessary to capture more
depth and provide insights as to the“why”and“how”of these attitudes and
behaviors. Qualitative data analysis will make quantitative data easier to
understand, provide more details and flesh out more nuances, and explain what
research objects mean to the people involved16.

3.2 Qualitative analysis results

3.2.1 In-service training
As mentioned above, a special qualitative method of“meta cognitive”lesson
study was also undertaken by the Tosu city board of education. The lesson

1st time：September 5th 2011 3rd person

2nd time：October 2th 2011 Board
Expert of
L=Leader（school principal） team Education
ML=Middle leadeｒ（chef of
research，curriculum
Step 3
rve

coordinator etc） e
se

erv Data taken from

bs
ob

o paper surveys in
1st person Tosu（2011-2012）
St

＝Quantitative data
L
ep

L ML analysis results
1

ML
Kizato schools Tosu schools Cognitive analysis Data of 2nd person
①parents' attitude
L ML
L Step 2
②teachers' attitude
③student status

Tashiro schools West Tosu schools Kuramoto，2012

Figure 3-5　Meta cognition lesson study for all schools

64

Table 3-5　Teacher’s survey
Educational practice and
in service training
In comparison with last
year, this year the attitude
of Manabiai (Co-learning)
Tosu J District
among teachers decreased.
⑳：ICT is lower in J
because there is more
investment in E. For
example, electric boards or
televisions－＞ because of
the difference in applying
ICT
The attitude of J teachers
is improving because of
the effective discussions
among 3 principals during
the last school year.
Particularly, they talked a
West Tosu District
lot about school cleaning or
greeting activities.
Experience learning in J
for E students was done in
August.
On August 23rd, every
teacher must take part in
every lesson study that
happens between J and E
in order to at least know
each other. . ⑮⑯ become
the same
J is falling but E is
Tashiro District
improving-> can’t figure
out the reason
⑮ Is J falling because J
teachers are busier?
Cooperation among E is
very important
E is improving but J is
still the same-> because
Kizato District
of the TT method. Ideas
of teachers: in service
training in J and E both
have the same topic in
order to increase common
understanding
Chapter 3
School culture Schools integration
Most schools have
improved, especially Tosu
E. Is different for each
⑩⑪ Is it possible to subject’s lesson study
say that school culture ⑨ there’s been no actual
is better because of the practice yet but everybody
school integration?（School acknowledges the plan
integration is only one ⑧ Teachers can
of many activities）＝ acknowledge their
＞ It is necessary to show weaknesses in cooperation
the relationship between among E schools
school culture with school
integration
Lesson study is mostly
done in E, that explains
the reason why there’s
such a gap between E and
New principal has come in J.
with the motto of “ If you ⑨ Once per term is difficult
think you can do it, you to accomplish, which
can do it” should cause consideration
Everybody must join the in to operate once per school
service training year
⑧ Needs more effort into The model lessonis still not
the model class complete.
Asahi E is still not
connected strongly with
the community but Fumoto
E is pretty good.
Both J and E are
J is showing improvement improving-> I look forward
⑧⑨ J is better because to giving a report next year
of an improved common ③⑤ E students can
understanding between J experience club activities
and E in J
⑫ J teachers organized ⑨ Team teaching is
meetings to check the difficult
progress gradually ⑪ Low-> Wakaba E is in
charge
J is better because of new
principal
J school culture becomes ②④ because of the way
better because of its the discussion is taken
interaction with E school differently from last year
culture can be followed up
on, especially ⑥
65
study here can be considered to be a workshop/ in-service training for teachers
from schools where the school integration project is operating. Members of
this workshop can be divided into 3 groups. The 1st person in the figure below
includes: school principals (or vice principals) (L), middle leader (Chef of
research, curriculum coordinator etc) (ML), and teachers who are in charge
of operating the project17. The 2nd person here is replaced by the quantitative
data analysis results, which are processed by a team expert and are presented
at the workshop. The reason why I named this group“2nd person”is that the
quantitative results are all about teachers, parents and students who are
related directly to the project. The 3rd group includes board of education officers
(BOE superintendent, BOE chief of school division, etc) and a team of experts
(Prof. Kuramoto and researchers).
From 2011 to 2012, this kind of lesson study was undertaken 2 times, once
in September 2011, and and once in October 2012 in the Tosu BOE office (See
Figure 2.4). For this research, I want to focus on the latest workshop only,
because in the second workshop, data analysis results were presented with more
comparisons to the previous year. It is more suitable to observe the reflections of
project members after a period of actually performing the related task.
The table 3.2.1 is the record of researcher＇s observations during the
workshop. There are 4 columns that contented with 3 parts of the discussion:
about In-service training, educational practices, school culture, school
integration, respectively to the contents of the survey. In Tosu city, schools are
divided into 4 groups where each group has one J and several E. 4 rows here
respectively show 4 groups of schools whereas teachers in the workshop were
also set to sit into groups in order to discuss more easily.
According to the discussion, there are some conclusions which are stated
below:
① Communication like discussion or meetings is the decisive factor to the
successful quality of a school integration project. Teachers think that the
more common topics they have in a meeting, the more of a shared vision
they can achieve. Learning communities involve a high level of dialogue,
conversation, discussion and collaboration. Everyone learns, including
the teacher or group leader (Wilson & Cole,1997; Bereiter & Scardamalia,
66
 Chapter 3

1993).
② Understanding the target and plan can promote consciousness about
school integration, especially communication among schools, communities,
and parents.
③ Leadership plays a very significantly important role. Superintendents
(and other district administrators), principals, and teacher leaders have a
tremendous influence on district and school culture, as well as the overall
quality of professional learning in schools.
In summary, from the point of view of the team of experts, the teachers at
the workshop acknowledge well the importance of having shared visions about
school integration and also cite the importance of their role in leading their
school＇s cooperation actively with other schools for their school＇s improvement.
As mention above (see 2.3), the originality of this workshop is the way
“subjectivity”and“subjectivity”can connect to the“inter-subjective meta-
cognitive approach”. So it＇s necessary to investigate all the ideas of the 3rd
person, who has the important role of observation of the workshop and the
project to provide more objective results.

Table 3-6　Semi-structured Interview Questions

What do you think about the role of communication management in the success of the
project?
In the process of planning the project, did you have a communication plan featuring
things like meetings, instruction, workshops through telephone, mail etc, in order to
build relationship with and among members?
When you manage communication are there any achievements? are there any conflicts?
What do you think about the role of the project leader in communication management?
Do you have any strategies while performing it?
Speaking of the project＇s quality, it usually refers things (in Japanese Koto/ Mono18),
what is your opinion about the quality of education? In the project of schools integration,
what is quality?
Referring to quality, what factors or aspects need to be focused on? How did you plan
quality management in the controlling or monitoring process?
What is the role of project leaders in managing the quality of education?
Do you think that at the level of the BOE, the administrative educational leader, project
management is a promising theory that is suitable to develop?

67
3.2.2 Interview with project leader
Semi-structured interviews were conducted in order to collect information
in specific areas (Bernard, 2000; Burnard, 2005), these are, subject＇s attitude,
response, behaviors and reflections related to their own practice of school
integration as a project leader. To maintain these interview foci (Bernard, 2000),
an interview guide was used which contained 9 questions (See Figure 3.2.1).
However, the wording and ordering of questions in the interview guide allowed
for changes in response to subject＇s expressions (Halcomb & Davidson, 2006).
The interview was performed on August, 29th, 2012 in the office for about one
and a half hours.
The interviewee is the BOE Chief of School Division who has actively
and tremendously contributed to the success of this project. It＇s very clearly
important to point out the values of a project leader, in this case, the Chief
of School Division. His influence is exercised in the countless decisions they
make and the actions they take each year that determine whether professional
development will focus on student learning, whether the learning will be
embedded in the teachers’daily work, and the means by which the effort will be
evaluated (for instance, whether changes in teaching practice and improvements
in student learning will be assessed in addition to teachers’satisfaction with
the experience). Too often, educational leaders underestimate their power in

Figure 3-6　Communication Management

68
 Chapter 3

shaping professional learning and the quality teaching that flows from it19.
The purpose of this interview is to pursue in-depth information about how
the Board of Education carries out the project. The transcripts that were tape-
recorded are in Japanese, analysis strategy is by affinity diagram (KJ method)
based on inter-subjective discussion (Triangulation).
There are 2 main concepts that can be extracted from the interview results:
Communication Management and Quality Management. Communication
Management, according to Project Management Theory20, is the management,
measurement, and control activities undertaken to ensure the effectiveness
of communications and includes the processes of communications planning,
information distribution, performance reporting,managing stakeholders.
While, project quality refers to things like applying proper project management
practices to cost, time, resources, communication, etc21.
In this case, communication management for the leader of this project
includes various task and strategies. Being the most effective project
communicator, he carries out communication with not only core project team
members but also with schools, superintendents and members of BOE councils
in different ways. For example, it＇s necessary to keep providing solid reports to
the superintendent, who indirectly leads the whole team to reach the primary
educational goal. To the BOE council＇s members, it＇s important to manage
expectations 22 like continuing to report the responses to their understanding
about actual educational activities. By employing effective listening skills,

Figure 3-7　Quality Management

69
paying attention and noticing feedback, he also emphasizes his supportive role
in communicating with schools’teachers/ leaders- the key principles to the
success of project. Above all, the principle of“People and Politics go together”
(Gregory M.Horine, 2009) demonstrates an understanding for the political
nature of the project environment, which here is of the keyword is“cost-
performance”. Cost- performance becomes a big issue to deal with for every
decision that he can make during the duration of the project.
The second concept that is focused on here is quality management, which
can be translated as the quality of educational activities in the project of
school integration. Most of the best practices now recommended for the project
management to have quality concerns as their foundation. This means that
understanding the quality of the project is a prerequisite thing that needs to
be set up before planning the project. In this case, the Chief of School Division
considers teachers’improvement as the most important thing to the success of
the project. It equates to the fact that teachers’improvement can bring overall
school improvement, including student academic achievement and community
and parents’trust. He also figured out his strategies for improving professional
development for teachers by enhancing their attitudes and behaviors with full
support from the BOE. The more teachers understand about school integration
and its effectiveness, the more they develop themselves in a dynamic way to
collaborate for a professional community.

3.2.3 Conclusion
Up to this point, researchers have analyzed empirical research about a
school integration project in Tosu city which cited positive results related to the
theory of project management. It can state that the qualitative data analysis
approach which comes from the observation by the team of experts (through
meta-cognitive lesson study workshop) and the point of view of the project
leader (through interviews with the Chief of School Division) showed that a
high level of dialogue, conversation, discussion and collaboration should be
managed effectively as a key factor to the success of the project. A achieved
communication management also can lead to a professional development of the
teachers’community, which plays a tremendously important role in reaching
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 Chapter 3

education goals.

4. Findings
4-1.
According to a report by the Ministry of Education, it is necessary to
carefully investigate properly and concretely the system of school integration in
order to build a more effective 9 year integrated curriculum, for better quality of
education23. At the level of the BOE, when operating school integration, project
management theory can be an effective approach.
Using the quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods, researchers
found that:
・Shared visions, the common understanding between teachers from J and
E, is the decisive factor to the quality of project management. In order to have
effective communication management, discussion or meetings or in-service
training should be undertaken more effectively.
・Quality management addresses both product quality (educational quality:
student achievement and teachers’improvement) and process quality (quality
of communication, etc.). This is pointed out clearly through the interview with
the Chief of School Division who considered the quality of education to be the
quality of the teachers’professional community.
These findings are expected to give some concrete, practical ideas about how
to operate educational activities like school integration at the administrative
level. I also hope that this research gave empirical data analyzed results with
reliabilities and validities using several methodological approaches.

4.2 Limitations and future development

At the level of the administrative educational leader, it would be too early
to give out a conclusion about the effectiveness of school integration project
without investigating a concrete case study.
It＇s necessary to research more about a single case-study in order to answer
the questions of:
① What kind of supportive communication and effectiveness are appropriate
to each schools level?
71
 ② Does the teachers＇ improvement bring about school improvement, parent
and community trust?
To answer these new research questions, in the next part, it is necessary to
find a single schools integration sample as a micro observation to find several
improvements in integrated curriculum development and school culture.
In addition, it is important to keep in mind that the results above solely
developed through teachers＇ survey whereas the students’and parents＇ surveys
haven＇t been talked about yet. Continued work on parents and student＇s survey
analysis to figure out detailed results and developing an intermediate theory
about project management in educational research are needed to be studied.

Notes
1 Chuichi Gap means the problems a student faces when he/she is in the transition to
junior high school from elementary school
2『小中連携、一貫教育に関するこれまでの主な御意見について』文部科学省 (2012)
3 As a part of these projects results evaluations, research teams took an interview
with leaders of the project in August 2012. The Chief of School Division in BOE
has contributed tremendously to the success of the project from collecting data
to organizing in service training, so it＇s adequate to investigate what vision and
expectations project managers have.
4 小学校と中学校との連携についての実態調査（結果）平成 23 年 10 月 14 日文部科学省
5 “Strategies for Educational Inquiry”Indiana University http://www.indiana.
edu/~educy520/lecture_slides/520pre_exp_designs.pdf
6 Reason, P and Bradbury,H. Handbook of Action research, London, Sage 2001
7 University of San-Diego 5th Annual Symposium,“Action Research in Education and
Leadership”（May16&17,2008）
8 R Phelps, Challenging learners through metacognitive reflection, 2002
9 This type of item is referred to as a“Likert item”because it was introduced by an
organizational psychologist named Rensis Likert in 1932 in a journal article titled“A
Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes.”Others used this type of item at that
time, but Likert was the first to assign numbers from 1 to 5 to the response options.
10“小中一貫教育の展望と課題─小中学校の円滑な接続を目指して─”大島秀雄
11 小学校と中学校との連携についての実態調査（結果）2011 Oct, 14th　文部科学省

72
 Chapter 3

12“Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS- Daniel Muijs, 2011

13 KMO (Kaiser -Meyer -Olkin) measures the sampling adequacy which should be greater
than 0.5 for a satisfactory factor analysis to proceed. From the same table in output
result, we can see the Barlett＇s test if sphericity us significant (less than 0.5), this
means that the variables are correlated highly enough to provide a reasonable basis
for factor analysis.
14 Alpha scale reliability analysis (Pett et al.,2003) was conducted to analyze the
psychometric properties of items and the internal consistency reliability of all items.
Only those items with acceptable corrected item-total correlation coefficients (> 0.25)
(Blaikie, 2003) were retained.
15 小学校と中学校との連携についての実態調査（結果）2011 Oct, 14th　文部科学省
16“Evaluation Method”www.socrates.berkeley.edu
17 Each school has at least one teacher as representative, can be called the“Schools
Integration Coordinator”
.
18 Mono/Koto is a set concept which given out by K.Uchiyama whereas he described Koto
or“actuality”is an active side of the world and Mono or“reality”is a cognitive side of
the world (Read more at“The theory and Practice of Actuality”(2003)).
19“Teacher Professional Development: It＇s Not an Event, It＇s a Process”Sandra H.
Harwell (2003)
20 http://www.qfinance.com
21 Rose, Kenneth H. (July, 2005). Project Quality Management: Why, What and How
22 Managing expectations (managing the balance of perceptions and realities with
expectations) is one of the key factors that Project Communicator has ensure because
“the quality and effectiveness of your communications will have tremendous impact on
stakeholder perceptions”(Gregory M.Horine, 2009)
23『教育振興基本計画』（平成 20 年 7 月 1 日閣議決定）2011 Oct, 14th　文部科学省

References
A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge-Project Management Standards
Committee (2000 Edition).
小学校と中学校との連携についての実態調査（結果）平成 23 年 10 月 14 日文部科学省
Ballard, G. and Howell, G. (1988) Shielding production: essential step in production
control. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 124(1), 11-17

73
Ballard, G, Tommelein I., Kosleka L, Howell G. (2002) Lean construction tools and
techniques, in Best, R and De Valence G. Design and Construction: Building in
Value, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp227-225
Barnes, M. (2002) Keynote speech: A long term view of Project Management-its last and
likely future, in 16th world congress of Project Management, Berlin Germany, 5th
June 2002
Zwilkael, O. (2009) The relative importance of the PMBOK Guide＇s nine knowledge areas
during project planning. Project Management Journal 40(4), 94-103.
Project Quality Management: Why, What and How-Rose, Kenneth H. (July, 2005).
The Fast Forward MBA in Project Management (Portable Mba Series) -Eric Verzuh
Absolute Beginner＇s Guide to Project Management (2nd Edition) -Greg Horine (2009
Edition)
プロジェクトマネジメントトリスセツー　西村克己、日本実業出版社 (2007年)
Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS-Daniel Muijs (2011)
初めて共分散構造分析ー AMOS によるパス解析　小塩真司　東京図書株式会社 (2008年)
Case study methods-Hamel, J. (with Dufour, S., & Fortin, D.)(1993)
The curriculum management audit: Improving school quality - Larry E. Frase, Fenwich W.
English, William K.Poston JR (2000)
Educational Administration and Management in Japan-Cengage learning (2008)
(Nguyen Huyen Trang, Tetsuo Kuramoto)

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Chapter 4
Fostering Lesson Improvement through Leadership
Practices: A Distributed Leadership Perspective

1. INTRODUCTION
To improve academic achievement, it is necessary to improve lessons in
school organizations. In the Educational Administration studies, fostering
lesson improvement of teachers has been explained by the theories of Principal＇s
Leadership and Professional Community. Principal＇s leadership theories such as
“Instructional Leadership”or“Supportive Leadership”, focuses on supportive
behavior to the teaching practices of teachers. For example, facilitating the
conditions for classroom learning, providing the data on children＇s growth,
improving teacher motivation through dialogue on lesson and teaching, advising
on making curriculum management, and providing professional development
opportunities (Hallinger, Bickman & Davis, 1996 ; Hallinger & Murphy,
1986). On the other hand, the Professional Community Theory describes that
the strength of the interaction between teachers and the norm of respect
to the teaching practices is connected to teacher＇s empowerment or lesson
improvement (Bryk, Camburn, Louis, 1999).
However, these theories have the following two issues. First, the Leadership
Theory focuses on one leader in the formal organization. In the reality of school
organizations, leadership is exercised by many members on a daily basis and
is not limited to a top leader. By focusing on the top leader, the middle leader＇s
behavior might be missed. In this regard, Pounder, Ogawa & Adams (1995)
demonstrated the idea that we have to understand the leadership as an
organizational phenomenon, rather than a personal behavior phenomenon.
Second, on the Professional Community Theory, the influence process between
the independent variables and the dependent variables are not explained from
the viewpoint of daily practices. As mentioned earlier, the influence professional
community has on lesson improvement has been verified statistically. But, these
statistical researches do not answer the following questions：
“How process from
the interaction among teachers to lesson improvement has been constructed,
75
and what are leaders to take any action in the process? ”
The most useful way in addressing these challenging tasks is the Distributed
Leadership Perspective(Heck & Hallinger, 2009 ; Leithwood, Mascall & Strauss,
2009 ; Spillane & Diamond, 2007 ; Spillane, Halverson & Diamond, 2004).

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Distributed Leadership Perspective
The Distributed Leadership Perspective can be classified into the following
two types : the Gross Model and the Practice Model. The“Gross Model”focused
on the total amount of leadership in the organization (ex. Bass, Waldman,
Avolio & Bebb, 1987 ; Heck & Hallinger, 2009 ; Leithwood & Mascall, 2008 ;
Marks & Printy, 2003 ; Pounder, Ogawa & Adams, 1995 ; Tsuyuguchi, 2008).
In distributed situations, such as when many members exercised leadership in
the organization, power was distributed on a variety places and the members
were empowered (Gronn, 2002). On the gross model of distributed leadership
perspective, it had a tendancy to measure the gross leadership within the
organization in terms of additional amounts of leadership behavior of among
several leaders. If anything, it is a good fit with the quantitative approach.
The gross model, which focused on the middle leaders as well as the top
leader, is a good model because it can be included into the middle leaders’
effect to the analysis process. The practice model focused on daily practices
of leadership in the school organization (ex. Coldren, 2007 ; Halverson, 2006,
2007 ; Halverson, Grigg, Prichett & Thomas, 2007 ; Scribner, Sawyer, Watson
& Myers, 2007 ; Sherer, 2007 ; Spillane et al., 2004). Leadership practices have
occurred everywhere in daily life in the organization. The Practice Model was
aimed to generate the practical knowledge about“how can I do (accomplish)”
by accumulating case studies that focused on describing and interpreting
the reality of leadership practices. Therefore, the Practical Model is a good
fit with the qualitative approach. In the next section, we attempt to review
the researches regarding the above two models of distributed leadership
perspectives.

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Gross Model
The gross model can be divided to three sub-models : leader expanding, team
leadership and collective leadership.
First the expanding leadership model. This model supposes that the
total amount of leadership in the organization is expanding by the chain
reaction among leaders. For example, Bass et al. (1987) have verified that
there is a positive relationship between the upper level leader and the lower
level leader on the type of behavioral dimension of the transformational
leadership. In this study, the phenomenon that the process of expanding
leadership into the organization is called as the Domino Phenomenon.
Marks & Printy (2003) have clarified the relationship between principal＇s
transformational leadership and the shared instructional leadership of the
teacher groups. This study pointed out that the principal＇s transformational
leadership contribute to expanding of leadership in the school organization.
Tsuyuguchi (2008) has clarified that a middle leader＇s leadership,
which include the vice principal, curriculum coordinator, and research
coordinator, are activated, under the circumstances that the principal＇s
transformational leadership is working. However, under the circumstances
that it is not working, the middle leader＇s leadership have also been
shown to be depressed. These studies have emphasized that the principal＇s
transformational leadership is an important catalyst for fostering teacher＇s
leadership.
Second, is the team leadership model. In recent years, the school
organization researchers have proposed a new organization model (Scribner
et al., 2007 ; Tsuyuguchi, 2009). It is an organizational model that focused on
a distributed staff team. The team leadership model＇s view is that“the school
organization is composed of several team unit”. In school organization, a
principal has been centered in the Top Management Team (TMT). Also present
in school organization are several Practice Teams, which include the grade, the
subject, and several committees. The Practice teams have composed organic
collaboration with the TMT. Middle leaders belong to both teams for the purpose
of connecting the members of the groups. The new organizational model has
focused on the inter-group relationship rather than inter personal relationship.
77
The traditional leadership theory do not fit the new organizational model,
because it either focuses on individuals in the organization or it analyzes the
effects of interpersonal relationships. If we would follow this organizational
model, we should respect the team leadership model that focuses on effects of
inter-group relations. School performance is enhanced by the team leadership
of many teams in the school (Tsuyuguchi, 2009). However, the most important
factor in order to improve the performance is the team leadership of the TMT
which consists of a principal, a vice-principal and middle leaders. Scribner et al.
(2007) described that if the team leadership of TMT, which was referred to as
the“Building level decision team”, was vulnerable, not only would the practice
team could not work, but also the organizational performance could not improve.
Third, is the collective leadership model. The features of this model is that
it assumes a variety of stakeholders as leadership practitioner without limiting
the school staff. The representative stakeholders are the district office(including
other schools in a district), a principal, administrators, teachers, parents,
students and so on (Harris, 2008 ; Leithwood & Mascall, 2008). Leithwood &
Mascall (2008) regarded the total power of variety stakeholders as a collective
leadership phenomenon, and demonstrated it is validity and effectiveness. This
study demonstrated the positive correlation between the collective leadership
with the teacher＇s motivation and the academic performance. This is an
important study that it examined the relationship between the distributed
leadership and academic achievement.

Practice Model
Spillane et al. (2004) is the most cited study regarding distributed leadership.
The characteristics of distributed leadership study in Spillane et al. (2004) are
that it has focused on the leadership practice, and generating knowledge about
practical ways (How can I do...).
Leadership practice is the core concept of distributed leadership perspective.
It is not given to the role associated with status, but it has been understood as
a phenomenon formed by the inter-action among leader, follower and situation.
The leadership practice model does not take a posi-tion of one -way assumption
that a situation decide the leader's behavior. It assumes a two-way relationship
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 Chapter 4

between the leader and situation. A Two-way relationship has been assumed
also in the follower and situation relationship. The situation is determined by
people＇s behavior, and is also affected by the behavior of people.
Leadership practice model, which focusing on daily practice, is useful and
effective in the making of practical knowledge. In many studies of leadership,
they have found out the relationship between leadership and performance
variables. However, they could not make use of this knowledge for practitioners
at the school site. Spillane et al. (2004) have shown that there is an intention
at the school level to accumulate the case studies that explore the practical
knowledge in school organizations for promoting transformation of leadership
practices.
Currently, case studies of leadership practice based on the theoretical study
are rapidly developing. For example, Halverson (2006, 2007) has described a
practical method for the constructing of the professional community, from the
view of leadership practice. Halverson (2007) found out three artifacts as having
important factors in the construction of the professional community:catalytic
artifacts, compounding artifacts and coherence artifacts. The catalytic artifacts
have some effects for generating social interaction among members of the
professional community. The study has described some cases such as setting
dialogue opportunities (Breakfast Club) among members, acquiring of the
grants, and setting high level goals. The compounding artifacts is arise from
results of social interaction. The Breakfast Club meeting have led to attempts
to activate the data-reflection practices by the members of the professional
community. The acquired grants have led to the promotion of efforts for
collaborative curriculum design. And, the high level goal setting have led to
develop some new teaching methods. The coherence artifacts have effects for
enhancing continuity of efforts on the process of school improvement planning
or budget planning. In that study (Halverson, 2007), it is very interesting that
the dialogue opportunities have been positioned as an origin of the creation of
professional community.
Scribner et al. (2007) have described the effective leadership practice to
promote the Professional Learning Team(PLT). A non-effective PLT has the
following negative characteristics : they have a tendancy to express feelings
79
and personal attitudes, they spend more time on problem identification and
definition, they pay more attention to the barriers rather and the solutions, and
they have only a little autonomy to problem solving. In contrast, an effective
PLT has the following characteristics: the ease of knowledge sharing, the
utilization of descriptive and expressive techniques, the expression of intention
based on the concern and belief of other staff members, and the autonomy to
solve problems.
In addition to building the professional community, some case studies
which focused on practice model of distributed leadership, have reported as
following. For example, constructing the data-driven instructional systems and
utilizing it to improve the academic performance (Halverson, Grigg, Prichett
& Thomas, 2007), teacher evaluation (Halverson & Clifford, 2006), connecting
principal leadership and teaching improvement (Coldren, 2007), and a five week
assessment leadership practice system which increases academic performance.
(Sherer, 2007)

Professional Community and Lesson Study

Next, we researched Professional Community and Lesson Study (LS) as key
concepts of this research.
Since around 1990, the Professional Community has been focused on as
a part of the values (or structures) the leader has to construct. Professional
Community is a concept that explains the following school characteristics :
schools in which high frequency of interaction among teachers have occurred
easily, and the schools in which teacher＇s behavior have been governed by the
shared norms for student learning and academic improvement. Louis, Marks
& Kruse (1996) have divided the components of Professional Community
into 5 components : shared norms and values, collective focus on student learning,
collaboration, deprivatized practice, and reflective dialogue.
One of the practical concerns of professional community studies are to
describe“what are the effective factors in promoting it”. Louis et al. (1996)
have clarified that these factors promote the formation process of Professional
Community. Promoting factors that they pointed out are supportive leadership,
openness to innovation, respect, feedback on instructional performance, and professional
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development. Besides this, the effects of principal＇s transformational leadership

(Tsuyuguchi, 2008), trust among colleagues (Bryk et al, 1999), and teacher
empowerment (Marks & louis, 1997 ; Tsuyughchi, 2008)are reported as
promoting factors.
Also the effects of professional community has already been demonstrated
in several antecedent researches. The professional community has the effects of
promoting organizational learning mechanism(Bryk et al. 1999) and improving
the quality of teaching(Louis & marks, 1998). In addition, it has the effects
of increasing the student＇s“sense of community”(Louis & Marks, 1998) and
improving the academic performance (Lee & Smith, 1996).
In addition to focusing on the concept of professional community as values
or norms, the LS has also been focused on a specific system to ensure these
values or norms since around 2000(Akita, 2006 ; Lewis, 2008 ; Kuramoto &
Tsuyuguchi, 2009 ; Lewis, 2000 ; Lewis & Tsuchida, 1998 ; Stigler & Hiebert,
1999). Stigler & Hiebert (1999) increased interest in LS in the United States
and other countries. They have pointed out that the LS system, if used as a
professional learning activity among teachers, would cause the high academic
performance of Japanese children to rise.
The effects of LS has been reported in several researches. The first effect
is the improvement of academic performance. For example, Lewis (2008) has
reported that the growth rate of Math test scores among the students of LS
schools who are enrolled for three years compared with students of average
schools within the district is three times more. Kratzer & Teplin (2007) have
reported that the California Standards Test score has been improved in five out
of 7 elementary schools that had LS teams in place.
The second effect is to promote lesson improvement and to change view
points in the teaching-learning process. LS is established to give power to
individual teachers and to promote the continuous improvement of teaching
practice (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999). Teachers who do LS are forming“teaching
abilities”through the acceptance of diversity among teachers (Kihara, 2004).
In addition, Lewis (2008) has reported that teachers began to focus the
thinking process and activities of student through the introduction of LS. It is
also reported that LS has an effect on the teacher＇s efficacy and professional
81
development (Puchner & Taylor, 2004).
Professional community and LS are the concepts which vary homogeneity.
However, in this study, we have focused on LS more than professional
community. We think that the LS is a visible practice that embodies the values
and the norms of professional community. In the process of LS, some designed-
artifacts are utilized, as discussed below. We believe that LS have high integrity
with distributed leadership perspective which focused on the practice and
designed-artifact.

Lesson Improvement as Performance Indicators

We have found that lesson improvement was constructed by the next three
processes：lesson design, lesson practice, and lesson evaluation. In order to
improve lessons, teachers have to think reflectively in each of these processes.
For example, in the process of lesson design, a lesson practitioner and
their collegiality hold a conference to discuss such things as lesson targeting,
lesson planning, evaluation standards, and so on. This occasion is called as the
lesson deliberation. The teacher has modified the lesson plan according to the
suggestion given by colleagues during lesson deliberations. The teacher has
done reflection toward action on the process of lesson design (Kuga, 2007).
In the process of lesson practice, teachers are trying to better the classroom
through the use of reflective activities which vary depending on the situation.
By the reflection in action, teachers changed the lesson plan according to the
students behavioral situation. The teachers who implement reflection in action
in their lesson plan are able to define the learning problems of the students
immediately, and identify the solving strategy, to remedy it (refer to Schön,
1983).
In the process of lesson evaluation, performances and tasks would be
clarified through data collection and reflective dialogue among teachers. This
process is understood as a reflection on action. In this process, some quantitative
data including the results of achievement tests, the student questionnaire, and
the parents questionnaire would be utilized for lesson analysis. In addition, the
feedback and advice from teachers who observed the classroom are utilizing the
reflective thinking of lesson practitioner.
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Thus, we have thought that successive reflective action-constructed of

reflective toward action (lesson design process), reflective in action (lesson practice
process), and reflective on action (lesson evaluation process) -are main components
of the lesson improvement.

3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In this study, we set the following two points as research question.
First, we examine the effect of LS for improving classroom lesson.
Some previous research has examined the effectiveness of LS on the lesson
improvement (Lewis, 2008 ; Puchner & Taylor, 2004 ; Stigler & Hiebert,
1999). In these studies focus was put on a teacher＇s collective effort (LS) as a
explanatory factor of the teacher＇s lesson improvement. However, these studies
have a problem that is not controlled by the influence of individual effort on a
daily level. If we insist on lesson improvement effect by the LS, it is necessary to
demonstrate these relationship, even if controlling for individual effort.
Second, we describe the process from LS practices to lesson improvement by
the distributed leadership perspective. If we analyze the reality or the effects of
LS, it is undesirable to focus only on the leadership of a principal or a research
coordinator. The practice of LS is probably composed of diverse leadership by
several teachers. We can not ignore the activities and leadership in small teams
such as the grade team or the subject team, because LS is also practiced in the
small groups on the daily basis. At the LS, leaders will convey influence to the
followers through operating the situation, as well as giving directives verbally.
By adopting a distributed leadership approach, we will generate knowledge
about practical ways (How can I do...) on the process, from the implementing LS
to the lesson improvement.

4. METHOD
Quantitative Research
In order to clarify the first research question, we carried out a questionnaire
survey. The population of this study were the 384 teachers in 20 schools that
were participating in Lesson Improvement Project (LIP) in Ehime prefecture,
Japan. The LIP is a school improvement project done as a part of a teacher＇s
83
professional development in Ehime Prefecture during FY 2007-2008. 20 LIP
schools have implemented LS practices according to“LIP Manual”prepared by
the school board. The characteristics of LS practices are as follows.

Specific teaching abilities. In this project, the teaching abilities standard was
reorganized into four elements: understanding the pupils/students, interpreting the
materials, constructing the lesson, and the practical leadership.. Teachers should
prepare a lesson plan from the perspective of these four elements as well as from the
perspective of improving academic performance. In addition, these four elements are
used as evaluation points at the situation of lesson evaluation, and also as discussion
points at the situation of group reflection.
Establishment of LST. To establish several Lesson Study Teams (LST) in the school
organization is the core activity for lesson improvement. In LST activities, teachers
open their own classrooms to observe each other, and discuss the lesson after that. The
LST is a small unit that consists about three to eight teachers. School administrators
sometimes participate in the LST.
Utilizing the feedback sheet. Teachers in LIP schools are required to perform the
following three duties utilizing the feedback sheet: classroom participation, feddback
sheet completion, and conveyance of feedback data to the leson practioner.. Teachers,
regardless of the subject they teach, should participate in classroom observations as
much as possible. Teachers participating in the classroom observation must be fill out a
feedback sheet. If a teachers fills out a feedback sheet, it must then be passed on to the
lesson practitioner.
Activation of the reflective conference. After school, the reflective group conference
will be held for the lesson evaluation and improvement. The conferences have adopted
a workshop style. Many observers gather in the conference room, or sometimes in the
classroom. Teachers share the contents of their feedback sheet, and conduct a mutual
consultation for improving the lesson of each of the participants.

The survey for this study was conducted in December 2008. Due to the fact
the LIP were sponsored by the school board, we were able to get answers from
every participants. The respondent＇s mean per school was 19.20 (Standard
Deviation＝9.05, Median＝18.00, Range＝ 7～41). The survey items are as
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follows.

Lesson Improvement
To measure the reality of lesson improvement of class teachers, we created
10 new items, the first six of which are related to the lesson design and the
other four which are related to the lesson evaluation (See Appendix). As
mentioned above, the lesson improvement is constructed of a continuous
reflective activities of lesson design, lesson practice, and lesson evaluation.
However, it is very difficult to measure the lesson practice (reflection in action) by
the questionnaire survey. Therefore, we have created the items from the view
of lesson design and lesson evaluation. The classroom teachers as respondents
were asked subjective judgements whether the quality of reflective activities
on the process of lesson design and lesson evaluation are changing for the
better compared to the quality at the beginning of the school year in April. All
measurement scales have adopted a 4-point-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree).

Individual Efforts
To measure the reality of individual efforts for lesson improvement, we
created five new items. Using these 5 items, answers are being sought by the
teachers themselves about the reality of their individual efforts.

LS at the Team Level

To measure the reality of implementation of LS at the Team-level, we created
four new items. Like the items used in the Individual Efforts, the four items
here are used to find answers about the reality of LS at the team level. Some of
the factors that play into this are the grade team, the subject team, and building
level team.

Years of teaching experience

We have asked respondents questions concerning their years of teaching
experience.

85
Qualitative Research
We have also carried out the qualitative research including participative
observations and group focus interviews in six LIP schools. These six schools
were extracted to account for school size and geographical position. Sakura
Elementary School (the school name is a pseudonym) is a mid-sized school in a
rural area. Midori Elementary school is a large school in a suburban residential
area. Fuji Elementary school is a small school in a fishing village. Momiji Middle
school is a large school in a suburban residential area. Tsubaki Middle school is a
mid-sized school in a suburban residential area. Kikusui Middle school is a mid-
sized school in a urban and commercial streets area.
The participative observation were conducted through FY 2008, during
which time we gathered documents and designed-artifacts based on the
observations. As for the six schools, we observed lessons and reflective
conferences. In addition, our research members have offered advice for
improving both the lessons and reflective conferences.
The focus group interviews were conducted in February 2009. Several
leadership team members-principal, vice-principal, curriculum coordinator,
research coordinator, and LST leaders-participated in the focus group interview
done in each school. We have spent about 90 minutes in the interview research.
The main interview questions are the following five points. (1) The process of
sharing purposes of LIP, (2) The process of improving the form of lesson plans,
(3) The reality and way of lesson improvement in each LST within the school,
(4) The reality of workshop-style reflective conference within the school, and
(5) How to operate and utilize the feedback sheets. Interactive contents was
recorded by IC recorder on the consent of the interviewee. Then, we created the
scripts and arranged it to use as analytical data.

5. RESULTS
Lesson Improvement Effects by LS at the Team Level
Descriptive Statistics
First, we have to check about descriptive statistics of variables used in
the analysis. As a results of factor analysis (principal factor method, promax
rotation) for the measurement of lesson improvement, it was found to be one
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TABLE 4-1
Means, Standard Deviation, and α-coefficient of Variables.
Variable M SD α
Lesson improvement 3.16 .53 .92
Individual efforts 3.27 .47 .82
Lesson study at the team level 3.22 .43 .81
Years of teaching experience 17.63 9.07 －
Note. n ＝ 384, 20 schools.

factor structure. The range of eigenvalue is from. 696 to. 767. Average, Standard
Deviation, and α-coefficient is shown Table 1. The individual efforts is also one
factor structure, and the range of eigenvalue is from. 646 to. 710. The LS at
team level is also one factor structure, and the range of eigenvalue is from. 572
to .758.

Multi-Level Analysis
Dose LS at the Team level have positive effects on teacher＇s lesson
improvement, even if controlling for individual factors？ In order to clarify this
research question, we have carried out the multi-level analysis (see Table 2).
In Model 1, we have analyzed the influence of individual level variables on
the teacher＇s lesson improvement. The effects of years of teaching experience is
not confirmed ( r＝­.003, p＝n.s.). But individual efforts were effective ( r＝.348,
p＜.01). Continuing the individual efforts, such as teaching material analysis,
devising teaching method, and understanding student＇s reality, has led to the
promotion of lesson improvement.
In Model 2, we have added a organizational level variable to Model 1.
As a result, LS at the team level have positive effects on teacher＇s lesson
improvement (γ＝1.007, p＜.01), even if controlling for individual factors.
We found out that, in the school organization which has activated LS at the
team level, the lesson improvement of the individual teacher will be promoted.
However, ICC is .122, and it is lower than Null Model’s ICC. This result showed
that even if the teacher had worked at all schools, there would not be a big
difference in the teacher＇s lesson improvement. In other words, LS effect on
improving teaching is partial.
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TABLE 4-2
Multi-Level Analysis：Dependent Variable ＝ Lesson Improvement
Null Model Model 1 Model 2
Level 1
Intercept 3.164** 3.199* 3.103**
Years of teaching experience －.003 －.003
Individual efforts .348** .336**
Level 2
LS at the team level 1.007**

ICC .194 .189 .120

－2LL 605.683 530.963 512.718
AIC 607.683 534.963 520.718
** p ＜ .01, * p ＜ .05
Note. ICC＝Intraclass Correlation Coefficient,－2LL＝－2 Log Likelihood, AIC＝Akaike＇s
Information Criterion.

Process from LS Practices to Lesson Improvement

The purposes of the LIP is to attain the lesson improvement through setting
some LST in the school and promoting collectively evaluative and reflective
behavior.
The lesson improvement score of four schools (Midori ES., Fuji ES., Tsubaki
MS., and Kikusui MS.) was higher than the average score (3.16, see TABLE 1).
Midori Elementary School was 3.61, Fuji Elementary School was 3.59, Tsubaki Middle
School was 3.56, and Kikusui Middle School was 3.34, respectively. On the other
hand, Sakura Elementary School (2.89) and Momiji middle School (2.77) was below
the average score. These six schools are participating in LIP and have carried
out LS at the team level. However, only in the previous four schools, LS has led
to improved lesson, while at the other two schools this is not the. Why did these
differences arise？ Below, we will clarify this issue by utilizing a distributed
leadership perspective.

1) Preparation of LST and Creation of Common Issues.

In the introduction process of LIP, a research committee was established
in all participating schools. The real leader of the research committee is a
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research coordinator. The research coordinator have operated the project

with the assistance of school administrators. The research coordinator plays
a central role in the process of LIP：setting an annual plan, establishing the
LST, operating the open classroom, collecting the information, analyzing the
evaluation data, fostering the reflective conference, and creating a research
report.
Among these processes, establishment of the LST is one of the most
important task to foster the outcome of the project. The purpose of LST, which
was constructed by several teachers, is to solve the problem of inter-class lesson
improvement gap which is caused by relying to much on individual initiative.
From this awareness, the establishment of LST has been mandated in LIP
schools.
The establishing of LST has particularly significance at the middle schools
in which teachers have individual subject specializations. In this regard, the
establishment method of LST in Tsubaki Middle School is remarkable. Tsubaki
Middle School set up three teams：Liberal Arts Team (Japanese Language,
Social Studies, and English), Science Team (Mathematics, Science, and
Industrial Arts and Homemaking), and Practical Team (Music Lesson, Art and
Design, and Health and Physical Education). Characteristics of this school was
to identify the research issues through discussion in each LST. The teachers of
different subjects had discussed over a considerable time in order to identify the
common issues. Each team identified the next research issues by interacting
and understanding the students：Liberal Arts team was ＂expressive abilities”,
Science team was ＂problem-solving skills”, and Practical team was ＂spontaneous
attitude”.
Moreover, Tsubaki Middle School tried to transcend the wall that there is
between subjects, by devising a method of lesson observation. It is a method
in which teachers try to observe classrooms through one teacher who has
one focused view point. When considering the characteristics of professional
knowledge of each subject, classroom observation has several problems.
Examples of this are when a Japanese language teacher observes from the
view poit of professional knowledge of the Japanese language, or when a
mathematics teacher observes from the view point of professional knowledge
89
of mathematics. Tsubaki Elementary School adopted a method that teachers
try to observe from view point of teaching methods and skills . For example, a
Japanese Language teacher observes from the view point of“understanding the
students”, a Mathematics teacher observes from view point of“the planning and
constructing of the lesson”
.
In middle schools, LST activation is more easily blocked by the wall of the
subject. Tsubaki Middle School’s LST has been successfully activated by setting
a common issue beyond the subject wall and adopting a classroom observation
method that observe each other teaching from the perspective of teaching meth-
ods and skills.
On the other hand, Momiji Middle School has established six LSTs. The
Science team and Social Studies team have created a collaborative relationship
to promote the discussion of the lesson plan, the material development, and
the lesson evaluation standards, under the purpose that they would have to
increase the opportunity for interaction among students. However, Health and
Physical Education were merged to become a single subject team. The result
of this was that it was not able to work with subject teams. In addition, there
was a team composed of Mathematics teachers and English teachers in this
school. However, in this team, collaborative relationship beyond the subject
did not appear, because they were preoccupied with activities within their own
respective subjects. Momiji Middle School has overlooked two view points which
was recognized at Tsubaki Middle School： One was to identify the common issues
by discussing among LST teachers, and the other was to focus on teaching
methods rather than teaching contents when teachers do class observation.

2) TMT’s Leadership.
It is desirable for activation of the LS, to increase the opportunity of the
open classroom and the classroom observation. The key factor in this case
is the modeling behavior of school administrators. School administrators
actively practiced lesson observation in Midori Elementary School, Fuji
Elementary School, and Tsubaki Middle School. These schools were part of a
high group of the lesson improvement point-. For example, the principal of
Midori Elementary School was enthusiastic to the classroom observation. A
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research coordinator who works at this school has said that ＂if there was free
time, the principal would always go to a classroom to observe the lesson”. The
school administrators have filled the opinions and advices on the feedback
sheet, and they always handed it over to the lesson practitioner. Many staff
members became of the conscious of, ＂if school administrators intently go
to observe classrooms, we also definitely have to go, describe, and hand in
feedback sheets” by modeling behavior of the leaders. The observers and the
lesson practitioner can get new knowledge, by participating in many teacher＇s
in classroom observations and by discussing each opinion in the reflective
conferences by going over the feedback sheets. Thus, the effective school
administrators have expanded the opportunities for classroom observation, by
modeling their own behavior.
In contrast, the class observation of the school administrators is very weak
in the groups with low lesson improvement. In these low improvement groups,
school administrators have shown the following attitude：＂If I was called to
the class, I would go to observe”. ＂I only have to observe the young teacher＇s
classroom”. ＂I＇m going to start observing from the second semester”. ＂I just go to
classroom observation, but I do not complete the feedback sheet”.
In order for more teachers to be able to participate in classroom observation,
the curriculum coordinator needs to adjust the schedule of LST members. In
Momiji Middle School, the curriculum coordinator made adjustments to the
lesson schedule-a kind of designed-artifacts-to share free time among members.
This school has been successful in getting many lesson observers by adjusting
the lesson schedule carefully.
In Tsubaki Middle School, even though the lesson schedule was being adjusted,
the classroom participants was very few, during the first semester. Therefore,
the research coordinator calculated the participant average per class, and
explains the undesirable situation through utilizing the statistical data-a kind of
designed-artifact-. ＂Because the number of observer is very few, we would have
to observe more actively”. ＂Because the observer average per class was 1.7, we
would have to observe more actively”. It is obviously that the latter statement
has a stronger impact on a teacher＇s behavior.
Teachers who have higher level leadership capabilities are selected as LST
91
leaders, who are expected to play a facilitator to improve lessons. A Leader
of LST has been a good model for members by leading classroom observation
and open classroom, and has activated LS in the LST. For example, in Midori
Elementary School, a veteran teacher who was placed in the six grade has
shown the most aggressive attitude for open classroom, and has lead the LS
in the team. A veteran teacher who is considered the most busy man at Midori
elementary school has been a good model, and he has exerted good leadership to
colleagues.
On the other hand, in Sakura Elementary School, a young teacher who had not
formally been adopted into the school had done the open classroom. It could be
interpreted by colleagues as ＂the LST leader has imposed an unfitting job to a
young teacher who is in unstable position”. There are many critical comments
from some veteran teachers for the open classroom, in Sakura elementary School.
LS is being implemented as planned on the surface. But it is not connected to
the lesson improvement.

3) Utilization of Designed-Artifact at LST.

LST leaders had effectively use multiple designed-artifacts-lesson plan,
teaching material, feedback sheet, agenda, reflective meeting, and so on-to
promote lesson improvement.
LIP are required to create a lesson plan from the perspective of teaching
abilities, and have to describe the next four factors of the lesson plan：(1)
the reality of each child in the classroom. (2)the characteristics and effects
of materials, or the reasons for choosing them. (3)the configuration of time,
learning group, and staff. (4)and the ingenuity of lesson practice such as
questions and explanations. A Lesson plan is not created by just one teacher.
In the process of drafting and deliberating of the lesson plan, a lot of guidance
and advice from LST colleagues and administrators is reflected in the lesson
plan. Lesson plan is created by the team leadership which is consists of lesson
practitioner, colleagues, and administrators.
Fuji Elementary School is a school in which the most eager LST members
are doing the deliberations within the LST. This school has adopted a ＂task
takeover system”that the following representative take over lesson task which
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revealed in the former＇s open classroom. If ＂the ingenuity of introduction for

increasing learning motivation” would be extracted by the lesson task of the first
practitioner, the next practitioner have to make a lesson that focused on that
point. Teachers have recognized that the lesson task of colleagues is also their
own task.
The LST leader has to clarify the structure of task to take over the lesson
task within the LST members. In order to share the lesson task, it is important
to distribute a brief document which describes the lesson task as an ＂agenda”.
By visualizing and documenting the lesson task, it would be taken over
correctly. By accumulating the lesson task as an agenda, LST members could
understand the change process of the lesson task within one year.
The LST in Fuji Elementary School has done collaborative work on
developing the teaching materials as well as the lesson plan. By supporting the
development of teaching materials for colleagues in the LST, even in one＇s own
open classroom, they can expect a reciprocal support from members. Through
the experience of collaborative development of the lesson plan or teaching
materials, a reciprocal colleague relationship can count on the help of their
surroundings even when difficulties arise.
In Midori Elementary School, teachers who participated in classroom obser-
vation should describe a comment on the feedback sheet. Observers have to fill
out the feedback sheet, even if it is a brief observation. Feedback sheets which
were filled out will be handed from the observers to the lesson practitioner.
Communication about the lesson can cause when handing out an evaluation
sheet. By utilizing the feedback sheet as the designed-artifact, communication
about a lesson increased, and this phenomenon has greatly helped to the lesson
improvement. Regarding the increase in communication phenomenon, a teacher
in Midori Elementary School represented her experiences as follows.

I have the teaching experience of over 20 years. I have been individually taught the curriculum,
teaching method, and teaching material, and doing the open classroom several times in a year. I
had some opport-unity to discuss my lesson in the reflective meeting, and to get different opinions
from colleagues.
However, the amount of communication was not so much. This year’s LST is different from pre-

93
 vious year. The communication with colleagues have been actively done in the process of lesson
development. The reflective meeting naturally begins when a teacher meet with colleagues. Even
when resting in the staff room, a teacher ask their colleagues：How was my lesson? Recently, in
the staff room is filled with communication about lesson. (six grade teacher in Midori Elementary
School)

4) Utilizing of Designed-Artifact at Research Conference.

The research performance and lesson improvement for each LST have been
published outside of the school, on the occasion of research conference at the
school. Several pieces of knowledge were generated at the school organization
summarized in the report, and they show the knowledge in the form of the open
classroom to the other school＇s teachers. Participants of the open classroom have
further deepened the understanding of its practice, at the reflective conference
which was held after the open classroom.
The reflective conference has adopted a workshop style. For example,
Midori Elementary School had practiced the following reflective conference
by workshop style. First, the lesson practitioner makes a self-evaluation, and
verbally explains it simply. Second, the observers would conduct the discussion
in a small group. In the process of classroom observation, participants have
already written their opinions on sticky paper. There are three colors of sticky
papers. Observers are required to obey several rules：good points have to be
described on to the blue sticky paper, bad points have to be described on the red
paper, and other opinions have to be described on the yellow one. Participants
state their opinions in the group, and paste some sticky papers to a Imitation
Japanese Vellum (A1 size ; 594mm×841mm) on the middle of the table. The
time axis and the view point of teaching abilities have been printed in the
Imitation Japanese Vellum. Therefore, the participants can visually understand
the whole picture of the lesson, by checking the distribution patterns of sticky
papers. For example, if many red sticky notes were affixed to the paper of 20
minutes after the lesson starts, we could understand that problems of the lesson
were caused during that time. The lesson process map which was configured by
participants is an excellent designed-artifact for sharing the good point and task
of the lesson.
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The workshop style reflective conference has the following effects on the
school organization. First, because participants must give their opinions at
the reflective conference, they began to become more observant during open
classes. Second, the workshop style reflective conference increases the quantity
of comments about the lesson. The conference can soak up the opinions of the
teachers who usually do not speak much. Third, by increasing the frank dialogue
experience with colleagues concerning the lessons, teachers have formed the
habit of exchanging opinions about the lesson. In the school which has activated
a reflective conference (ex. Midori Elementary School), communication about
the lesson have penetrated into the daily level. Forth, the wall of subject is
likely to decrease, especially in middle schools. In the conference, the small
group which was constructed from various subject teachers discuss lessons
from the perspective of teaching abilities rather than the expertise in subject.
By doing this, teachers can find a point of lesson improvement which can apply
to all subjects. Fifth, disclosing the reflective conference to parents has a trust-
building effect. For example, Tsubaki Middle School has disclosed the reflective
conference to the parents. Parents who observed the reflective conference have
felt the high enthusiasm and motivation of teachers for the lesson improvement.

6. DISCUSSION
In this study, at first, we have demonstrated that the LS at the group level
has an effect on the lesson improvement at the individual level, by utilizing
multi-level analysis. It was clarified that LS has promoted the lesson improve-
ment together with daily individual effort.
Second, we have done observations and interviews on LIP schools for
clarifying the process of the lesson improvement, and analyzed it from
the distributed leadership perspective. The Implementation of LS did not
necessarily lead to lesson improvement. The characteristics of LS to promote
the lesson improvement can be organized into the following two points：TMT
leadership and leadership in LST.

1) TMT’s leadership.
The effective practices of LS in school organizations could be explained by
95
focusing on multiple member＇s leadership practices belonging to TMT. School
administrators had exerted leadership as follows：presenting behavioral
models with to participate in classroom observation, utilizing feedback sheet,
and instructing about the lesson, as well as doing total decision making. A
curriculum coordinator has exerted leadership on the occasion of schedule
coordination to promote the classroom observation by teachers. A research
coordinator who was a substantial project manager has exerted leadership
especially on the organizing of LST, and the research coordinator had exerted
leadership as a good facilitator to activate the research conference that was
held throughout the school building level. Thus, in the TMT, multiple leaders
had influenced on many teachers through interaction with ＂designed-artifacts”
and ＂organizational structure”.

2) Leadership in LST.
One purpose of the LIP project is to construct a lesson improvement system
which works on a daily basis through the organization of the LST. LST leaders
had played a pivotal role in the promotion of this project. In the effective
LST, the leader had tried to exert leadership on the open classroom and the
observation. LST leaders had important roles on the building of collaboration
within the team The points of building of collaboration by LST leader
involvement can be organized into five factors.
The first factor is the sharing of goals and tasks. The LST leaders had
proactively set the goals and tasks which LST have to improve, through
reference data and opinion from various members. LST is not a group that were
focused on subordination behavior for improvement, given the goals and tasks.
LST is acting to improve the goals and tasks by setting up their autonomous
decisions along the principal's vision. The heteronymous goals and tasks which
was given to LST members is difficult to sustain motivation toward achieving
it. It often has a gap with the goals and tasks that a teacher really wants to
improve. However, the goals and tasks which was extracted by reflecting on one＇s
own practices is easy to fit with what the teacher really wants to improve, and
it promotes motivation towards achievement. Also, taking over the lesson tasks
within LST was an effective method for sharing goals and tasks. For example,
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the LST in Fuji Elementary School, the lesson tasks that have been found out
in the open classroom had been passed to next teachers as the lesson tasks that
should be improved. In this LST, the lesson tasks of someone on the team is
recognized as ＂our” lesson tasks. Also, when taking over the lesson tasks, the
LST leader should indicate the lesson tasks as the ＂agenda”.
The second factor is to support each other. LST members had provided
intimately support and assistance to the lesson practitioner, during the time the
teacher prepares the open classroom. All members of LST had provided support
to one teacher as the lesson practitioner during the making of the lesson plan,
the teaching materials, the feedback sheet, and so on. The lesson practitioner
could face the open classroom with a sense of confidence and relief, because the
teacher was backed up by the warm support of LST members.
The third factor is the redundant communications. The amount of
communication before and after the lesson is one of the LST＇s characteristics.
The redundant communication had occurred among LST members, in the
following. It had occurred in the collaborative team to create the lesson plan,
the teaching materials, the class environment, and so on. LST members had
worked until late to prepare for lesson development, during which time much of
the communication occurred. This was also observed to occur when the feedback
sheet as one of the designed-artifacts was utilized. When an observer passes
the feedback sheet to the lesson practitioner, there was always an instance of
communication.
The fourth factor is to share the difficulty each other. In the preparatory
process of open classroom, various difficulties of teachers-such as the emergence
of difficult to deal with children, the lack of cohesiveness in the classroom, and
conflict with parents-would be revealed. The effective LST did not attribute
these difficulties to the effort of individual teachers. Teachers have shared
the difficulties with colleagues by talking about it. If a difficulty were to arise,
the difficulty was not the sole burden of the one teacher. The effective LST
could successfully avoid the risk of excessive stress by sharing difficulties with
colleagues.
The fifth factor is the team efficacy (Gully, Incalcaterra & Beaubien, 2002
; Tsuyuguchi, 2009). The LST that felt better lesson improvement had formed
97
the belief of“we can do it”. At first, the LST leader developed the lesson in
collaboration with members, and they received a high reputation from observers
by doing the lesson on the occasion of open classroom. Teachers that try to
open the classroom after the first teacher would also get a high reputation
by repeating same process. Thus, the accumulating of experiences-action,
achievement, and reward to the team-have promoted the team efficacy of LST.

7. CONCLUSION
In this study, we have demonstrated that LS at the group level has effects
on the lesson improvement at the individual level. In the school that has been
successful in organizational lesson improvement, LST had been put into effect
there. LST members had to take advantage of the various designed-artifacts-
lesson plans, teaching materials, feedback sheets, and so on-to improve
lessons. In addition, the TMT for the adjusting of each of the LST activities in
the organization level also had to function effectively. The TMT has utilized
the designed-artifacts such as statistical data or lesson schedule. The daily
leadership practices by multiple leaders at the school organization had an effect
on the LS. We were able to obtain the practical suggestions for connecting the
LS to lesson improvement, through this research.
Finally, we show the future perspective of this research.
The first agenda is the improvement of research methods. The survey target
of this research was LIP schools that participated in the project of the board of
education. Therefore, it has been a arbitrarily extracted sample. In the future,
we will be required to do random sampling for demonstrating the effect of LS.
In addition, we had conducted the group interview in conjunction with the
observation、and we analyzed the qualitative data. However, the information
obtained in a group interview is limited. We are expected to record the contents
of individual interviews and making scripts of interview contents.
The second agenda is the improvement of research frame. In this research,
we had set a performance indicator of the LS on the lesson improvement at
individual level. However, we have to consider on important performance
indicator such as the academic development of children and the trust
relationship with their parents. We are going to design a research model that
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focuses on these indicators.

APPENDIX A Measurement Items

Lesson Improvement (reflection foward action, reflection on action)

・I collect data on needs of children and parents, and utilize it to the lesson design .
・I accurately understand the reality of children through observation and communication,
and utilize it to lesson design.
・I have created a one-hour lesson plan through referring the lesson goals.
・I have increased the opportunity to interact with colleagues for designing lesson.
・My willingness which try to improve lesson by devising learning style and teaching
materials has increased.
・My willingness which try to improve lesson by collaborating among colleagues has
increased.
・I can be clearly aware of my lesson strength and weakness.
・I can objectively evaluate my lesson practice by integrating various information.
・I show a positive attitude to disclosure lesson practice, and listen to critical feedback
from colleagues as well.
・When I speak my opinions in the lesson analysis conference, I am always focused the
view point which set on the conference.
Individual Efforts
・I have been attempting to develop the ability to interpret the teaching material.
・I have enhanced the teaching skills such as the idea of the blackboard, the ingenuity of
questions, and the effective method of instructions.
・I have enhanced the ability of instructional design.
・I have enhanced the ability of understanding children＇s motivation for learning and
causes of stumbling.
・I＇m committed to lesson self-evaluation.
LS at the Team Level
・We observe the lesson of colleagues to each other, and carry out actively discussion after
observation.
・We have a group training about how to analyze the teaching materials and how to
effective method of teaching.

99
・We invite lectures from outside a school on opportunities for LS at the building level.
・We have got effective advice from school administrators on opportunities for LS at the
building level.

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Chapter 5
Development of the Autonomous Learner Through
Blended Learning

Current literature implies that the continuous onset of technology can be beneficial
to students no matter the subject matter. However, there is a gap in the research
involving the use and positive effects that technology can have in the foreign language
classroom. Integrating elements of technology into any foreign language based
syllabus can enhance the learning experience by making learning more autonomous
and perhaps more importantly, enjoyable for all involved. This paper will summarize
current literature in the field of technology and education, blended learning and
how these two elements can be combined to make students more autonomous and
independent learners. Finally the paper will end with a theoretical framework of the
proposed research of the author.

This paper will introduce the theoretical framework behind the proposed
research for a PhD thesis at the department of Education at Saga University,
under the jurisdiction of Dr. Tetsuo Kuramoto.

Introduction
Technology has shaped the students that we teach in recent times. Learners
of today seem to be surrounded by and constantly immersed in technology.
Tapscott refers to the young of today as the‘Net Generation’(1999). Prensky
claims that today＇s students are no longer the people our educational system
was designed to teach, (2001). Instant access to information, in the form of
high speed Internet, Wi-Fi and more recently the introduction of smart-phone
technology means that information and learning through such sources is more
viable now than ever before. Such developments in technology can be seen to
have considerable implications for education, in relation to the growing need
to prepare young people for a life saturated by technology and rapid change.
Technology transforms knowledge, and makes new things possible in new ways.

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 This paper has been subdivided into four parts. Part one will introduce the
theory and concept of‘learner autonomy＇, how it is often misinterpreted and
give a brief explanation of how it can be used in the context of foreign language
learning. Part two will analyse the benefits that technology can give the
language learner in today＇s society. The third section of this paper will be based
around‘blended learning’and how technology is used to enhance and develop
the autonomous learner. These three subdivisions will make up the theoretical
framework of the intended research of the author. Specific research questions
in the field of learner autonomy, blended learning and technology in education
will be addressed in the final section of this paper in the form of a theoretical
framework diagram.

1. Learner Autonomy
For many years the teacher, particularly in the Asian context (Littlewood,
1999, Kumaravadivelu, 2008, Kobayashi, 2011) has been the centre of the class
and the director of knowledge who educates students with facts he or she,
and the curriculum planners, deem fit. No matter how disguised, traditional
teaching, is based essentially on the mug and jug theory (Rogers, 1983 in
Benson, 2001) where the flow of knowledge is one-way, from the teacher as
the jug to the student as the mug. Autonomy does not adopt this strategy
and instead suggests that the teacher should act as a facilitator of learning.
Knowledge should not flow from one source to another for authentic learning
to take place and knowledge cannot be taught, but must be constructed by the
learner (Candy, 1991). The facilitator must create a psychological climate by
making the learner curious, creating enthusiasm, encouraging where possible,
and producing the correct environment in which to learn (Benson, 2001).

1.1 Autonomy
Autonomous learning is increasingly becoming a modern approach to English
language education, which many teachers, usually of European or North
American origin, strive to develop in their learners. Learner autonomy gives
more responsibility to the students in their own learning, and if successful, has
the potential to aid learners in their future learning careers.
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Defining autonomy can be a difficult task as meanings may be interpreted

in different ways by different people. Autonomy in learning involves learners
taking more control of their learning, in and out of their classrooms. Autonomy
in language learning conversely is the notion of people taking more control over
the purposes for which they learn languages and the ways in which they learn
them (Benson, 2006). One important component behind‘learner autonomy’
is that“language learning is a lifelong endeavour”(Lee, 1998: p.282) and that
students learn more outside of class than they do in class. The process however,
of making students‘autonomous’is a lengthy and complicated one. In order to
promote the idea that more learning is done outside the classroom in student＇s
own time than during classes, students must be directed in how to learn by
themselves. This concept of autonomous learning may in fact be a cultural trait
more attuned to the Western teacher (Littlewood, 1999) and unknown to his or
her students in Japan.

The control that each student has over their learning differs, and the
methods each person uses to learn are unique. Benson (2001) explains that
autonomy is a multidimensional capacity that will take different forms
for different individuals. The autonomous learner is recognised by specific
behaviour, but this behaviour can take many different forms depending on the
student＇s age, their progress so far and what they perceive learning to be (Little,
1991). One thing is clear, that the autonomous learner must be interested and
motivated in what they are doing enabling them to become responsible for their
own learning. It is the teacher＇s job to initiate the step to learning independence.

1.2 Misconceptions
There are several misconceptions involved with the term autonomy. The first
of which is that autonomy may be viewed as the process and teaching style.
Another is that teachers“teach”autonomy. Autonomy is a product not a process.
Autonomy is not something that teachers do to learners (Little, 1990). Teachers
should first understand the meaning of the word, and the product involved
in being autonomous. Autonomous language learning does not simply mean
learning by oneself (Iida, 2009). Autonomy is not teacher independence, but
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teacher-learner interdependence (Little 1995, Iida 2009). As teachers we have
to facilitate and motivate our students in a way so that our students become
autonomous someday, not just say,“starting today you are autonomous”. With time,
and guidance from teachers, students should gradually learn the benefits of
autonomy and the potential for future endeavours which it can offer.

1.3 Methods used to introduce Autonomy

Introducing innovative methods of teaching to educational institutions in
countries where they may not be the norm can be challenging. Jones (1995),
a language instructor of Western origin, spent a year in Cambodia trying to
introduce the concept of learner autonomy to a group of Cambodian students
completely new to the idea. He did this by establishing a self-access centre (a
facility that provides an ample supply of resources learners can use to improve
their language ability at their will and more importantly, a place that they have
complete free access to). He found that in order for students to make full use of
the access centre and to become autonomous, students would have to be taught
how to use it. Jones (1995) claimed that‘most successful learning takes place
outside the classroom’(1995: p.228), in order to accomplish this task students
must be taught the positive attributes of‘how to learn’by themselves. Jones
(1995) also discovered that for students to become autonomous it is necessary
for the teacher who is initiating the process to have an understanding of learner
beliefs before progress can be made.

Jones discovered that rather than passing all responsibility to individual

students it was more efficient to get students to work together, to collaborate
with each other, and pass responsibility onto groups of individuals. Through
other similar studies, Iida (2009) tried to promote learner autonomy in learners
of Japanese in the United States by introducing weblogs. Iida＇s idea was to
introduce collaborative learning through the use of the Internet where students
would collaboratively learn together by communicating through weblogs. This
entailed learning from each other through a weblog on the Internet where all
students were involved, including the teacher. Collaborative learning through
an impersonal body, such as the Internet, takes the focus off student face-to-
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face interaction. This may prove beneficial to the less talkative students who are
more comfortable learning in this way (Iida 2009). Studies like this one show
that engaging in dialogue about the learning process between learners and the
teacher are essential to foster learner autonomy, or simply that collaboration
is a crucial factor to promote learner autonomy (Iida 2008, Little 1995).
Autonomy is not complete learning independence, but more learner and teacher
interdependence.

2.
2.0 Technology in Education
Current trends of society in the developed world show huge potential
for autonomous learning with the help of technology. If current pedagogical
methods are to keep up with these trends and the younger generation in
general, then the use of digital technologies in classrooms is imperative. Today＇s
students, according to Prensky, have spent their entire lives surrounded by and
using computers, videogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones,
and all the other toys and tools of the digital age (2001). Prensky states that
today＇s college graduates prefer digital text to analogue text and obtain the
majority of their wisdom digitally. Prensky terms this as ＇digital wisdom＇ and
refers to current day students, as ＇digital natives＇ whereas their teachers, who
are perhaps less technologically savvy are ＇digital immigrants＇.

The teachers of today＇s net generation, referred to as ＇digital immigrants＇ by

Prensky (2001) appear to speak the language of digital technologies, but with‘a
thicker accent＇. According to Prensky (2001), Tapscott (2009) and Williams (2006),
teachers of today must learn to implement technology into their classrooms
or contemplate loosing their students. The ＇one size fits all＇ mentality (Tapscott,
2009) in which knowledge can be disseminated to all learners regardless of
individual differences or learning styles is out-dated.

The transmission model of pedagogy refers to the belief that education is a

specific body of knowledge that is transmitted from the teacher to the student.
This understanding emphasizes teacher-centred learning where students
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are passive absorbers of information and that the purpose of learning is the
memorization of facts. This model does not affirm learning and merely indicates
memorization of facts and bypasses actual comprehension of what is being
learned.

2.1 Digital Wisdom

Tapscott (1998, 2008) suggests that the‘net generation’have the ability
to change learning as we may know it. Students of today bring with them
a truly transformative power to supplant the conventional pedagogy of the
“digital immigrant”to one based on more interactivity and collaboration.
Tapscott claims that learning will become more interactive with the use
of technologies. Also referred to in Thomas and Reinders, (2012: p.229)
the interactive type of pedagogy is identified with a movement from:

① Linear to hypermedia learning

② Instruction to construction and discovery
③ Teacher-centred to learner-centred education
④ Absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn
⑤ School to lifelong learning
⑥ One-size fits all to customized or personalized learning
⑦ Learning as torture to learning as fun
⑧ The teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator.

As Haddad and Daxler, (in Allford and Pachler, 2007) declare that a focus
on how to learn, problem-solve and synthesize the old with the new can lead to
education for everyone, education anytime and education anywhere.

2.2 Criticism of technology and learning

Thomas and Reinders (2012) claim that there has been a history of
introducing learning technologies in education. They indicate that the frequent
emergence of new methodologies and technologies are tagged with the label,
‘revolutionary＇ or‘transformative＇. They assert that these innovations may
stem from origins outside of the learning context and often with commercial
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rather than pedagogical interests from large institutions passing from interest,
to excitement and then disappointment and perhaps eventually abandonment
as the‘new＇ learning technology emerges. Kenning (2007) argues in this respect
in relation to language learning,‘while technological progress has affected the way
in which subjects are learnt and taught, it has not initiated paradigm shifts’(p.165).
It has also been realized in the literature that even though digital technologies
may provide the opportunity to transform teaching now more than ever before,
decisions made at tertiary institutions may resist the types of changes that
are necessary. It is important to note that criticism towards introducing new
technologies into the classroom will be met and may be more problematic for
some depending on the institution at which they are employed.

The main point in this argument is that technology alone does not
revolutionize pedagogy. Without a sufficient understanding and interest in how
the new technology works by the teachers who intend to use it to educate and
benefit their students, there may be little point in introducing it at all in the
first place. Understanding of new techniques and technologies takes time, for
some people more time than others. However, if teachers are willing to take the
initiative to learn how to use new technologies individually or if institutions can
provide the support for this to be possible then the possibilities for autonomous
learning of students beyond the boundaries of their classrooms will inevitably
increase.

Similarly Prensky (2012) in his most recent publication aptly named“Brain

Gain: Technology and the Quest for Digital Wisdom”states that there may be further
criticism as we continually rely on digital devices to acquire information. In the
age of digital machines, when more and more information is at our fingertips
there may be no need to use the human brain. As technology develops we may
constantly depend on our devices to answer our questions and entrust the in-
stant response that they provide. This constant use of artificial intelligence may
be diminishing our own ability to think.

111
2.3 How Technology has changed the way we learn
There will continue to be constant criticism of technology in education
with some common arguments being that what it has provided us with is not
brain gain, but brain loss. Prensky states that the dispute is that technology is
making us less able people, making our lives less“human”and less worthwhile.
Prensky continues that this is happening because technology makes‘many
things easier”. However, according to Prensky, technology can suppress the
critiques by declaring that:

“those of us who choose to fully engage with technology are becoming freer, more pro-
ductive, more creative, and more capable people, and, I believe, wiser people.”
(Prensky, 2012:p.10)

2.4 Mind Evolution

Prensky (2012) offers the idea that rather than stunting the mind, by
combining the complex reasoning abilities with technology＇s strengths in
storing and processing large amounts of data, conversely technology can make
us wiser. Prensky claims that the symbiotic combination of the human brain
and technology has great benefits for our own cognitive functioning. The
cognitive impetus, which he believes has, and will continue to evolve human
cognition, through digital wisdom he refers to as‘mind evolution＇ (2012: p.11).
The altercation here is that the symbiosis of human and machine is better,
and wiser, than the human or the machine alone. Put concisely, technological
enhancement is extremely positive for all of humankind.

3.
3.0 Blended Learning
Blended learning refers to a language course, which combines a face-to-face
(F2F) classroom component with an appropriate use of technology (Sharma
and Barrett, 2007: p.7). A blended learning approach combines F2F classroom
methods with computer-mediated activities to form an integrated instructional
approach. In the past, digital materials have served in a supplementary role,
helping to support face-to-face instruction. However, with the blended learning
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Figure 5-1　Blended learning methodology (from www.eduriser.com)

Blended Learning provides a proportion of online e-learning, mobile learning and the
more‘traditional’classroom based learning all within the framework of one course.
［For further information go to: www.eduriser.com/blended-learning.php］

concept, technology plays a major role in the actual learning material. In a

blended learning environment, class time would be reserved for‘traditional＇
style face-to-face teaching of the technology, how it works, and later to present
findings of course work learnt, see Figure 5-1 above. Meanwhile, the online
portion of the course can provide students with multimedia-rich content at any
time of day, anywhere the student has Internet access.

Blended learning enhances collaborative style learning, whereby learners are

encouraged to learn autonomously online through the use of software introduced
during class time. According to its proponents, the strategy of blending the use
of technologies into the more traditional style classroom learning creates a more
integrated approach for both instructors and students.

3.1 Criticism of a the Blended Learning Approach

One criticism of the concept of autonomous learning through blended
technologies is the role of the teacher. One commonly asked question is: Will
the teacher be needed if students become completely autonomous? Selwyn
113
(2011) argues that several critiques suggest that the further improvement of
digital technologies in the classroom and the promotion of autonomous learning
may lead to the disappearance of the teacher altogether. It is unlikely this will
happen. Selwyn declares that instead it is perhaps more likely that teachers will
continue to play an integral role in education and learning, whether technology-
based or not.

The value of the teacher in encouraging autonomous learning, through

a blended learning concept, cannot be underestimated. Without a teacher
present in a blended learning curriculum, the course would not be blended. The
authoritative role that teachers can continue to play in educating, informing,
managing, facilitating and directing the technological activities of learners is
paramount to success. It is the teacher＇s job to encourage learners to become
autonomous and to change their approach to learning. Without the impetus
of the teacher＇s input to initiate the goals or even as a helpful resource when
things go wrong, learners may divert from their intended goals and lose track
altogether.

There have also been many critiques of the general theory of blended
learning. Oliver and Trigwell in Hinkleman (2012) critiqued the overall concept.
They argued that the terms of blending technologies into a more traditional
style teaching approach were‘ill-defined and inconsistently used’and that the
theory surrounding the approach was incoherent or redundant (p.2).

3.2 Blended Learning Course Design

Integrating F2F teaching with new technologies in the classroom, may not
be a new concept however, Neumeier (2005) argues that an ever-increasing
hybridity requires that course design receives greater attention. Neumeier
states that it is important that sufficient thought is given to course design
when trying to implement elements of blended learning into a foreign language
programme. Jones (2007) writes, that“it is useful for a course designer to think
of an educational programme as a three-part structure that operates on a micro,
meso and macro level”(Jones 2007, in Hinkleman 2012: p.30). At the micro
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level the designer must contemplate the specific ability of the students in each
particular classroom with consideration given to lesson plans and suitable class
activities within the realms of learner＇s capabilities. Meso level course structure
contemplates local or institutional guidelines that may alter the boundaries
or learner goals. Learning outcomes and degree requirements might heavily
influence course design at the meso level. While at the macro level, course
designers must consider the effects that can be shown at the international,
national or state level after the successful fulfilment of a blended learning
course.

3.3 The Micro Level

The micro level of course design refers to the decisions made related to task
design in the classroom. Tasks are the building blocks for lessons, especially
in the context of language learning. Tasks in this context refer to the physical
content of each lesson that a teacher sets, or tasks assigned to the student. Task
design in the blended learning context, will promote the use of technologies in
order to develop and enrich the learning experience of the learner and promote
autonomous learning.

A task in this context according to Samuda and Bygate, (2008) is:

A holistic activity which engages language use in order to achieve some non-linguistic
outcome while meeting a linguistic challenge, with the overall aim of promoting
language learning through process or product or both (2008:p.69).

Tasks can be carried out at the micro level with the help of educational
online resources such as Blogs, podcasts, wikis or any other form of online
teaching tool. It is the teacher＇s job in such an environment to provide the ICT
(Information Communication Technologies) knowhow to their students and show
how each individual tool can aid their learning experience. Teachers require
some skill and expertise with ICT in order to devise these kinds of tasks. The
objective therein, is to initiate their use in class to promote autonomous learning
by the student.
115
3.4 Meso level
The main objective at the meso level of course design is the consideration of
institutional goals. Every educational institution inevitably has a list of‘can-do＇
goals that each class group is expected to reach within the confinements of term
time. It is these goals that must be considered and fulfilled at the meso level of
course design. What must be kept in consideration is the overall institutional
policies and graduate attributes, faculty or departmental guidelines that an
institution may expect from each course structure. Other considerations may
include the time allowance of actual teacher time per week scheduled and the
learner expectation that the institution may have for each individual student.

3.5 Macro level

The main purpose of course design at the macro level is to observe the effects
that a blended learning approach can have on the community or society in
general. Such effects may include a different way of learning that can initiate
a chain reaction of events in turn altering the way people learn. See Figure 5-2
below for a simple explanation of a blended learning course design.

4. Theoretical Framework
The following diagram describes the theory behind the intended research of
the author in relation to the following research questions:
・　Can a Blended Learning course design effectively make learners of English
autonomous in their approach to learning?
・　Can technologies introduced in a blended learning approach, enrich student
attitudes towards technology?

For a simplified model of the theoretical framework refer to figure 5-2 below:

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 Chapter 5

Blended Learning Course Design: (adapted from Hinkleman, 2012)

Micro level
Course design at the class level.
Introduction of new modes of learning:
- Online learning resources
- Online dictionaries
- Online flashcards-Wikis
- Online text to speech websites
- Collaborative learning tasks
Meso level
Course design at the institution level.
- Institution＇s curriculum
- Course goals
- Class syllabus
- Fulfillment of“can-do”objectives
- Completion of class requirements

The above framework involves the three main concepts of:

(A) Face-to-Face class room instruction: students will be instructed in a classroom setting. Students
will be informed of how to complete the class goals in an alternative manner to what they may be
used to.
(C) Blended Learning technologies will be introduced to students to aid them in reaching their goals.
Each technology introduced will aid students to achieving their class goals both individually and
collaboratively.
(B) Learner Autonomy: students will indepently work towards a similar goal outwith the constructs
of the class. Students will be informed of how to use new technologies introduced in C and use
them to reach their goals autonomously.

Figure5-2　Theoretical framework model

117
Conclusions
The effect that technology has on learning a foreign language has been
insinuated, but not actually proven from the literature covered within the
boundaries of this paper. It is the author＇s intention to prove that the use of a
blended learning curriculum can positively influence students in becoming more
autonomous and improving their English language abilities. Over the course
of a two semester long academic year at a medium sized private university in
Japan, a blended language course will be designed and administered to a group
of around 200 students in 6 class groups. A further group of around 200 students
in 10 class groups will act as the control group where a more traditional F2F
teaching style will be administered. Data will be collected from all 400 students
through the use of pre and post questionnaires and an ability test administered
before and after the completion of the course. It is hoped that the data will
provide positive results to suggest, through introducing a blended learning
approach, that students will learn more and indicate signs of autonomous
learning indicating an overall improvement in language ability.

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Selwyn, N. (2011). Education and Technology: Key Issues and Debates. Published by
Continuum, 1st edition.
Sharma, P. and Barrett, B. (2007). Blended Learning: Using Technology in and beyond the
Language Classroom. Macmillan
Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up Digital. The Rise of the Net Generation. McGraw-Hill.
Tapscott, D. (2008). Grown up Digital. Published by McGraw-Hill, 1st edition.
Thomas, M. and Reinders, H. (2012). Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching with

119
 Technology. Continuum publishers.
Williams, A. D. Tapscott, D. (2006). Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything.
Portfolio Penguin.
(Bruce Lander, Tetsuo Kuramoto)

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Chapter 6
Findings from Case Study of Service-Learning in
Japan
-From the point of view of Action Research-
1. Introduction
Findings from related studies on the impact of Service-Learning (SL) showed
that it is necessary to develop self-esteem in students and instill a sense of
responsibility from a young age. Stephens (1995) reported that elementary and
middle school students who participated in SL developed a greater sense of civic
responsibility and ethics towards service. Kinsley (1997) stated that community
SL enlivened learning and involved elementary students in a way that makes
school fun, relevant, and meaningful. In addition, community SL motivated
students which helped them learn more about themselves and build a sense of

Figure 6-1　Structure of Minamata Learning

121
community within their classrooms and neighborhoods (cited in Wade, 1997,
p.142).

According to Kuramoto (2004), as a case study of Service-Learning in Japan,

Minamata/Service-Learning (M/S-L) is defined as follows:

M/S-L combines students’ life issues related to Minamata disease, which was
caused by dumping poisonous mercury into the Minamata Bay, with the learning
objectives of recovering and improving Minamata’s community. This is accomplished
by combining service tasks for Minamata issues with the tasks of self-reflection, self-
discovery, and the acquisition and comprehension of values, skills, and subject knowl-
edge. M/S-L is a form of experiential education where learning occurs through a cycle
of action and reflection. Students work with environmental recovery from Minamata
disease problems and, at the same time, reflect upon their experience as they seek to
accomplish real objectives for the community and deeper understanding and skills for
themselves.

M/S-L is a teaching and learning method that integrates Minamata issues

with academic content and the student＇ interest to improve Minamata city. With
clear learning objectives and organized reflection, M/S-L promoted students＇
self-esteem and built civic responsibility focus on environmental issues. Two key
words are integration and collaboration. Integration happens on three levels:
academic content, students＇ interests and the community＇s needs. Collaboration
occurs across school and community and amongst teachers and students.

2. Findings from Minamata-Learning (Emprical research)

2.1 Empirical Research
2.1.1 The purpose of the empirical research
To objectively analyze the effectiveness of Minamata-Learning focus on two
elements self-esteem and civic responsibility with two research questions:
① Did Minamata-Learning promote self-esteem?
② Did Minamata-Learning build civic responsibility?

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 Chapter 6

2.1.2 Research scope and Limitations of the empirical research

The scope of the empirical research was limited to one case study of SL-
Minamata-Learning. Minmata-Learning was developed and integrated into
Minamata public elementary school 10 years ago. Thus, empirical research
involved analyzing historical objects. This led to limitations in collecting data
for the empirical research as well as in using appropriate methods to examine
the objects.

2.1.3 Student Profile

Students participated in Minamata-Learning for 1 year during sixth
grade at an elementary school. Class members were 35 individuals with a
variety of different backgrounds. In the class, students were divided into two
cases. The first case was an alternative case, referring to students who were
related somehow to Minamata disease. For instance, students’relatives were
Minamata disease victims or employed by Chisso, the company responsible for
causing Minamata disease. The second case was a neutral case, referring to
students who had no direct relationship with issues.

2.1.4 The structure of the empirical research

A mixed method approach that included text-mining, discourse analysis
and semi-structure interviews was used in empirical research. As shown above,
the background of the students who participated in Minamata-Learning were
various, and included the previously mentioned alternative cases and neutral
cases. One student from each case group was chosen to be an object of analysis.
Student 1: alternative case - a student whose father was employed by Chisso
Student 2: alternative case - a student whose father was a Minamata disease
victim
Student 3: neutral case - a student who had no direct relationship with
Minamata disease
Text-mining, discourse analysis and semi-structure interviews were used to
analyze the impacts of Minamata-Learning in each student.

123
 Figure 6-2　Empirical Structure of Minamata Learning

2.2 The purpose and methodology of the empirical research

To objectively analyze the effectiveness of M/S-L focusing on two elements,
self-esteem and civic responsibility, with two research questions:
① Did M/S-L promote students＇ self-esteem?
② Did M/S-L build students＇ civic responsibility?
A mixed method approach that included text-mining and discourse analysis
was used in empirical research. The students participated in M/S-L at sixth
grade of elementary school. Students were 35 individuals with a variety of
different backgrounds. For instance, students’relatives were Minamata
disease victims or employed by the Chisso company which was responsible for
causing Minamata disease. And others belonged to the neutral case, referring
to students who had no direct relationship with issues. Applied to each type of
case, one victim whose father was killed by Minamata disease was chosen to be
the object of analysis.

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 Chapter 6

2.2.1 Text-mining and discourse analysis were used to analyze the impact of M/S-L.
　　 -Using text-mining to analyze the impact of M/S-L in 35 students
① Methodology: Text-mining analysis software“Word-Minor 1.0”
② Data collection: Student＇s letters to the class’teacher (Kuramoto) just
before graduating from an elementary school which was famous as a
Service-Learning project school.
③ Background of students: Students were 6th graders, the number of
students was 35
④ Classroom Teacher: Tetsuo Kuramoto (first author of this paper)
⑤ Period: 1 school year (2000/April-2001/March)

2.2.2 Findings from text mining

Table6-3　Results of text Mining

125
2.2.3 Data analysis
Deciding the meaning of numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 are the following. Each student
was designated an engagement level in service-leaning activities through their
meta-cognitions in the student letter to classroom teacher. The number 1 marks
students who appeared to engage very positively in M/S-L projects. The number
2 also means that the student engaged in
M/S-L projects positively enough. In contrast, the number 3 stands
for students who appeared to not engage positively in M/S-L projects.
Simultaneously, the number 4 stands for students who did not engage in the
activities very much.
The number of students who assigned themselves a number 1 or 2, who
appeared to engage positively in M/S-L projects, are located near the cluster
components 7 or 9 in the figure of text mining. It is possible to interpret“Since
we had a lot of volunteer activities with friends in our sixth grade class, we

Table 6-1　Results of text mining

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 Chapter 6

thank our friends and memories from the bottom of our hearts.”
The method of text-mining itself has limitations in that there is subjectivity
in the process of interpreting and analyzing the meaning of the most frequently-
used words. Therefore, with evidence derived from text-mining, clearly
delineated yes or no responses could not be ascertained. However, it is possible
to interpret that students who appeared to engage positively towards M/S-L
had a strong sense of volunteer-spirit. As a result, through having the volunteer
experience, they recognized the essential role of volunteer work as a basic
foundation for improving self-esteem and becoming active citizens.

3.
3.1 Part 2 Analysis the impact of Minamata-Learning in sample
1 and sample 2 using of discourse analysis
According to Kuramoto (2008), discourse analysis of Shakaikashoshi no Kai
included seven steps below as essential factors.
① Observing the class
② Recording the protocol of the teacher and students in the class
③ Transcribing the protocol recorded in the tape
④ Holding a peer conference with educational experts, specialists, and the
teacher who did the class (from 5 to 10 people)
　-Focus on analyzing on the chosen student(s), the relationship between the
chosen student(s) with the teacher and other members
　-Focus on the educational goals of the class, did the teacher involve
students in the right way to get the goals
⑤ Recording the speech at the peer conference
⑥ Transcribe all the recorded speech at the peer conference
⑦ Analyzing the research based on the transcription of the speech1

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Table 6-2　Discourse Analysis in Minamata-Learning

Purpose: - To analyze both the intellectual and personal-social growth of

two chosen students
- To find a universality of Minamata-Learning
- To examine how students have been changing their ways of
thinking
Time: From 16 to18 in August, 2002
Method: Discourse analysis of Shakaikashoshi no Kai
Objects of analysis: - Chosen student number 1: Ai was supposed to have hidden
guilty feelings because her father was employed by Chisso who
are responsible for causing Minamata disease.
- Chosen student number 2: Kaori was supposed to have
victim-type feelings because her father died as a result of
suffering from Minamata disease by being poisoned.
Overview of students: Students: 35 sixth grade elementary school students
The teacher: Mr Kuramoto
Period: one year in 2001
Some Minamata- - Reading a diary of a person who had relatives who were
Learning activities Minamata disease victims
that appeared in - Talk show with a Minamata disease victim
discourse analysis: - The name of Minamata disease

The researcher used discourse analysis of a peer conference as the method

to analyze the effectiveness of Minamata-Learning on self-esteem and civic-
responsibility for sample students 1 and 3. The process included two steps.
First, the researcher translated the Japanese version of the transcription of
the peer conference into English. Next, based on discussion with participants
and comments from Dr. Kuramoto, the researcher analyzed the effectiveness of
Minamata-Learning from the perspectives of self-esteem and civic-responsibility.
By analyzing the impact of Minamata-Learning on each student, the researcher
discovered that the effectiveness of Minamata-Learning varied based on
personal background. In the context of discourse analysis, the effectiveness of
Minamata-Learning is analyzed through triangulation.
First person: Dr. Kuramoto
Second person: famous experts and researchers of Shakaishoshi no Kai
Third person: the researcher
Student 1 appeared with the nickname Ai in the following discussion. Ai was
supposed to be a student who had hidden guilt because her father was a worker
at Chisso who were responsible for causing Minamata disease.
Below is the process the researcher used to analyze the effectiveness of
Minamata-Learning from the point of view of self-esteem and civic-responsibility.

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 Chapter 6

3.1.1 Analysis of the impact of Minamata-Learning in student 1

Category The first chosen student Peer conference analyzer Dr. Kuramoto＇s
Ai, who was supposed comments
to have hidden guilty
feelings
Low Comment 1: Below is her The chairman mentioned - She had a bad
self- comment after reading the first question to reaction when first
esteem a diary of a person had discuss whether Ai being explained about
relatives Minamata is supposed to be the Minamata-Learning
disease victims. student who had hidden -“They think they
“They are (the guilty feelings but“Is can defeat the Chisso
Minamata disease that true?” company in a court” ,a
victims organization) sixth grade elementary
brave because they think school student cannot
they can defeat the write this comment. This
Chisso company in court. comment was full of
But, even if they win, contradictions.
the missing lives cannot - Her comment was not
come back.”(at the end natural. It appeared to
of April) protect Chisso, where
her father worked at,
so possibly she has the
hidden guilt.
Comment 2: Below Chairman:“…if at first - Focused on her change
is her comment after the Chisso company in two comments“They
listening to the story of a had explained what think they can defeat
Minamata disease victim caused Minamata the Chisso company in
at the middle of June disease…”means that court”and“…if at first
“I cannot understand the Chisso company the Chisso company had
fully your feeling dumped a large quantity explained what caused
when you lost your of highly toxic mercury Minamata disease…”it
husband and kids into the sea. And even was clear that she had
but I understand it they had understood changed the way she
somehow. Minamata that mercury was felt.
disease victims, people whatcaused Minamata - Therefore, it was
who understand what disease, though it was possible to interpret
Minamata disease is, not made known to the that while not very
and everybody in the public. This action led to strong Ai had hidden
world surely do not extended damage. Her guilty feelings related
want a grievous thing comment about this to Minamata disease
like Minamata disease problem was important victims because her
to happen to them. proof to seek her hidden father was a worker at
If at first the Chisso guilt. the Chisso company
company had explained - Uchiyama commented:
what caused Minamata “In her note-book, Ai
disease…” wrote that in the past,
Chisso was bad but now
the workers of Chisso
are good people”. Based
on this comment, it is
possible to say that Ai
did not have hidden
guilty feelings
- Morizaki said:“After
examining her two
comments, I think
certainly Ai understood
the point of view of
the people who caused
Minamata disease”

129
Findings from comment 1 and comment 2
After examining comments 1 and 2 found in the discussions of peer
conference analyzers and comments from Dr. Kuramoto, from the points of view
of self-esteem and civic-responsibility, the researcher found that:
- Ai, whose father was a worker of Chisso, had hidden guilt.
- Her hidden guilt correlated with her low self-esteem
In this study self-esteem is defined as the positive feelings about oneself and
the feeling of being a meaningful member in class, school and the Minamata
community. Low self-esteem is defined as negative feelings about oneself and
not feeling like a meaningful member of the class, school and the Minamata
community.
The researcher found that her first comment“ …they think they can defeat
the Chisso company in court …”was full of contradictions, and her second
comment“..if at first Chisso had explained what caused Minamata disease
…”included feelings of regret for people who caused Minamata disease. She
appeared to be confused. In the peer conference, Dr. Kuramoto also said that Ai
had negative reactions when Minamata-Learning was first explained. Clearly,
Ai’s attitude correlated with low self-esteem.
Category The first chosen student Peer conference Dr. Kuramoto＇s
Ai Analyzer comments
Improved Comment 3:Below is - Morizaki:“After - During the first term
low self- her comment after examining her two of school, Ai appeared
esteem the demonstration in comments (1, 2), I think to have a bad reaction
and Nagasaki certainly Ai understood when getting involved
civic- “I could tell my the point of view of in Minamata-Learning.
responsib Nagasaki friends about the people who caused However, at the school
ility our efforts to rebuild Minamata disease. excursion in Nagasaki,
Minamata, to make our However, based on her Ai seemed to engage
hometown so bright and comment in Nagasaki, positively in the
beautiful, about the pain he said:“Gradually, Ai demonstration activity.
that Minamata disease developed her direction She also was one of the
victims suffered and the and what things she masters of ceremony at
discrimination they felt, should have done” the exchange between
about Minamata in the -Sakaurai:“Following Ai two elementary schools.
past and now, everything in this story, I see that
about Minamata, like a Ai has not overcome her
Minamata dictionary” (in hidden guilty feelings yet,
the end of November) instead being a“Minamata
dictionary”and“it was
numerous like a mountain
of things…”these
comments make me feel
that there is something
very strange about her.
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 Chapter 6

Comment 4:Below is -Sonoda spoke her -It is impossible to deny

her comment after comment:“As a citizen the limitation that Ai
listening to a classmate＇s of Minamata city, it tried to act in the way
experience in being was numerous like a she believed the teacher
teased over Minamata mountain of things wanted her to do.
disease: which you cannot help However, it is possible
“…I think it was so talking about Minamata to interpret that she has
wrong. Also I think he disease”was her self- been gradually seeking
surely felt very bad defense. It is necessary her way to know what
when talking about his to discuss more about she should have done.
experience in public. the process of how she -Through the discussion,
In his story, I see that developed her directions. it was possible to
these girls who teased -Fukujima commented: interpret that while not
him were wrong. I wish “Like giving an being strong, Ai did have
they could learn to answer to a question hidden guilty feelings
understand Minamata immediately when being inside her because her
disease. As a citizen asked. I think Ai just did father was a worker of
of Minamata city, it.” the Chisso Company.
conversations about -Other participants also -Also through
Minamata disease commented:“Ai tried Minamata-Learning, Ai
were numerous like to act in the way that gradually overcame her
a mountain of things she believed the teacher hidden guilty feelings
which you cannot help wanted her to”and“She to develop her direction
talking about”(at the just picked the right way positively.
end of February) to answer the question”

Findings from comment 3 and 4 of student 1

- Due to reacting positively towards Minamata-Learning, Ai gradually
overcame her hidden guilt.
- Her changing attitude was correlated to improved self-esteem.
- Due to the correlation between self-esteem and civic responsibility, it
appeared that Minamata-learning promoted the development of self-
esteem, and at the same time fostered the development of citizen
responsibility in students.
This resulted from Ai＇s participation in meaningful activities with which she
could identify with. Thus, her self-esteem improved in part because she begun to
feel a greater level of civic-responsibility specifically to the class, the school and
the greater Minamata community.

131
 Figure 6-4　The effectiveness of Minamata-Learning found in student 1

3.1.2 Analysis of the impact of Minamata-Learning in student 2

Student 2 appeared under the nickname Kaori in following discussion.
Contrary to Ai, Kaori was considered to be a student who had strong feelings
about Minamata disease because her father died of the illness. He passed away
when she in the fifth grade of elementary school just one year before she got
involved in Minamata-Learning.
After examining the comments number 1 - number 4 of the second chosen
student found in the discussion of peer conference and comments from Dr.
Kuramoto, the researcher found that:
- The second chosen student had strong feelings toward Minamata disease.
- These feelings correlated with low self-esteem
After examining comments number 5 - number 8 the researcher found that:
- The student gradually changed to overcome her feelings of being a victim.
- Her positive attitude towards Minamata-Learning correlated with improved
self-esteem.
- Due to correlation between self-esteem and civic responsibility, it appeared
that Minamata-learning promoted the development of self-esteem and at
the same time developed a sense of civic-responsibility in the student.
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 Chapter 6

Figure 6-5　The effectiveness of Minamata-Learning found in student 2

Findings from the discourse analysis

Results shown in the two figures indicated that Minamata-Learning
succeeded in promoting self-esteem and developing a sense of civic responsibility
in two differently orientated students. Ai and Kaori who both had direct but
opposing familial ties to Minamata disease were different than other students.
Clearly, it was very hard for them to react positively towards Minamata-
Learning. According to Grayson (2002), when students are engaged in service
community volunteer work they have the opportunity to meet needs that are
not being met in the traditional classroom setting . This was proven in the case
of these two students. When Ai and Kaori engaged in Minamata-Learning they
had opportunities to meet their needs, and that helped them to overcome their
individual problems, which was the evidence that their self-esteem gradually
improved. By examining these two students’comments, it appeared that not
only self-esteem but also civic-responsibility was developed. The process of
participating in Minamata-Learning led them to develop a greater sense of
civic-responsibility. Put another way, they felt a closer identity within and
responsibility for the class, the school and the Minamata community.
133
Conclusions
Minamata-Learning promoted self-esteem in these two students and at
the same time developed their senses of civic responsibility. The two students
were different from other students as they were personally connected to the
Minamata issues. Accordingly, the effectiveness of Minamata-Learning on them
was clearer and more specific. To have an objective analysis, it is necessary to
find the impact of Minamata-Learning on the neutral case.
The weakness of using discourse analysis is that the analysis of the discourse
occurred 9 years ago therefore the researcher can only assume the reported
results are accurate. Further, in observation of student cognitive development, it
is impossible to deny that students may have acted in such a way to please the
teacher.

3.2 Using semi-structure interviews to analyze the impact of

Minamata-Learning in student 3
Purpose
The aim of the interview is to analyze the effectiveness of Minamata-
Learning after 10 years with two research questions below:
① Did Minamata-Learning promote self-esteem?
② Did Minamata-Learning build civic responsibility?
Furthermore, with the cooperation of Dr. Kuramoto, the author of Minamata-
Learning, and a student who participated in Minamata-Learning ten years ago,
the study attempted to examine the effectiveness of Minamata-Learning by
triangulating points of views to meet the objective analysis process.

Methodology
There were two interviews in total. Based on the method of semi- structure
interviews, the first interview took place with the second person and the
researcher. The second interview was done with the first person, the second
person and the researcher.
First, the researcher developed two categories self-esteem and civic-
responsibility to analyze the impact of Minamata-Learning in sample student
3. Then, based on the two categories of self-esteem and civic-responsibility, the
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 Chapter 6

Table 6-3　Data collection

Age 22
Sex Female
Occupation University student (3rd)
Social activities - senior care volunteer work
- engaging with special needs students for teacher-training courses
Future career＇s kindergarten school teacher or office worker
direction
Time living in 2 years
Minamata city
Time involved 1 year at last grade of elementary school
in Minamata-
Learning
Junior high Kumamoto city
school
High school Kumamoto city

researcher developed codes referred to each in category.

The first person: Dr. Kuramoto
The second person: Student 3
The third person: The researcher

Student 3 comes from Kumamoto. When she was a fourth grade elementary
school student, her family moved to live in Minamata for two years. In grade
six, she was taught by Mr. Kuramoto and became involved in Minamata-
Learning. Now, she is a junior student studying at university. She was chosen
to be the interviewee because she exemplifies regular students in the class. In
contrast to Kaori and Ai＇s cases, which were very sensitive about Minamata-
Learning because of their fathers＇ relations with Minamata disease and Chisso,
student 3 had no personal involvement. When involved in Minamata-Learning,
what she felt and thought is likely to be the same as other students. Therefore,
the impact of Minamata-Learning on her is possible to stand-in for the impact of
Minamata-Learning on others.

3.2.1 The first interview

Based on the answers of the first interview, several important points are
analyzed. When asked how Minamata-Learning had influenced in her life, the
135
student reported two ways: her habit of not throwing trash away rashly and
the way she engages positively with disabled people. However, the researcher
found that there were two important points she had not realized. They are: the
time she moved to Kumamoto city and was teased by some new friends after
graduating from elementary school in Minamata city and her decision to do
senior＇s care after going to university. Below is an analysis the impact of the
impact of Minamata-Learning found in the first interview.

Table 6-4　Analysis the effectiveness of Minamata-Learning found in first interview

Self-esteem (individual- The effectiveness of Civic responsibility

esteem and social esteem)
a)First met a Minamata
disease victim-unknown,
a little scared, not normal
people, different;
b)After listening to a
story from a Minamata
disease victim-feeling
sorry, reflective, judgment,
positively understanding,
compassionate;
c)Her thoughts of the
Chisso company-unknown,
identifying, judgmentative,
compassionate to
classmates;
d)Her Nagasaki
excursion-scared of being
discriminated against by
new friends, afraid of being
misunderstood;
e)Her feelings when she
was involved for the
first time in volunteer
activities-enjoyable, happy,
appreciated
f)Moved to Kumamoto city
and being teased by some
new friends-misunderstood,
scared, having a hard time,
afraid of saying“I come
from Minamata” ;
Minamata-Learning in the
first interview
1/ Moved to Kumamoto
city, the way she solved the
problem of being teased by
some new friends, (f, j)
2/ Habit of not throwing
rubbish away rashly(e, g)
3/ Not scared of or does not
avoid disabled people(a ,b)
4/ After going to university, disease in junior high
doing seniors care volunteer school–lack of information,
work(e, g)
(understanding and taking
action)
g)Her experiences of
volunteer activities in
Minamata-Learning-like
picnicd, learning by playing
outside, rubbish picking,
planting flowers-each time
enjoyable, exciting;
h)The way students were
taught about Minamata
disease and 4 pollution
attached into the students’
minds a bad imagine of
Minamata;
i)Methods to solve problems
of ignorance about
Minamata disease and
discrimination- one day
picnic by bus to Minamata;
j)The way she solved her
problem after moving to
Kumamoto city and being
teased by some new friends.
She thought she did a good
job;

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 Chapter 6

Figure 6-6　The effectiveness of Minamata-Learning found in student 3

3.2.2 The second interview

Purpose
In contrast to the first interview, the second interview was done with the
attendance of Mr Kuramoto. The aim of the second interview was to see how
different interview answers would be with the attendance of the teacher. In both
interviews two similar interview questions were used. First, when she moved
to Kumamoto city and was teased by some new friends, how did she solve her
problem? Second, why did she decide to do volunteer care work for seniors after

Table 6-5　Differences between first and second interview

The content of her answers
in the first interview
- Scared, discriminated
against, having a hard time,
afraid of telling others that
she comes from Minamata
- Her grandmother and
grandfather passed away
when she was young. So
when talking with other
seniors she felt that she
was talking with her
grandfather, grandmother.
Some differences The content of her answers
in the second interview
a)The way she solved the - The answer focuses on the
problem of after moving to way she solved her problem.
Kumamoto city and being She explained that she was
teased by some new friends, not affected by Minamata
disease and Minamata
disease was not contagious.
- Through Minamata-
f)The reason she has become Learning, the enjoyable,
involved in doing senior care excited imagine of volunteer
volunteering work remained in her mind
so if she has the chance to
do it again, she will.

137
going to university? These answers play an important role in the analysis of the
impact of Minamata-Learning in regards to self-esteem and civic-responsibility.
The first interview took place with only two people, the researcher and
the interviewee. When discussing about how she was teased after moving to
Kumamoto city, the interviewee used these words:“scared, misunderstood,
avoided, had a hard time, afraid of talking about where I come from”. In
contrast, in the second interview with the attendance of her previous teacher
Mr. Kuramoto, the interviewee appeared to avoid talking about her bad
feelings when being misunderstood and focused on the way that she worked
out her problems. This is not to say that the interviewee was dishonest in
second interview. Rather differences in comments likely occurred because her
compassion to the teacher prevented her from talking directly about her sad
feelings. Therefore, in the first interview student 3 appeared to express a more
negative experience than in the second one. In second interview, she appeared
to show her efforts to her teacher. Thus, she focused more about how she solved
her problems when being teased and that Minamata-Learning was the reason
she decided to do seniors volunteer care. Clearly, the first interview had more of
the true feelings of the interviewee than the second one.
Through the second interview, the communication between the teacher and
the student were also observed. When explained about the aim of Minamata-
Learning and the purpose of all lessons and activities, student 3 seemed to be
very surprised. By the way she communicated with the teacher it is clear that
she remembered lessons in Minamata-Learning and her relationship with her
classmates. After 10 years, some unforgettable memories have been kept alive
in her mind. These findings prove that Mr. Kuramoto created a good, trusting
relationship among his students.

Limitations
There are some limitations that need to be taken into consideration. Due
to the attendance of the teacher, in the second interview, student 3 tended to
respond to the interview questions in a way that would not hurt the teacher.

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 Chapter 6

Findings from the semi-structure interviews

By examining the semi-structure interview with one student who
participated in Minamata-Learning 10 years ago, the researcher found that the
impact of Minamata-Learning on self-esteem and civic-responsibility remained
long after the course had finished. It is obvious that when student 3 moved to
Kumamoto city and was teased by some classmates, that that event is a valuable
example of how Minamata-Learning positively influenced the student. She was
scared and afraid of telling others she came from Minamata city. However, she
found her way to solve her problem. The way she responded to overcoming her
problem correlates with improved self-esteem. Also, her correct understanding
about Minamata disease and her decision to take action are the evidence
of developing a sense of citizen responsibility. With the cooperation of Dr.
Kuramoto, the author of Minamata-Learning, and student 3, who participated
in Minamata-Learning ten years ago, the semi-structure interviews examined
the effectiveness of Minamata-Learning by triangulating points of view to meet
the objective analysis process. Consequently, these findings represent a largely
objective type of analysis.

Summary of the impacts of Minamata-Learning through empirical research

After examining the effectiveness of Minamata-Learning through 3 methods
in empirical research one can conclude that Minamata-Learning resulted
in students gaining a positive imagine from volunteer work. By involving
students in meaningful volunteer experiences, Minamata-Learning succeeded
in promoting self-esteem and building civic-responsibility in all 3 students,
in both alternative cases and the neutral case. Students developed a sense
of civic-responsibility through a correct understanding of Minamata disease,
Minamata community issues and needs as well as participating in volunteer
work to improve Minamata city. Students gradually exhibited high self-esteem
because Minamata-Learning helped them feel as valued members of their class,
the school and the the Minamata community. In addition, through Minamata-
Learning, students also had the opportunity to learn more about themselves.
The research indicates that the impact of Minamata-Learning was different
based on each case. In the alternative case, Minamata-Learning gave students
139
the opportunity to overcome their“hidden guilt”and“victim”feelings by
assisting them in gradually discovering their identities. In the neutral case,
Minamata-Learning offered useful knowledge and developed skills for students
to overcome problems. Also, the findings from the semi-structure interviews
provided the best proof on the lasting impact of Minamata-Learning.

Discussion
The correlation between self-esteem and civic-responsibility are of high
interest. In the case of Minamata-Learning, self-esteem and civic-responsibility
correlated strongly. Specifically, self-esteem was built on civic-responsibility. The
two elements affected each other because self-esteem correlated with the class,
the school and the community. Through this correlation, students developed
their identity within the class, the school and the community. This was a very
specific characteristic of Minamata-Learning. Also, the researcher used this
correlation to analyze the impact of Minamata-Learning and to prove that
Minamata-Learning succeeded in promoting self-esteem and developing a sense
of citizenship in and among students.

Conclusions
According to Grayson (2002), a strength of SL is that it occurs outside of the
traditional classroom. This is because when students are engaged in community
volunteer work students have the opportunity to meet needs that are not being
met in the school environment. Clearly, this contentious idea of Grayson’s
matched with the case study of Minamata-Learning.
Based on these findings, the researcher found that, Minamata-Learning
succeeded in promoting self-esteem and building civic-responsibility in all
students for both the alternative and neutral cases. Minamata-Learning
involved students in meaningful community volunteer work to help them
become valued members of their class, their school and of Minamata city.
Students developed a sense of Minamata citizenship and exhibited high self-
esteem through the participation in meaningful volunteer work to improve
Minamata city.
Based on six-step model theory and the practice of Minamata-Learning, the
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 Chapter 6

researcher developed the intermediate theory of SL that offers potential benefits

in promoting self-esteem and building civic-responsibility in elementary school
students. The strong connection between students’interest and community
needs was the key point to making SL successful in the development of self-
esteem and civic-responsibility. The value of the intermediate theory was the
process to develop individual tasks from the main theme of a SL project, which
was done through a series of small steps.

Limitations
As historical research, this research has limitations in the collection of data
to use in the empirical research. The correlation between self-esteem and civic-
responsibility plays a significant part in promoting each other,“what should be
done to create this correlation when integrating SL into the curriculum?”More
studies are needed to answer this question. Also, it is impossible to analyze
other factors which affected students since there are no recorded conditions.
In addition, it is important to keep in mind that the intermediate theory
was developed solely on the case study Minamata-Learning. Its effectiveness is
dependent upon the type of SL that is being employed and may not be as strong
when used where the connections between students’interest and community
needs are not so strong.

141
 Figure 6-7　Service-Learning & Curriculum Management（倉本 2008）

142
 Chapter 6

Notes
1 倉本哲男「カリキュラムの質的研究とアクション・リサーチ『経験科学とは何か』への誘い」、
2008 年、第 19 回カリキュラム学会発表資料より
2 Marcia C. Grayson., p.67

References
Alan S. Waterman., Service-Learning: Applications From the Research, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates publishers, 1997
Andrew Furco and Shelley H. Billig., Service-Learning-The Essence of the Pedagogy, A
Volume In Advances In Service-Learning Research, 2002
Cathryn, B. Kaye.,“The Complete Guide to Service-Learning”, Free Spirit Publishing,
2004
Combining Service and Learning in Higher Education, Evaluation of the Learn and Serve
America, Higher Education Program, RAND, 1999
Cram, S. B.,“The impact of Service-Learning on moral development and self-esteem
of community college ethics students.”Diss. The University of Iowa, 1998. Eric
Document Reproduction Service. ED 460 701. Print.
Drake, S.M., Planning Integrated Curriculum the call to Adventure, Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1993
Fletch, L and Springsteen, J., Six-step Model Training Manual: Vancouver, WA, Service-
Learning Northwest, 2003
Hughes, A.,“A study of Service-Learning at Virginia Highlands Community College and
Mountain Empire Community College.”Diss. East Tennessee State University,
2002. Eric Document Reproduction Service. ED470 917. Print.
Illustrated Minamata disease 絵 で 見 る 水 俣 病 , Foundation Minamata disease centre
Shoshisha, 株式会社世織書房、1993
Kinsley, C. W., and McPherson, K.,“Enriching the Curriculum through Service-
Learning”: Alexandria, VA, Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development1995
倉本哲男「カリキュラムの質的研究とアクション・リサーチ『経験科学とは何か』への誘い」、
2008 年、学会発表資料より
倉本哲男「臨床教育学に関する－考察－授業分析のアプローチから－」『九州教育経営学会研
究紀要』第 11 号　2005 年　

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倉本哲男「カリキュラム経営と課題形成プロセス」『課題設定編　総合的学習の時間－本格実
践に向けて－ CS 学校経営研レポート』増刊号 No.1, 2001 年
Marcia C. Grayson.,“The Description of Self-esteem in Emotionally Disturbed Adolescents
Participating in Service-Learning.” Diss. Seton Hall University, 2002. Print
Minamata disease - Its history and Lessons- Minamata Disease Municipal Museum,
Minamata City Planning Division, 2007
National Service-Learning Conference,“Citizens not Spectators – Fulfilling the Promise of
Democracy”, National Youth Leadership Council presents the 15th Annual, March
28-31, 2004, Orlando, Florida, USA
Rich Willits Cairn and Dr. James C. Kielsmeier., Growing Hope: A Sourcebook on
Integrating Youth Service into the School Curriculum: National Youth Leadership
Council, 1991
Service-Learning and Citizenship: Directions for Research, Michigan Journal of
Community Service Learning, A Publication of the Edward Ginsberg Center for
Community Service and Learning at the University of Michigan, 2000
Shelley, H. Billig., and Alan, S. Waterman.,“Studying Service-Learning-Innovations in
Education Research Methodology”, Taylor and Francis e-Library, 2008
Tetsuo Kuramoto.,“A study of Service-Learning of Curriculum Management in the USA”,
Fukuro Company Publication, Japan, 2008
Tetsuo Kuramoto., Service-Learning in Japan-Environmental Recovery from Minamata
disease, International Review Paper World Association Lesson Study, 2009
Timothy K. Stanton, Dwight E. Giles, Jr. Nadinne I. Cruz, Service-Learning- A Movement＇s
Pioneers Reflect on Its Origins, Practice, and Future, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San
Francisco, 1999
Wade, R. C.,“Community Service-Learning, A Guide to Include Service in the Public
School Curriculum”State University of New York Press, 1997
Vital Results Though Service-Learning, Linking Students and Community in Vermont
Schools, Community Work Press, 2002

(Tetsuo Kuramoto, NguyenThi Thu Huong)

144
Final Chapter
Future Study Focused on Action Research
The most significant point of this research is that Lesson Study is a part of
the conceptual structure of the Curriculum Management theory so that these
relative concepts can become consequently meaningful to School Improvement.
(See figures in Chapter 1.)
In order to study the concepts discussed in this book, and to theorize the
educational practice based on school improvement, the key factor for my future
research is to establish the methodologies for Action Research. It is possible to
define ＂metaphoric” as the educational research ＂of the teachers, by the teachers,
for the teachers”. In the meaning, action research theory achievements should
be reviewed. In addition, future visions should be suggested for building ＂theory
and practice” in education from the perspective of the action research interests.

1. The structure of this Study of Action Research

Recently, action research has been given special attention as one of the
new educational research methodologies. Therefore because of this, in general
teachers are now being recognized as researchers who focus on the process of
problem solving in their practices. Furthermore, action research focuses on the
individual teacher＇s specific character, based on traits, personality, teaching
skills, and overall educational philosophy/morality. As a result, action research
is aimed at improving the teachers’own practices in their own situation and
context.
Kurt Lewin, a well -known researcher of Group Dynamics, is generally
considered as the prime origin of action research. He was concerned with social
problems, and focused on participative problem solving processes in the social
organization. He characterized action research as“a comparative research on
the conditions, effects of various forms of social action, research leading to social
action,”, using the process of“a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a
circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action”(Lewin,
1946 ).
It is very difficult to define the true concept of action research, due to the
145
various theoretical developments of the background. Otherwise, some true
concepts would be shown as literary reviews.
According to Chris Argyris, action science was becoming famous by studying
how human beings choose to behave in difficult situations. Choosing how to act
is the key difference between Single Loop Learning and Double Loop Learning.
Thus, ＂Action Science” was used in individual and organizational learning and
the extent to which human reasoning (Argyris, 1985).
Historically, there are many definitions for action research, one such instance
is the definition by Rory O’Brien (1998) discussed below.
＂Action research...aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people
in an immediate problematic situation and to further the goals of social science
simultaneously. Thus, there is a dual commitment in action research to study a
system and concurrently to collaborate with members of the system in changing
it in what is together regarded as a desirable direction. Accomplishing this
twin goal requires the active collaboration of researcher and client, and thus
it stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of the research
process.” (Harrison, 1995.). Additional definitions follow.
＂Action research is a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those
taking action. The primary reason for engaging inaction research is to assist the
actors in improving their action” (Sagor, 2000).
＂Action research consists of planned, continuous, and systematic procedures
for learning about your professional practice and trying out alternative practices
to improve outcome” (Whitehead, 2006).
The theoretical framework for educational action research is described as
the rhetoric of ＂Knowing in Action” to ＂Knowledge in Action”. This means that
it is important for action researchers to understand the rhetoric of ＂Reflecting in
Action”（Atkins, L & Wallace,2012）
Moreover, from the perspective of subjective theory, action research has an
active tendency that is based on individual teachers＇ personal specific theories
and situational theories derived from their own experiences (Torbert, 2004).
Alternatively, action research from objective and scientific perspectives is a
community of practice, which is a collaborative understanding with those who
are the practitioner, researcher, and stakeholders under the school systems
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 Final Chapter

themselves. It is not for only personal issues, but also includes progressive social
problem solving in the process of fostering educational practice. Therefore,
action research is an eloquence research that emphasizes the integrated,
adequate balance between subjective and objective understandings in the spiral
process of individual and organizational practices. It is also based on behavior
research of the problem solving process within the collaborative research context
(Reason & Bradbury, 2001).
Uchiyama, a well-known Japanese action researcher, quoted a significant
theory of Soft System Methodology by Checkland. He also discussed integration
between the hard and soft systems of organizational management. Action
research by Uchiyama introduced both of Actuality and Auto-Affection, regarding
the subjective personal idea and objectivized consideration. This means that
subjective consideration is generally criticized because of a lack of scientific
objectivities, however, it became necessary to prove the importance of subjective
actuality.　Also, action research is a kind of antithesis to exceed positivism,
and it is essential to recognize it as new research style for practitioners who
always face the own actualities. Uchiyama described action research as learning
from real world knowledge through practitioner＇s experience. It is behavior
research, or ＂Omoi” exists between actuality and reality, between us and society
(Uchiyama, 2008).
According to Sano, action research can possibly be divided into three types. It
is firstly an educational reform movement to involve parents and communities
into the presentation of research data. Secondly, it is a deductive style that puts
theory into practice in order to improve classroom research. Thirdly, teachers
try to foster their own practice through their own experienced knowledge. In
addition, the importance of educational research is to design the methodologies
for the educational practice science from perspectives of action research. As
educational researchers have pointed out, educational practice and theory are
divided into two categories, and they tend not to blend together well.
Above all, regarding the structure of action research, it is indispensable to
discuss an integrated approach between subjective and objective cognitions and
understandings.

147
2. First, Second, and Third-person Action Research
To create a clearer definition of what action research is, rom the point of
subjective and objective cognitions mentioned above, a key note speech at an
action research symposium, which was held at San Diego University in 2007,
will be utilized. According to Torbert, the key factor is ＂First-person, Second-
person, Third-person theory”, which was based on an inter-subjective approach
to integrate subjective and objective cognitions/understandings. In contemporary
social science, the idea of inter-subjectivities, which is first-, second-, third-
person research and practice, has only taken shape since the late 1990s.
The three dimensions of difference are ＂the temporal dimension,” ＂the
practice dimension” and ＂the voice dimension.” The temporal dimension is
divided into the past, the present, and the future. The practice dimension is
differentiated according to whether the research focuses on the researcher＇s own
practice (first person practice), the practice of a group of which she or he is a
member (second-person practice), or the practice of some broader population of
which the researcher may or may not be a member (third-person practice). And
finally, the voice dimension is differentiated according to whether the inquiry is
conducted in (1) the frankly subjective first-person voice of the action inquire.
(2) the multiple, inter subjective second-person voices of multiple action inquire,
and (3) an anonymous, generalized, intended neutral third-person voice.
To conclude, according to Kuramoto (2011), action research refers to the way
a researcher approaches an objective perspective through an inter-subjective
method between personal subjective perspectives. He also states that it is based
on the first-person, second-person, third-person theory, (Torbert, 2004) which is
a typical triangulation theory of qualitative research.
In addition, action research has three concepts necessary to recognize its
distinctive features.
Since action research depends on a practitioner＇s personal knowledge and
experience to improve their practice in particular situations, the concept of type
1 (specific & subjective perspective), which is based on ＂actuality and analysis
of yourself”, must be considered. On the contrary, the concept of type 2 (general
& objective perspective), which is based on ＂reality,” is regarded as a part of
social and human science methodologies. It furthermore has a high status in the
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 Final Chapter

Figure F-1　Torbert and Associates, 2004

Figure F-2　3 concepts of action research

149
academic society in general. Therefore, it naturally tends to use an empirical
methodology to prove some kind of social or human tendencies without a
practitioner＇s specific knowledge and experiences. It is difficult to analyze
individual cases to grasp their authentic reality.
Finally, the most important concept for action research is based on the
concept of typicality (Type 2). This type of concept is necessary in order to
integrate the general/objective and specific/subjective perspectives of action
research. Because action research needs to relatively acquire both concepts,
the indication is similar to the philosophy of the case study method in a typical
concept theory.

3. Additional aspect of action research

To profoundly understand the additional aspect of action research, it is
required to recognize the 3 dimensions for action research, which are the ＂XYZ
aspects” for the integration between educational practice and theory.
The ＂X aspect,” which is the practical aspect, consists of ＂inductive research”
and ＂deductive research.” Inductive research is a productive approach from
practices into theories. For example, practitioners generally have their own rich,
practical experience; however, they perform their practice through their own
senses and previous experiences without understanding authentic theoretical
meanings. As a result, they cannot organize their practices to recognize the

Figure F-3　XYZ aspects for action research

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 Final Chapter

meanings and convey them to others.

Therefore, it is essential for practitioners to build their own theory from
their own practices. This requires the inductive approach of action research.
In contrast, deductive research is the opposite approach, which firstly tends
to grasp educational theories, and secondly applies it into practice. Since both
approaches have blended together relatively well, they are often adapted into
research structures such as Ed.D. dissertation on the action research style.
Concerning the pre-survey in that type of dissertation, it often relies on an
inductive approach for practitioners in order to build their original theories from
the perspective of individual practices. The main-survey consists of a deductive
approach for adapting theories into their own practices to improve the quality.
The ＂Y aspect,” which is the academic aspect, consists of ＂theoretical
research” and ＂empirical research.” As long as it is regarded as academic
research, it is imperative to consider literature reviews in theoretical research,
as well as in empirical research, to establish research questions and to conduct
empirical methodologies which might include qualitative and quantitative
approaches.
Finally, the ＂Z aspect,” which is the ＂International aspect,” consists of ＂import
research” and ＂export research.” The import research style depended on an old
Japanese style of research, which was very popular a few decades ago. Since
Japanese researcher in the education field was under developed at the time,
the research style of translating from western educational systems into the
Japanese system was frequently respected in the academic societies. However,
since the 2010s, the exporting of export Japanese educational practice and
research results has gradually increased. Some Japanese educational concepts
are gaining the attention of international educational societies; a recurring topic
is lesson study, the main topic of this book. This means that the export research
style is also essential to develop action research strategies.
In Figure F-4 below, in order to conduct the action research procedure, it
is imperative to understand the process of action research. The reason why
academic research and educational practice do not combine together is due
to the cognitive distance between them. For instance, a practitioner may not
be able to use a general and academic educational theory because of his/her
151
 Figure F-4　The process of action research

lack of academic experience and their overemphasizing of practical interests.

Therefore, the most important strategy for improving action research is to build
an intermediate theory to connect between academic theory and educational
practice.
Teachers need to analyze their own personalities and practice tendencies
from specific and situational theoretical concepts. As a result, it is imperative
for practitioners to reflect on their own effectiveness of practice in their themes.
In general, teachers should focus on their practice through their sense and
sensibilities which are based on their previous experiences due to a lack of time
in their hectic work schedules. In action research, empirical methodologies,
which include the qualitative and quantitative approach, are required to prove
the outcome of their practice.

4. Action research template and a dissertation example

If one focuses on how to complete a practical dissertation, action research
would be an appropriate methodology. Therefore, the template below, Figure
F-5 provides one sample of a master dissertation, is utilizing an action research
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 Final Chapter

style.
(The author was Kuramoto＇s student in the master＇s program at Saga
University, in 2012)
＂The study of Project management on school education -A case study of
integration between elementary school and junior high school-” by NGUYEN　
HUYEN　TRANG.
This dissertation was completed with the aim of investigating to what extent
the Project Management theory can be effectiveness in the educational field
through a case study of school integration. By performing both qualitative and

Figure F-5　The template of a dissertation on action research

153
quantitative data analysis methods, it is also important to determine what
factors and areas aim the effectiveness of the project.
Another action research sample is shown below.
(The author was Kuramoto＇s student in the master＇s program at Saga
University, in 2010)
＂Findings from Minamata-Learning - the typical case of Service-Learning in
Japan
-Proposal to develop the Intermediate theory of Service-Learning-”
by Nguyen Thi Thu Huong
Introduction
The Research problem
Research purpose
The value of research, The research structure, The definition of terms

Chapter 1 Literature Review

1. The definition of Service-Learning
1.1 Summary of the definition of Service-Learning
1.2 Essential elements of quality Service-Learning
1.3 An example of Service-Learning in the USA
2. The development of Service-Learning in the USA
2.1 The popularity of Service-Learning in the USA
2.2 The history of Service-Learning in the USA
3. Service-Learning from the point of view of an Integrated Curriculum
3.1 Definition of an Integrated Curriculum
3.2 Method of an Integrated Curriculum
3.2.1 Multidisciplinary Integration
3.2.2 Interdisciplinary Integration
3.2.3 Trans-disciplinary Integration
4. The educational goals of Service-Learning
4.1 Citizenship Education
4.1.1 Definition of Citizenship Education
4.1.2 Relationship between Citizenship Education and Service-Learning
4.2 Character Education
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 Final Chapter

4.2.1 Definition of Character Education

4.2.2 Relationship between Character Education and Service-Learning
5. The evaluation of Service-Learning from the point of view of Reflection
5.1 Definition of Reflection in Service-Learning
5.2 The process of refection in the cycle of Service-Learning
5.3 Method of Reflection

Chapter 2 Findings from Minamata-Learning, the effectiveness of Service-Learning on

self-esteem and civic-responsibility
1. Minamata disease and Minamata-Learning
1.1 Minamata disease
1.2 Minamata-Learning
1.2.1 The definition of Minamata-Learning
1.2.2 Minamata-Learning framework
2. Empirical Research
Purpose of empirical research
Defining of terms
Methodology
Research Scope and Limitations
Student Profile
2.1 Part 1 Using text-mining in the empirical research
a. Methodology, Data Collection and Data Analysis
b. Findings
c. Conclusions
2.2 Part 2 Using Discourse analysis in the empirical research
a. Methodology and Data Collection
2.2.1 The case of student 1
Findings from the case of student 1
2.2.2 The case of student 2
Findings from the case of student 2
b. Findings from student 1 & 2
c. Conclusions

155
 2.3 Part 3 Using a Semi-structured interview in the empirical research
a. Methodology and Data Collection
2.3.1 The first interview
Limitations
Development of Category and Code Frames
Findings from the first interview
2.3.2 The second interview
Limitations
Purpose
Interview Question
Findings from the second interview
b. Findings from the Semi-structured interview
c. Conclusions
Summary and Discussion

Chapter 3 The intermediate theory of Service-Learning

1. The six-step model of Service-Learning
2. Curriculum of Minamata-Learning based on the six-step model
3. Developing the intermediate theory of Service-Learning
Chapter4 –Conclusion–

5. An example of Action research –focused on classroom

management–
This is a very typical example of action research which focused on self-
analysis. The bottom line of action research is that even though you have
the same theory and same teaching plan among teachers at your school, the
effectiveness of each classroom must be slightly different. This is because each
teacher has his/her own specific personality and professional skills.
In this case, the action researcher (Kawakami, 2012) needed to analyze
her own specific teaching character. The methodology of the action research
contained two data analyzing strategies. One involved text mining through
software called Word-Miner, the other was the KJ method which was an inter-
subjective analog strategy.
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 Final Chapter

Firstly, Kawakami, who was an 8th grade classroom and mathematics

teacher, surveyed her impression on the students and parents without their
identification in order to analyze their true answers.
The question items were;
① What do you think of me as a teacher? (both students and parents)
② How do I associate with each individual student? (both students and
parents)
③ What do you think of me as a person? (only students response, not
parents)
This teacher collected 133 respondent answers, which consisted of 31
first level students (as a classroom teacher), 43 second level students (as a
mathematics teacher), and 38 third level students (as a mathematics teacher of
9th grade). The teacher also gained responses from 22 parents (from only the 8th
grade classroom).
The results are shown in Figure F-6 below. The factors sampled from the
teacher＇s specific characteristics were“fairness,”
“flexible sociological distance
between her and the students,” “great observant sense,”and
“eagerness,”
“aspiration.”
It is important for self-analyzed action research to examine the practitioner＇s
specific factors because each practitioner has their own educational style and
effectiveness for their students, even though many teachers may have used the
same educational theories, teaching materials and strategies.
Therefore, the important characteristic of the model (Figure F-7) below is
that it included her own specific factors and genuine classroom management
theories. Furthermore, it is necessary in order to develop the personal
intermediate theory of classroom management as one of the action research
strategies.
The small steps of intermediate theory play an important role in helping
students recognize the connection between themselves and the whole class
in order to improve classroom settings. In other words, these small steps
emphasize the integration between students’interests and the whole classroom
needs.
As shown in the explanation of Kawakami＇s classroom management style,
157
 Figure F-6　Example of self-analyzed action research

it is the teaching and learning method that integrates students＇ interests with
classroom needs to increase both students＇ personal/social skill development
under the classroom culture. Each micro step in Step 1 (cooperation) and Step
2 (independence) are essential to make students aware of their roles and their
ability to cultivate their classroom climate. When students understand the
connection between themselves and classroom problems, they become active
partners and are highly motivated to accomplish their classroom tasks. These
small steps are part of the process of developing individual tasks from the main
theme of classroom project. This process helps students identify their vital
connection with each other.

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 Final Chapter

Collaboration with Parents

UD(aspect of environment)
UD(Emotional aspect)
Network of school

Network of the grade

Cooperation Independence

⑫
① ② ③ ⑬ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨
④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑭ ⑩ ⑪
⑮
Network of speciality organization

Collaboration with other subject teachers

Autonomy

⑯ ⑰ ⑱ ⑲ ⑳

The uniqueness of practitioner

React to individual

Figure F-7　Example of personal theoretical action research

Through the use of this process of classroom management, the common

problems of the classroom become relevant as a personal problem to each
student. Therefore, it is possible to say that the micro steps included in Step
1 (cooperation) and Step 2 (independence) are valuable in helping students
identify their personal classroom problems, to positively engage them in
classroom volunteer work, and to promote the development of students＇ self-
esteem.
Step 3 (autonomy) engages students in performing classroom volunteer/
positive work, which is the foundation of building democratic responsibility in
159
the classroom. Students＇ correct understanding of problems facing the classroom
and their appropriate actions to improve their classroom are ways for them
to become responsible students. Step 4 (reflection) is the best method to make
students recognize their efforts and improve their self-esteem.
The intermediate theory with the self-analysis method above was developed
from action research, which has proven to be beneficial in promoting self-
esteem and building democratic responsibility in junior high school society. This
action research successfully integrated students＇ interests with the issues of
their own classroom. In this action research, Kawakami＇s specific factors were
core elements combined with other analyzed elements. The issues of classroom
management were genuine and meaningful. She had a strong ＂connection”
to her students. Through their involvement in volunteer/positive work, the
students had the opportunity to meet their individual needs. Their volunteer/
positive work was not only meaningful to the classroom management but also
relevant to themselves. The issues of classroom management gradually became
personal tasks to students when they recognized their roles in the process of
improving the classroom.
According to Kawakami, when students are engaged in classroom volunteer
work students have the opportunity to meet needs that are not being met in an
average school environment. Clearly, this contentious idea matched with the
case study of action research.
Based on these findings through the analysis of the teacher＇s specific
teaching characteristics, Kawakami found that action research succeeded in
promoting self-esteem and building democratic responsibility in all students
in all cases. Action research involved the students in meaningful classroom
volunteer/positive work to help them become valued members of their school and
classroom. Students developed a sense of classroom membership and exhibited
high self-esteem through participation in meaningful volunteer/positive work to
improve their small classroom society.
Based on the model theory shown above and the practice of action
research, Kawakami developed an intermediate theory of the classroom that
offers potential benefits in promoting self-esteem and building democratic
responsibility in junior high school students. The strong connection between
160
 Final Chapter

students’interest and classroom needs was the key point to create a successful
classroom. The value of the intermediate theory combined with self-analysis
was the process to develop individual tasks from the main theme of a classroom
project, completed through a series of small steps.
Conversely, there are some limitations in this research. It is essential to keep
in mind that the intermediate theory was developed solely on the case study of
action research.
However, to conduct action research procedure, it is imperative to understand
the process itself. The reason why academic research and educational practice
do not combine well is due to the cognitive distance between them. Therefore,
the most important strategy for improving action research is to build an
intermediate theory to connect academic theory and educational practice.
This is especially important in action research which is“of the teachers,
by the teachers, for the teachers,”where teachers need to analyze their own
personalities and practice tendencies from specific concepts and a situation
theory. In conclusion, it is important for self-analyzed action research to
examine practitioner＇s specific qualities, because each practitioner has their own
educational style and effective skill and technique.

Reference
Atkins, L & Wallace, S. (2012). Qualitative Research in Education. London: Sage Publications,
LTD.
Argyris, C. (1994). Knowledge for Action. San Francisco CA: Jossey-Bass.
Harrison, R. (1995). Consultant’s Journey. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Kawakami,T.(2012). ”Action Research on Classroom Management in Junior High School,” master
dissertation of Saga University.
Kuramoto, T.(2008). Amerika Niokeru Karikyuramu Manejimennto no Kenkyuu (A study of Cur-
riculum Management in the USA), Okayama: Fukuro Press.
Kuramoto,T. (2011). An Action Research of Lesson Study in Japan–From the Point of View of
Student’s Achievement and Teacher’s Professional Development– Collaborative Action
Research Network, London, UK.
Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. J Soc. Issues 2(4): 34-46.
O’Brien, R. (1998). An Overview of the Methodological Approach of Action Research.

161
 Faculty of Information Studies, University of toronto.
Reason, P., and Torbert, B. (2001).The action turn toward a transformational social science: A fur-
ther look at the scientific merits of action research, Concepts and Transformation, 6(1).
Reason, P., and Bradbury, H. (2001). Handbook of Action Research, London: Sage.
Sainz. L., Bi. (2008). National collaborative action research project with the Purepecha community
in Rosarito, B.C. Mexico. (Presentation at Action Research Symposium).
Sagor, R. (2000). Guiding School Improvement with Action Research, ASCD, Alexandria.
Stringer, T. (1999). Action Research Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Torbert, B., and Associates. (2004). Action Inquiry, The Secret of Timely and Transforming Leader-
ship, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehier Publisher.
Uchiyama, K. (2008). A New Theoretical Grounding of Action research: Based on Checkland’s Soft
System Methodology, Collaborative Action Research Network, London, UK.
Uchiyama, K. (2003).The Theory and Practice of Actuality, Institute of Business Research, Tokyo:
Daito Bunka University.
Whitehead, J. & McNiff, J. (2006). Action Research Living Theory, London; Sage.
(Tetsuo Kuramoto. Tomoko Kawakami)

162
Action Research
Appendix
Action Research Appendix 1
全国 19 国立／教職大学院の比較調査（国内調査編）
－カリキュラムマネジメントと Action Research の視点から－

第１節　先行研究の総括

1. 教職大学院におけるカリキュラムマネジメント論
一般にカリキュラムマネジメントとは、学校経営の中心であるカリキュラムをいかに
開発して経営をしていくのか、そのカリキュラムの開発・経営がどのような学校改善効
果を持ち、生徒にどのような学習効果をもたらすのかを命題に、教育経営学と教育方法
学が相互補完的に重なる「統合的」な領域を研究対象とする。
その学校改善論とは、問題解決性・教育経営の活性化・ポジティブな学校文化形成・
自主的／自立的な組織体・開かれた協働性等を意味するが、学校組織の存在意義は、組
織上の合理化・民主化論を踏まえつつ、最終的に生徒の知的・人間的成長のための教育
システムであり、即ちこれが教育（組織）目標となる。つまり、学校改善に寄与するカ
リキュラムマネジメント論とは、一定の学校教育目標の具現化を図り、生徒の育成を通
して評価するカリキュラム PDCA 過程の学校経営論である（高野 1970，小泉 1986，中
留 1984，中留／田村 2004）。
よって、端的に述べれば、カリキュラムマネジメントとは、大学・学校経営の中心で
あるカリキュラムをいかに開発、および経営していくのか、そのカリキュラムがどのよ
うな改善効果を持ち、学生・生徒にどのような教育効果をもたらすのかについて論じる
ものと総括できよう。
以上、本報告では上述の先行研究も踏まえて、カリキュラムマネジメント論を以下の
ように定義する。
「教育目標達成のための教育内容・方法上の指導系列（Curriculum & Instruction）と
しての教育活動と、それをサポートする条件整備としての組織経営活動（Management）
との２系列において、その目標に対応した成果を生成するカリキュラム PDCA 過程と
する動態的概念が、カリキュラムマネジメントであり、カリキュラムの開発・経営論を
中核に据えれば、学校組織文化・システムの改善過程に有効性を持ち、生徒の教育効果
を上げることが、より可能となる。」（倉本 2008）
さらに、近年のカリキュラムマネジメント論は、教育方法学と教育経営学が相互補完
的に交差する融合的な領域において、教育組織の中心であるカリキュラムの開発・経営
を通して教師集団がどのように成長し、Students に如何なる学習効果を与えるのかを命

165
題に、大学レベルも含む教育機関・学校改善論を研究対象とする場合がある。カリキュ
ラムの条件整備・組織運営の側面も含めた「カリキュラムを誰が創り、どう動かすのか」
とする研究領域の発展は、学校改善論、および大学レベルにおけるカリキュラムマネジ
メントにとっても極めて重要である（中留 2012）。
（詳細は、中留武昭：『大学のカリキュラムマネジメント―理論と実際』東信堂 2012）

そこで、上述の論調を援用したカリキュラム開発・経営の視点から、本報告における
教職大学院のカリキュラムマネジメントとは、「実践計画としての静的なカリキュラム
観を越えて PDS 過程論を踏まえた動的なカリキュラム観を前提に、教育内容・方法上
の指導系列としての教育活動（Curriculum & Instruction）と、それを支援する条件整
備系列の経営活動（Management）との２系列を統合してカリキュラムを開発・経営す
るトータルな活動」と定義し、教職大学院の「カリキュラムを創り・動かすこと」を意
味するものとする。
以上により本報告では、教職大学院カリキュラムの開発的側面と経営的側面に焦点化
して調査を進めるものとする。教職大学院のカリキュラムマネジメント論は、カリキュ
ラム開発論が対象とする概念範疇を拡大させ、組織システムの条件整備・運営レベルま
で含む広義のカリキュラム論を意味している。
特に全国の 19 国立／教職大学院は、それぞれの県教育委員会・地域学校等との連携
を前提としており、多種多様な教育実践の事例を内包している。よって、既に設置され
ている教職大学院のカリキュラムマネジメント論に特化して調査を進めることは、10.15
報告書「大学院段階の教員養成の改革と充実等について」以降、今後、全国レベルで教
職大学院を設置、および改善を図る関係団体への示唆を得ることになり、ここに本報告
の調査意義があると考えている。
また、教職大学院のカリキュラムマネジメント論を調査対象としたその全体性を検討
していく上で、後述する「理論と実践の融合・往還」を分析視点に設定し、そのカリキュ
ラムマネジメント論の一断面を明らかにする。換言すれば本報告では、教職大学院のカ
リキュラムマネジメント論を「理論と実践の融合・往還とは何か。その指導方法の実態
はいかなるものか。」に特化して実証的に分析する。
よって、本報告の教職大学院におけるカリキュラムマネジメント調査は、今後の転換
期・発展期に入るとされる教職大学院の拡充と発展的動向において、一定の試金石にな
るとも考えられ、「カリキュラムの開発・経営論を中核に据えることが、教職大学院シ
ステムの改善過程にいかなる有効性を持つのか、いかなる教育効果を上げるのか。」と
いう調査課題に対して考察を進めていく１。

166
 Action Research Appendix 1

2. 教職大学院における Action Research 論

今後の教職大学院の拡充と発展的動向に先立ち、「大学院段階の教員養成の改革と充
実等について」から派生する全国的動向、およびその他の教員養成系の先行研究を総括
して浮かび上がった検討課題の１つは、教職大学院におけるカリキュラム開発論、およ
び方法論（Curriculum & Instruction）を再考する必要性である。既述のように、特に
本報告では、全国の教職大学院のスローガンとして挙げられる「理論と実践の融合・往
還とは何か」を分析視点に設定し、19 国立／教職大学院を訪問調査した。そこで、数多
くの教職大学院（兵庫教育大・鳴門教育大・東京学芸大等）が指導方法論としてシラバ
スにも位置付けている AR の視点から、まずは暫定的に「理論と実践の融合・往還とは
何か」について論じておく。
近年、わが国に限らず、むしろ国際的に AR は実践研究方法の一環として大いな
る 注 目 を 浴 び て い る が（American Educational Research Association 2014, World
Association of Lesson Studies 2013, Collaborative Action Research Network 2012）、
概して AR とは、社会／経験科学分野の実践的課題において、現在進行形の問題解決
のプロセスを重視した研究であり、実践者の「経験知」
「固有知」等によって提起さ
れ、実践者自身の実践的改善、および質的向上を図る研究思想・方法論と総括できよう
（Stringer, 1999; Torbert, 1998; Sagor, 2000; Reason and Bradbury, 2001; Torbert, and
Associates, 2004; Uchiyama, 2008.）。
一方、教職大学院の枠組みにおける AR は、実践的研究者（指導者）の「研究知」と
協働してより望ましい問題解決の方法論を構築し、概して PDCA 過程を含みながらも、
実践者自身が、自己フィードバック・リフレクションを通して改善・発展する動的・行
為的研究でもある（Kuramoto 2014）。一般に教師自身は、日常の実践に対しても実感に
よる振り返りを行うものであるが、「理論と実践の融合・往還」を考察する場合は、そ
れらを理論、実証的データ、および関係者との意見交換等により体系的な学びを図るこ
とが重要となる。
例えば質的研究論に着目した場合、教師が実践している一般的な授業記録は、主観性
のみに依拠したエッセイであり、研究手続きや記述方法についての特定法則が曖昧とな
りがちである。しかし、教職大学院の AR の特徴は、客観性・科学性の視点を加えて授
業過程を分析し、優れた授業特性や法則性を導き出すことにある。その研究方法は、知
見を一般化する上で研究手続き・記述形式・評価判定の一定基準を示しており（平山
1997，野口 2002，Flick 2002）、質的研究論の現代的動向も AR における「理論と実践の
融合・往還」に対して一定の示唆を含んでいると整理できよう。
以上、国内外の AR 先行研究を踏まえつつ、本調査では、教師自身が、これまでの教

167
師経験で培った「実践知／固有知」を前提としながらも、教職大学院カリキュラムの
PDCA 過程を通した「研究知」を培う観点から、「自己の理論性と実践性を融合したり、
往還したりする」形態の AR を検討対象とする。換言すれば AR とは、自己実践におい
て協働化した研究文脈を前提とし、その実践的問題の解決過程に関する行為研究であり、
個人的・組織的実践の改善過程において「実践知／固有知」と「研究知」との統合的バ
ランスを重視するものである。
よって、本学 Working Group（以下、WG）では、上述の AR 論の文脈に位置づけ、
育成すべき「めざす教師像」を「理論的言語と実践的言語を状況・場面によって使い分
けたり、相手のニーズに応じて通訳したりできるバイリンガル教師」とした（愛知教育
大学・教職大学院 WG，2013）。具体的に本学の AR は、「教職大学院生が、自己実践の
改善を通して、教師的素養に関する自己成長を実感できるように行う第一人称の実践研
究」であり、実践に関与・観察しながら省察（Reflection）によって自己実践を発展す
るものである。教師は誰でも、自分自身の実践を振り返り、主観的な「実感」を基に判
断するものだが、一方で、教職大学院の AR とは、実践研究の方法論やリサーチデザイ
ンを学び、可能な限り体系的に一般化し、省察を通して反復可能性を求める点にも大き
な特徴がある。

第２節　教職大学院における「理論と実践の融合・往還」論
　　　　－仮説的提案と調査目的（Research Question）
－

2013 年に示された『大学院段階の教員養成の改革と充実等について』
（p.8.）には、
「大
学院段階については、国立の教員養成系修士課程において、現職教員の再教育と実践的
指導力の養成を目的に掲げてきたにもかかわらず、これまでともすれば個別分野の学問
的知識・能力が過度に重視される一方、学校現場での実践力・応用力など教職としての
高度の専門性の育成がおろそかになっており、学校現場で活躍する中核的な教員を養成
する体系的なプログラムを必ずしも提供してこなかった。
」との批判的指摘がある。
また、教職大学院の「教職課程改善のモデル」としての取り組みには（p.11.）
、「大学
院における『理論』の学修と学校における『実践』を組み合わせ、理論知と実践知を往
還する探究的な省察力を育成する体系的な教育課程の確立」が挙げられている。
さらに、中教審「教職生活の全体を通じた教員の資質能力の総合的な向上方策につい
て（答申）
」においては（2012 p.3.）
、「教科や教職に関する高度な専門的知識や、新たな
学びを展開できる実践的指導力を育成するためには、教科や教職についての基礎・基本

168
 Action Research Appendix 1

帰納的能力

教職大学院 中間言語の 教職大学院

世界
理論的言語 （附属の研究会） 実践的言語
の世界 の世界
（Ex. 学会等） （Ex. 職員室等）

演繹的能力

図１－１　バイリンガル教師の構造

を踏まえた理論と実践の往還による教員養成の高度化が必要である。
」と明言されている。
例えば、教職大学院での実習については、
「教員としての高度な専門性と課題解決力を
やしなうため、自ら企画・立案したテーマについて学校現場においての体験・経験を省
察し、高い専門的自覚に立って客観化し、理論と実践の往還・融合をはたしうるもので
なければならない。その点で、単なる学校実習に終わるものではなく、探究的実践演習
としての性格を重視する必要がある。
」（日本教職大学院教会年報，2011）
。
そこで、以上のような動向に鑑み、本学の教職大学院 WG における AR の場合、
「理論
と実践の融合・往還」を大前提に据え、
「教師の、教師による、教師のための研究」と仮
説的に定義している。端的にそのイメージは、図１－１に示す理論的言語と実践的言語
の２つの言語を自由自在に操れる「バイリンガル教師」の育成とも仮説的に整理できよう。
教職大学院に在籍する院生の最大限の関心は、当然のごとく教育実践の腕を磨くこと
である。それでも「理論と実践の融合・往還」に関心を示す院生は少なくはない。無論、
教職大学院においては、実践力を向上することが大前提ではあるが、実践を改善するア
イデアを理論的に整理する能力（帰納的研究力）
、同時に、構築した理論を新しい実践場
面で応用する能力（演繹的研究力）
、あるいはそれを他者へ伝達・説明する能力等は、今
後のスクールリーダーにとって極めて重要だと認識できる。
例えば、詳細は Part３で後述するが、本学の修了生に対するアンケート「教職大学院
の学びにおいて『理論と実践の融合』について記述してください。
（自由記述）
」には、
典型例として以下のように挙げられる（宮下・倉本 2014）。
・「単に『理論をふまえた上での教育実践』というだけでなく、校内研修等でのバイリ
ンガル（理論を実践レベルに変換して通訳する）として活性化することが求められて
いる。」

169
・「現場の実態に対して課題をもち、それらの課題を解決していくための研究を行う際
にバックボーンとなる理論（アカデミック理論）をもち、それをもとに中間理論を構
築していくこと。」
・「今まで経験上で得た知識についてしかものが言えずに自信もなかったので、
『こうし
たほうがいい』と思っても言えなかったことが、『大学院の授業でもあった』という
お墨つきがついて自信をもって言えるようになりました。
」
・「教職での実践は、ほとんど我流であり、実証の面が弱く、不安な面もあった。しかし、
教職大学院で理論を学ぶことで、これまでの実践と融合させることができ、新しい学
びとなった。さらに今後は、学んだ理論を実践につなげていきたい。」
・「経験（実践）から得たものを一般化（理論）すること。例えば、大学院＝理論、実
践＝現場）、というイメージで、院で得たことを現場ですぐに実践しようと努めた。
修了後も理論を学ぶ機会を自ら設定していくことが必要。
」
・「一緒に学ぶ仲間もそれなりのレベル以上の者ばかりなので、討議の質が高いことは
確かである。」

以上のような論調に加え、さらに「理論と実践の融合・往還」に関する問題提起の意
味で、組織心理学の視点を踏まえた Torbert の AR 論が示唆に富む２。彼は、専門的な
実践活動が科学的知識に依拠した制度的状況に埋め込まれてしまい、研究者と実践者と
の二分化階層を生産したことを問題視している。その結果として研究と実践の階層文化
は、「理論的原理」が上部構造を占めており、「経験的・実践的な問題解決」は下部構造
に位置付くという社会的意識に帰結したと指摘する。（Torbert 2004）。
しかし近年では、専門家・研究者至上主義に対する懐疑論が生起し、実践性を重視す
る「行為中の省察」が注目されるようになった。有能な実践家の職業生活は暗黙の「行
為中の知識」に依存し、暗黙の認識判断、および熟練行為を重視する。さらに、実践行
為の文脈状況における「反省的実践家」（Reflective Practitioner）の研究意義や動的実
践の発展性・全体性の認識・理解こそが必要であると論じられ始めた（Schoen・佐藤／
秋田訳，2007）。
そこで、その「反省的実践家」論の問題意識を踏まえ、実践研究の発展的示唆を含む
AR 論に鑑み、本学 WG の指導論は、実践的な主観性と研究的な主観性との複眼／間主
観性によって客観性に接近する（実践を科学的に改善する）ことを基本姿勢とする。
換言すれば本指導論は、教師自身が教師経験で培った「実践知／固有知」を前提とし
ながらも、当該実践に関与する学校関係者の主観的考察（実感の総体）、および教職大
学院サイドの「研究知」との複眼的／間主観的考察により、改善志向を内包する科学性・

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 Action Research Appendix 1

Action Research
Academic 理論 中間理論 教育実践の構造

中間理論の視点

Reflection
固有性・状況論・主観 固有性・状況論
（主体）
Goal
教育実践の視点 学術理論の視点

Reflection / 実証

図１－２　Action Research の構造

客観性にアプローチするものと規定できよう３。
こうした課題意識を前提に、本学 WG が暫定的に示す教育目標論とは、理論的言語と
実践的言語の２つの言語を自由自在に操れる「バイリンガル教師」の育成こそが、教職
大学院における「目指す院生像」であるとする。
よって AR の観点から、本学教職大学院 WG が示した「理論と実践の融合・往還」に
アプローチする指導原理は、図１－２の通りである。高度な専門性と課題解決力を養う
ため、自ら企画・立案したテーマについて学校現場においての体験・経験を省察、およ
び高い専門的自覚に立って客観化し、「理論と実践の往還・融合」を図る AR の指導方
法論の仮説的提案を示すものとして理解している。
一般に現職院生が、教職大学院で専門的なアカデミック理論を学ぶ場合、これを日常
の教育実践に適用しようとしても、あまりにも抽象的過ぎるが故に、その援用が困難な
ケースが、いくつか報告されている。しかし、これまで教育現場・実践者側の一般的な
意識は、「理論的原理」が専門職構造の上部を占めており、
「経験的・実践的な問題解決」
は下部構造であり、所詮、双方は分離したものとの偏重意識から「理論と実践の融合・
往還」の浸透度は低位のままであったと指摘できよう。一方、大学院・専門学会等のア
カデミック理論の生産者側からすれば、「離れ小島で生産され、消費される構造」が疑
問視され、究極的には、消費者側である教育現場・実践者の意識・力量不足として矮小

171
化されてきた教育実践研究の背景、いわゆる「研究者の驕り」も否定できないのではな
かろうか（宮下・倉本 2014）。
そこで、本学 WG が仮説的に提案する AR とは、アカデミック理論から開始した場合、
実践者自身の固有性（人格性）、および教育実践の場（学級・学校・地域等）における
状況論を踏まえて、自己実践に適した「中間理論・自分なり論」を構築する。それを受
けて実際の教育実践へと援用・展開し、実践者の実感を前提とした主体的な自己実践を
発展できるとする。よって、この本学 WG スタイルの AR（図１－２）は「理論と実践
の融合・往還」の関係を具体的に指導する上で、現段階では仮説的であるが、一定の提
案性があるものと考察・整理している（愛知教育大学・教職大学院 WG，2013）。
（もちろん、逆思考の場合、自己実践の重層的な積み上げ、および帰納的な方法論によっ
て中間・自分なり論・アカデミック理論を生産する場合もある。
）

以上のことから、本報告（PART１）の調査目的（Research Question）を以下のよ
うに設定した。

①　教 職大学院・カリキュラム開発を考察する上で、
「理論と実践の融合・往還」
の視点から「報告書指導論」と「実習指導論」に特化して一断面を質的に分析し、
その実態（成果と課題）を検討する。

②　教職大学院・カリキュラムの経営の特徴を考察する上で、
「理論と実践の融合・
往還」が機能するために、如何なる組織システムの構築、及び条件整備がなさ
れているのか、その実態（成果と課題）を検討する。

また、本調査報告（PART１）の具体的な全体構成（分析対象・分析視点）は、以下
の通りである。

第一に、分析対象については、カリキュラムマネジメント（開発と経営）の視点から
構成した。
①　カリキュラム開発の PDCA（目標・内容・方法・評価）
　　カリキュラム開発におけるアドミッションポリシー等の目標論、それに対応する
具体的なカリキュラム構成内容、実際の授業方法論、および以上に関する評価論の
概要についての調査。

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 Action Research Appendix 1

②　カリキュラム経営（内外の協働性・リーダーシップ論・組織文化論）
　　カリキュラム開発を支援する条件整備の側面。例えば教育委員会との関係性、学
内での組織的立場、組織に影響を与えるリーダーシップ、および研究者と実務家が
織りなす組織文化等の概要についての調査。

第二に、分析視点については、既述の「理論と実践の融合・往還」の視点から設定した。
特に、上述の分析対象を分析視点で切り取った一断面に特化し、その断面から浮かび
上がる概念（着目点）を明らかにする全体構成を持たせており、
本調査では「修了報告書」
「学校実習」「授業方法論」「カリキュラムの条件整備」等の観点に焦点化した。

第３節　 教職大学院における「理論と実践の融合・往還」に関
する調査概要

ここで、本調査報告における教職大学院のカリキュラムマネジメントの調査フレーム
ワークの構造図は、図１－３のように構築した。

１）調査目的：図１−３のように教職大学院のカリキュラムマネジメントの態様を調
査する上で、その分析視点を「理論と実践の融合・往還」とした。その際に特に、
修了報告書・学校実習、その他の事象に着目した。

教職大学院の
カリキュラム改善
1. 研究対象：教職大学院における
      カリキュラム改善とは？
合
融

修了報告書の質的改善
の

2. 分析視点：「理論と実践の融合」
践
実
と
論

3. オリジナリティー：修了報告書、
理

      学校実習、および授業の質的改善 学校実習、授業の質的改善

図１－３　本調査のフレームワーク

173
２）調査方法：19 国立／大学教職大学院へ面談・インタビュー方式（半構造化インタ
ビュー）。

（１）　調査訪問前に、以下の（Ⅰ）（Ⅱ）の調査項目をメールして調査に対する事前
準備を依頼した。
（２）　インタビュー訪問の際、質問項目に従いインタビューを実施したが、基本的に
本学・調査者は対象校（回答者）に一任し、その際に Voice recorder に録音した。
　　　　（各校の状況によって同一形式ではなかったが、概してインタビュー時間は 90
分から 120 分程度。調査者は１～２名。回答者は１～３名。
）
（３）　本報告は 19 国立／教職大学院を訪問した各「調査 Report」
（資料参照）と、そ
の「会話録音記録」を基礎テキストデータとし、これを解釈的に分析して Part１
を作成した。
（４）　Part １- ５節においては、Text Mining（Word Miner ソフト）も併せて使用した。

３）調査期日：平成 25 年７月～平成 26 年３月

４）調査項目：以下の（Ⅰ）（Ⅱ）の通り。

（Ⅰ）カリキュラム開発
①　修了報告書（目標・内容・方法・評価／分析）
　　Ｑ１：修了報告書を作成するにあたっての基本目標（目指す院生像）。
　　Ｑ２：「理論と実践の融合・往還」の視点はどのように取り入れているか。
　　Ｑ３：修了報告書の指導（内容・方法・評価）の特徴、およびその改善。
　　Ｑ４：他（自由項目）
②　カリキュラム・授業（目標・内容・方法・評価／分析）
　　Ｑ１：カリキュラム・授業の開発にあたっての基本目標（目指す院生像）。
　　　　　カリキュラム・授業の指導（内容・方法・評価）の特徴、およびその改善。
　　　　　特に応用（現職院生）と基礎（S Master）の分離、両者の融合と相互活用。
　　Ｑ２：「理論と実践の融合・往還」の視点はどのように取り入れているか。
　　Ｑ３：ＴＴ指導の実態、院生指導における研究会・学会の活用など。
　　Ｑ４：他（自由項目）
③　学校実習（目標・内容・方法・評価／分析）
　　Ｑ１：学校実習を実施するにあたっての基本目標（目指す院生像）
。

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 Action Research Appendix 1

　　学校実習の内容・種類（タイプ）
　　学校実習の指導方法（事前・実施中・事後）
　　学校実習の評価（ポートフォリオの活用・修了報告書への連動）
Ｑ２：「理論と実践の融合・往還」の視点はどのように取り入れているか。
Ｑ３：学校実習の改善課題。
Ｑ４：他（自由項目）

（Ⅱ）組織マネジメント（カリキュラムの条件整備）
①　組織文化（内部的な協働性）
　Ｑ１：実務者と研究者、各コース・専攻との内部的協働性。成果と課題など。
　Ｑ２：「理論と実践の融合・往還」の視点はどのように取り入れているか。
②　外部的な協働性
　Ｑ１：地域・県市町教委のニーズ、および文科省の要求に対する基本姿勢。
　Ｑ２：「理論と実践の融合・往還」の視点はどのように取り入れているか。
③　組織体制
　Ｑ１：実習体制、各種プロジェクト、他における概要。
　Ｑ２：「理論と実践の融合・往還」の視点はどのように取り入れているか。
④　リーダーシップ
　Ｑ１：カリキュラム開発・改善に関する教職大学院内の組織。
学内他機関の関係。
リー
ダーシップを発揮しているのか。その成果と課題など。
　Ｑ２：「理論と実践の融合・往還」の視点はどのように取り入れているか。
⑤　他（調査担当者の自由インタビュー）

第４節　小結　全国 19 国立／教職大学院の比較調査の考察

1. まとめ：「理論と実践の融合・往還」のための指導方法論
　　　　　－愛知教育大学 WG の事例から－
ここでは、これまでの調査報告の総括に加えて、あくまでも一事例ではあるものの、
本学 WG による「理論と実践の融合・往還」を修了報告書に特化して、
Action Research（以
下、AR）の視点から、その指導方法論について考察する。
ここで、AR の定義について再整理をすれば、例えば以下のような論述が挙げられよう。
「人が自分の専門的役割において、実践を改善し個々に成長することである」。（平山

175
1997）
「ある社会状況について、その状況を内部から行動で改善するという意図をもちなが
ら実行する調査である」（草郷 2007）
「社会／経験科学分野の実践的課題において、現在進行形の問題解決のプロセスを重
視した研究であり、実践者の「固有知」によって提起され、実践者自身の実践の質的向
上を意図した研究」である（Uchiyama, 2003）。
「常に変化していく社会が抱えているさまざまな問題に対して、研究者と一緒に個々
の問題の当事者が自身の解決策を考え、その解決策の有効性について検証し、検証結果
をもとにして、自身の解決策を修正し、改善していくことで問題解決を目指す調査活動
手法のことである。」（Flic ／小田訳，2002）

一方、本学 WG の事例では、AR を第一人称（実践当事者）が関与する実践的・行為

的研究であると理解した場合、教育実践を対象とした構造図を図１－４のように整理した。
本学・教職大学院は、授業づくり・学級づくり・学校づくりの各モデルに分かれており、
自己実践の AR 完結型が多いのが授業・学級づくりの２つのモデルであり（１つめの円）
、

外部からの観察
AR＝改善志向・現在進行形の実践 / 行為研究
質的 Analysis/ 観察型
（Case study は必修。質的研究が中心）
第 3 人称 AR
Ex. 事例 4/ 井手

Consultation/ 関与型 過去の自己実践

第 3 人称 AR 実証 AR 
Ex. 事例 3/Trang

自己 / 他者との協働 AR
（第 2 人称＝人称）
Ex. 事例 2/ 森山

教職大学院の研究

自己実施 AR
（第 1 人称＝実践主体）
Ex. 事例 1/ 川上

狭義：固有性を前提に実感・主観・間主観
自らの実践行為 により、客観性に Approach.

図１－４　Action Research の種類

176
 Action Research Appendix 1

自己／他者との協働 AR は、学校づくりモデル型に該当する（２つめの円）と言えよう。
さらに、
第３人称（例えば研究者）が、
学校などの教育実践対象に関与するコンサルテーショ
ン（Consultation）型も AR の一形態である（３つめの円）
。他にも、一般的に既設大学院
に多いタイプであるが、実践主体を外部から客観的に観察することにより、その研究対象
の実態を可能な限り科学的に分析しようとするスタイルの AR も存在する（４つめの円）
。
しかし、教職大学院の AR は、あくまでも第一人称の自己実践が対象であり、実践主
体者としての主観・実感が前提となり、改善志向・現在進行形の実践／行為研究のこと
を意味する。同時に本 AR は、ケーススタディが中心であり、量的な予備調査も必要で
あるが、本調査では、主として質的研究の手法が取られることが多い。さらには、実践
者の「思い」を重視するため、固有性を前提にした実感・主観・間主観により、可能な
限り客観性にアプローチする（現象学的還元論）の立場が有効としている。

以上のように、Part1 の結論として学校実習を考察する際に「理論と実践の融合・往還」
について論じたものの、全国 19 国立／教職大学院の多岐にわたる学校実習・実践事例
について、本調査だけで到底論じきれるものではなく、十分に明らかにできたとは言い
難い。そこで、あくまでも私見（筆者）ではあるが、学校実習における「理論と実践の
融合・往還」の指導モデルについて一提案を試みる。その関係性の図１－５を以下に示す。

先行経験・実践
（思い）
M1
「思い」対応の 「思い」対応の
academic 理論 academic 理論
Reflection
Discussion 「裾野」への移行
Supporter school ( 間主観・ 教育技術の向上
指導案・教材での理論的具現化 振り返り ) （経験としての蓄積）

中間理論の構築
自分なり論（Plan）

M2
理論と実践の融合
中間理論・自分なり論の実践 (Do) M2 実践の改善
質的・量的な実証 (Check) （Action）

図１－５　学校実習における「理論と実践の融合・往還」指導モデル

177
 図１－５は、基本的に SM を対象とするが、一般に SM は、殆ど実践経験を蓄積して
いないのが通常である。しかし、自分なりの実践的「思い」を秘めている場合も少なく
はなく、その「思い」に対応する Academic 理論を参照するのが開始点となる。次に、
その Academic 理論を解釈し、指導案・教材作成の過程において、その具現化を図る。
ここで重要なことは、「理論との融合・往還」関係を前提にした実践の実施後、その
振り返り（Reflection）の方法論である。実践経験が浅い SM が、個人的・主観的な実
感によって教育効果を解釈したところで、必ずしも客観性が担保できるものではない。
そこで、専門性を持つ他者（指導教員等のメンティー）との間主観によって、可能な限
り客観的に振り返ることが肝要となる。こうした振り返りのプロセスを繰り返すことで、
SM なりの実践経験が蓄積されていく。
最終的に、蓄積された実践経験と Academic 理論との融合・往還により、自己分析も
加えた「自分なり論」を構築し、自己実践を味わうことになり、これをベースに次段階
の教育実践へと展開していく。以上、本プロセスはあくまでも事例であるが、学校実習
における「理論と実践の融合・往還」関係を構築する一指導方法論と考察している。

次に、上述の理論的背景を具現化する修了報告書の指導方法論は、図１－６の通りで
ある。

1. 問題設定（Research Question）
(1) 大きな RQ（何を何処まで明らかにするか？・）
   ①研究対象（りんご）  ②分析視点（ナイフ） ③key/ 中心概念（虫眼鏡）
(2) 研究価値・意義   (3) 他（研究の全体構成・方法・概念規定など）

２．先行研究の総括
(1) 自己 / 勤務校分析 ( 教師としての『思い』)
(2) 理論研究………①研究対象 ②分析視点 ③key/ 中心概念  P.S. 残余部分の明確化
(3) 自分なり論（理論） 、又は中間理論の形成……Action Research 
    ( 研究の全体構造図 )

３．実践（研究）の方法
  (1) 実践（研究）の概要
  (2)AR の RQ（自分なりろん＆ my 実践に関する実証可能な RQ＝仮説）
  (3) 実証の方法論 
   part1 （予備調査 / 量中心・M1)……M1・実践分析と M2・実践計画
   part2 （本調査 / 質中心・M2）………実践の展開と実証

４．結果

５．考察（1. 成果と課題 2. 教育実践への提案＝未来の自分は何ができるのか？）

図１－６　教職大学院における Action research のプロセス

178
 Action Research Appendix 1

この教職大学院における AR プロセスに若干の解説を加える。

１）問題設定（Research Question）
まずここは、大きな RQ（何を何処まで明らかにするか？）について論じる箇所であ
る。各焦点を①研究対象（りんご）　②分析視点（ナイフ）　③ key ／中心概念（虫眼鏡）
に例えて、その研究対象を分析視点で切り込んだ一断面から、いかなる概念（可能であ
れば Something New）が浮かび上がるのか、これを明らかにするのが教職大学院の AR
であるとする。同時に、本 AR の研究価値・意義、および研究の全体構成・方法・概念
規定などについても論じる必要がある。

２）先行研究の総括と「自分なり論（中間理論）」の構築
教職大学院の AR である以上、自己／勤務校分析による教師自身の教育実践への「思
い」が重要である（Uchiyama 2003）。これを前提にして先行研究を総括し、研究の残余
部分の明確化を図り、研究の価値を自己内在化・自覚化する過程となる。自己／勤務校
分析を加えることにより、実践者固有の概念的枠組みも構築できることから、外的妥当
性・転用可能性を踏まえつつ、それ以上に内的妥当性、および反復可能性に焦点化した「自
分なり論（理論）」を形成する点に大きな特徴がある。
一方、これを換言するならば、AR における「理論的言語と実践的言語を往還するバ
イリンガル的人材」の育成論から、「中間理論」の形成も念頭におく必要がある。
「中間
理論」とは、概して自分なり論を前提にしながらも、アカデミック理論を教育実践に変
換する際に、その媒介となる具体的で説明可能な、あるいは実践化が可能な理論である。
例えば、スク－ルリーダーにとって、一般的な校内研修で他の教職員に説明する際に、
抽象論的な理論をそのまま説明したところで、なかなか理解・賛同を得にくいが、アカ
デミック理論について具体性を持ち、わかりやすく表現し、その理論的エキスを抽出し
た言語に変換して説明できることが求められる。
以上を踏まえて、教職大学院の AR は、「中間理論」を前提としながらも、最終的に
は実践者の固有性／状況を踏まえた「自分なり論」の理論的枠組みを構築することが重
要である。
（図１－７は、筆者の前任校・佐賀大学の指導例。共同・自立・自治の『中間理論』
に自己分析を加え、実践者固有の『自分なり論』を構築している。
）

179
 自分なり論

図１－７　自分なり論の事例
［川上 2012］

３）実践（研究）の方法
（１）　実践（研究）の概要
　　　本 AR のスタイルとして、自己実践を実践者の主観（実感）を前提にして概要
を示す。
（２）　
 本 AR のリサーチクエスチョンを明確化する。ただし、これは「自分なり論」
の範疇であり、あくまでも自己実践に関する量的・質的に実証可能な RQ とする。
実証が不可能な場合は、原則として研究対象とはしない。しかし、例外的な研究
方法の選択肢として、実証を割愛して全くの実感のみで論じる二者択一を図る。
　　
（議論はあるが、多くの現場の研究手法がそうであり、これも教職大学院では認
定可。）
（３）　実証の方法論
　　　part １　（予備調査／量中心・M１）……先 行研究の総括・中間理論・自分な
り論
　　　part ２　（本調査／質中心・M２）……実践の展開と実証

180
 Action Research Appendix 1

４）結果・考察
結果・考察で特に参考になるのが、鳴門教育大が論じた教育実践への将来的提案性で
あり、
「未来の自分は何ができるのか？」について考察する必要がある。実はこのことは、
国際学会等でも要請される教育実践研究の動向（AERA 2014,WALS 2013 ４）に合致し
ており、AR の研究として結論（成果と課題）をみた後に、今後の実践改善への貢献な
どを意図して、個人的「思い」を論じることが求められる場合もある。
（既設大学院では、
必ずしも該当しない。）
ここで、Part１における「理論と実践の融合・往還」を育む教職大学院の指導方法論
を総括すれば、その基本概念（方法論）は教育実践を対象とした AR のことであり「教
師の、教師による、教師のための、実践的／行為的研究」であり、目指す教職大学院生
像は「理論的言語と実践的言語を自由に操れる Bilingual Teacher」ではないかと整理
できよう。
ただし、「理論と実践の融合・往還」が至上命題となったものの、教職大学院を「大
学院教育」の一環として考察した場合、気掛かりな点も指摘できる。その現職院生の課
題の１つとは、「大学院での学び」の興味関心が常に現実肯定・現実的範疇に留まり、
俯瞰的な視野、未来的な視野、国際的な視野等の広がりの限界性、一方で学術性の軽視
等の傾向があるのではなかろうか。例えば、「そもそも理論は役に立たない。
」「受験が
あるから仕方ない。」「学習指導要領・教育委員会・学校組織などは絶対だから仕方がな
い。」「結局、学力とは授業内容を理解させ、点数を上げること。」等が、まだまだ現状
として指摘できよう。
よって、「理論と実践を融合・往還する」教職大学院だからこそ、いつも現実的な範
疇に留まることなく、同時に「これまでの実践経験を超える発想が如何にできるのか」
が重要命題である。さらに、教職大学院、および勤務校等において、決して「専門学校
化」に陥ることなく、院生側も指導者側も現状プラスアルファーを常に求める姿勢こそ
が、今後の教職大学院の改善にとって座右の銘となるのではなかろうか。以上、これを
結語としたい。

注
１　Curriculum management の研究動向は、将来的には Lesson Study とセットで論じられ
ると考えられる。例えば米国の Lesson Study の研究団体は数多く、その一部を挙げておく。
　　http://www.tc.columbia.edu/lessonstudy/（09.6.15）
　　http://lessonresearch.net/（09.6.15）
　　http://www.lessonstudygroup.net/（09.6.15）

181
　　http://csmp.ucop.edu/csp/resources/lessonstudy.html（09.6.15）
　　http://www.ied.edu.hk/wals/website/index.htm（09.6.15）
　　他にも LS と類似する米国発の研究団体も存在し、Whole-Faculty Study Groups
　　Approach は著名である。例えば、以下の文献に詳しい。
　　Clauset, K., Lick, D., Murphy, C., “School-Wide Action Research for Professional Learning
Community”, Thousand Oaks, CA, Corwin Press, 2008.
　　http://www.wholefacultystudygroups.org/services.html（2009/07/05）
２　Torbert の AR 資料は、University of San-Diego5th Annual Symposium, “Action Research
in Education and Leadership”（May16&17, 2008）の Action Research Symposium で配
布された基調講演資料であり、これまでの Torbert の研究を凝縮したものであった。
　　（08.5/16 配布）また、わが国代表の Uchiyama も当シンポジウムで高く評価された。
３　基調講演終了後、当学会で Torbert に AR の研究発展の可能性についてインタビューを
実施し、その回答から示唆を得た（08.5/17）。
４　American Educational Research Association 2014 は４／３～４／７ Philadelphia（PA）
で 開 催 さ れ、15000人 以 上 の 大 会 参 加 者 が あ っ た。 こ の 学 会 で は、Action Research、
Teachers as Researcher、Professional Learning Community 等が論じられた。
　　World Association of Lesson Studies 2013 は９／６～９／９University of Gothenburg,
Sweden で開催され、Lesson Study, Curriculum／Knowledge Management 等も盛んに
論じられた。
　　　また、こうした動向に鑑み、報告書作成 WG の一人である倉本は、以下の英語文献を
出版予定（印刷中）である。（2014・８月）
　　　Tetsuo Kuramoto, Lesson Study and Curriculum Management -from the points of
Action research- Fukuro Publisher, Japan, 2014.

参考文献
Kuramoto, T.,“A Case Study of Lesson Study in Japan :from the point of view of student
achievement” The 2009 AERA Annual Meeting, a Paper Session titled, International
Studies on Teacher Education, San Diego, CA, USA, 2009.
McCarthy, M., Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers, Cambridge Language Teaching
Library, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1991.
Reason, P., and Torbert, B., The action turn ― Toward a transformational social science: A
further look at the scientific merits of action research, Concepts and Transformation 6
（1）, 2001, pp.1-37.

182
 Action Research Appendix 1

Reason, P., and Bradbury, H., Handbook of Action Research, London: Sage, 2001.
Sainz. L., Bi-national collaborative action research project with the Purepecha community in
Rosarito, B.C. Mexico.（Presentation at Action Research Symposium）2008.
Sagor, R., Guiding School Improvement with Action Research, ASCD, Alexandria, VA,2000.
Stringer, T., Action Research Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999.
Torbert, B., Developing Wisdom and Courage in Organizing and Sciencing, In S. Srivastva
& D.Cooperrider, eds., Organizational Wisdom and Executive Courage, San Francisco:
New Lexington Press, 1998.
Torbert, B, A developmental approach to social science: integrating first-, second-, third-
person research/practice through single-, double-, tipple-loop feedback, Journal of
Adult Development 7（4）, 2000, pp.255-268.
Torbert,B., and Associates, Action Inquiry, The Secret of timely and Transforming
Leadership, Berrett-Koehier Publisher, Inc, San Francisco, 2004.
Uchiyama, K., A New Theoretical Grounding of Action research: Based on Checkland’s Soft
System Methodology（Presentation Paper at Action Research Symposium） 2008.
秋田喜代美／キャサリン・ルイス『授業の研究・教師の学習』明石書店　2008 年。
草郷孝好　「アクションリサーチ」小泉潤二・志水宏吉編『実践的研究のすすめ：人間科学の
リアリティー』有斐閣 2007 年 pp.251-266.
倉本哲男　『アメリカにおけるカリキュラムマネジメントの研究―サービス・ラーニング
Service-Learning の視点から－』ふくろう出版　2008 年。
小泉祥一「教育課程経営論」第４章第４節　講座９『教育経営研究の軌跡と展望』ぎょうせ
い 1986 年。
高野桂一『学校経営現代化の方法』明治図書　1970 年。
中留武昭『戦後学校経営の軌跡と課題』ぎょうせい　1984 年。
中留武昭・田村知子『カリキュラムマネジメントが学校を変える』学事出版　2004 年。
中留武昭：『大学のカリキュラムマネジメント―理論と実際』東信堂 2012）
平山満善編『質的研究法による授業研究』北大路書房　1997 年。
野口祐二『物語としてのケア ナラティヴ・アプローチとしての世界へ』医学書院　2002 年
pp.3-15.
宮下治・倉本哲男「教職大学院における『現職院生』の学びに関する研究−教師の、教師による、
教師のための AR（行為・実践的研究）−」2013 年度・愛知教育大学大学教育研究重点
配分経費要求 2014 年。
市川則文『授業分析と校内研修』明治図書 1985 年 p123.

183
Flick, U.,（小田博志／山本則子／春日常／宮地尚子訳）『質的研究入門―〈人間の科学〉のための方

法論』　春秋社　2002 年。

Schoen, D.,（佐藤学／秋田喜代美訳）『専門家の知恵－反省的実践家は行為しながら考える』ゆみる

出版　2007 年。

Checkland, P.,（妹尾監訳）『ソフトシステムズ方法論』有斐閣 1994 年。

Lewin, K.,（末永俊郎訳）『社会的葛藤の解決−グループダイナミックス論−』創元新 1954 年。

日本教職大学院教会『日本教職大学院教会年報』2013　

文部科学省『大学院段階の教員養成の改革と充実等について』2013 年。

文部科学省／中央教育審議会『教職生活の全体を通じた教員の資質能力の総合的な向上方策につい

て（答申）』2012 年。

川上知子　『固有性を活かした学級経営における集団づくりと個の育成　～ Action Research の視点

から～』佐賀大学教育学研究科　修士論文　2012 年。

（Tetsuo Kuramoto）

184
Action Research Appendix 2
USA・Ball State University における事例研究

第１節　調査研究の課題　－ Ed.D. の視点からの問題提起－

米・英国等を中心に国際的に発展してきた Ed.D. は、わが国の大学院教育（名古屋大学、

広島大学等）においても徐々に浸透し、愛知教育大学でも静岡大学と共同教育課程制度
を活用し、後期３年のみの博士課程「共同教科開発学専攻」を設置している。
本共同専攻は、修了者が国公私立大学の教員養成系の学士課程、修士課程、教職大学
院等の大学教員として教育研究に従事できるような「大学教員の養成」を主たる目的と
し、理論と実践を融合した高度な研究と教育を行い、以下のような能力の習得を目指し
ている。
①教育事象の因果関係員を把握する能力を身につけ、教科との関わりの中で学校教育
が抱える諸問題に対応した研究能力を習得。
②学術的な専門的知見を教科内容として構成できる能力を身につけ、教育論、教科内
容の構成原理や教育方法、教材を開発する能力を習得。
③理論と実践の検証能力を身につけ、学校教育の実践を理論化し、その理論を指導に
活かす能力を習得。

以上に鑑み愛知教育大学では、「共同教科開発学」の充実が第一義的であるが、同時
に博士課程レベルにおける「理論と実践の融合・往還」のカリキュラム開発、およびそ
の指導法に関する高度な研究も喫緊の課題の１つとなっている。その観点から、国際的
に発展し、教育実践を研究対象とする Ed.D.（Doctoral Degree in Education）に関する
考察が示唆に富む。よって本 Part ２においては、本学の提携大学である USA, Indiana
State, Ball State University（以下、BSU）の Ed.D. カリキュラムと教授方法、およびそ
の経営（条件整備）に焦点化して、その事例を検討する。
1890 後 半、Ph.D. も 含 む 教 育 系 の 博 士 号 は Teachers College, Columbia University
で最初に授与されたとされるが、1921 年には、正式に独立した Ed.D. プログラムが
Harvard University 設立された（Douglas, 2002）。
その Ed.D. と Ph.D. との相違点について様々な議論があり、合意には至ってはいない
が、一般に Ed.D. は、実践性を重視するカリキュラムを通して、管理職等の学校リーダー
の職業的資質の育成を主たる目的とする。Ph.D. は、博士課程での研究活動を通して研

185
 教員養成系大学・学部の大学教員・実務家教員 養成

指導 指導 指導
進学 進学 進学

教育学部 教育学研究科 教職大学院 教育学研究科

（学士課程） （修士課程） （専門職学位課程） （後期３年博士課程）
共同教科開発学専攻
教員としての基本的 特定教科・教職に関 高度な専門性を備え
な資質能力の養成 する専門的知識技能 た力量ある教員の養 ・教育事象の因果関
・実践的指導力 の向上 成  係を把握する能力
 児童理解
・専門的知識、技能 ・学術的な専門的知
・幅広い教養 高度な学問的知識・ 実践的な指導力を備  見を教科内容とし
 総合的人間力 能力を持った人材 えた新人教員、中核  て構成できる能力
的・指導的役割を担
・理論と実践の検証
うスクールリーダー
 能力
専門的素養を持った
人材
採用

採用

創造性豊かな研究を
研修

研修

推進する教員養成大
学・学部の教員
進学
学校教育現場

図２－１　愛知教育 / 静岡大学・博士課程 / 共同教科開発学専攻 HP

究者育成を目的とするケースが多いが、一方、Ed.D. は、勤務学校等の教育課題を対象
として、その解決に向けて方策を練り、理論的・実践的に研究を深め、その結果を検
証・実証するスタイルが主流を占める（Douglas, 2002; Shulman, 2006; Rosemarye2013;
Osterman2014）。
つまり、端的に Ed.D. とは、Ph.D. の研究的学位に対して職業的学位であり、教育リー
ダーシップ（Educational Leadership）等のプログラムが典型的である。
（ただし、Ed.D. と Ph. D. 論文の相違点については、あまり明確でないとの見解もある。）

よって Ed.D. プログラムとは、教育実践を対象とする「理論と実践の融合・往還」を

前提にした博士課程であり、本学の場合は、教職大学院との整合性も課題の１つに挙げ
られる。
そ こ で、 本 Part ２ に お い て は 海 外 調 査 を 行 い、Ed.D. の 先 進 国 で あ る USA を 調
査対象とした。その事例大学の選定にあたっては、本学の提携大学である Ball State
University, Indiana State（以下、BSU）を訪問調査した（参考：資料１）。

186
 Action Research Appendix 2

BSU は、教育学部を設立母体として発展した大学であり、現在でも、特に教員養成に
力点が置かれており、学部教育から修士・博士課程まで極めて充実している。本学でも
博士課程「共同教科開発学専攻」を設置していることから、教職大学院の出口としての「博
士課程との連続性」の課題に対して示唆を得る意味でも、BSU は典型事例として適切と
判断した。以上の観点を踏まえて、BSU での調査は以下の３種類（調査１・２・３）を
設定した。
調査内容の概要 調査方法 留意点
調査１ ● BSU の Ed.D. プログラムの概要につい 〇半構造化 ◎渡 米前に質問内
て。 　Interview 法 容を提示。
調査２ ● Ed.D. 院生の論文指導方法について。 〇半構造化 ◎本 学 / 教 職 大 学
　Discussion 法 院の論文指導
　
（調査側が資料を に お ける Action
提 示 し、 相 互 に Research につい
検討する方法。 ） ての資料提示。
調査３ ● Ed.D. 論文の作成方法論の特徴につい １． 担当者と事例 ◎ Action Research
て、特に Ed.D. における AR の有効性 検討。 を前提とした論
を検討する。 ２． 図書館の博士 文 の 構 造・ テ ン
論文コーナーに プレートについ
て sample 博士論 ての解読。
文の検討。

第２節　調査研究の方法論（半構造化 discussion）と概要

１）全調査の目的
今回の訪問調査においては、①の調査目的を中心におきながらも、その目的を拡大解
釈する意味で調査②も加えた上で、総括的に以下の図２－２のように整理できる。
（１）調査１・２・３の主たる目的は、教職大学院と博士課程（Ed.D.）の接続を研究
対象として論じるにあたり、「理論と実践の融合・往還」に特化して分析視点を設
定し、その一断面に浮かび上がる具体的な指導方法論を Action Research１に求め
ている。特に本調査によって、そのことが妥当であるのか「再確認」し、その一
断面をさらに深化・拡充する知見を得ることにある。

187
 RQ4
PhD.Program EdD.Program
RQ7

Superintendent
RQ5
Graduate school Board of Education
Master Program Teachers Training
RQ6

Teaching license Renewal

Research Question1

Research Question3
Research Question2
School Principal

Lesson Study

図２－２　BSU 調査の全体構造図

２）Ed.D. 調査メンバー・役割と BSU 回答者・期日（参考：資料２）

（１）Ed.D. カリキュラムと教授法について

愛知教育大・調査メンバー BSU 回答メンバー 期　日

調査１ 中妻雅彦・宮下治（記録） J. Dee（Coordinator） 2013 年 11 月６日（水）
倉 本 哲 男・ 石 井 拓 児（discussion） Teachers College Dean ９:30 am-12:00
小笠原有香（Stuff） & Associate Deans
調査２ 中妻雅彦・宮下治（記録） Ed.D. 担当者（２名）と 2013 年 11 月７日
（木）
倉本哲男・石井拓児（discussion） Ph. D. 担当者（３名） 4:00pm-6:00pm
Dr Mullen :discussion
moderator
調査３ 倉本哲男（博士論文の分析／ Service-Learning 2013 年 11 月 8 日
（金）
discussion） Ed.D. 担当 Chin-Sook & 3:00pm-6:30pm
Maria Hernández

３）調査方法論−半構造化 Discussion 法−
半構造化 Interview 法に類似する半構造化 Discussion 法は、調査側が資料を提示し、

188
 Action Research Appendix 2

回答側と共同して相互に検討する質的調査法の一形態である。ただし、その discussion
の方向性には一定程度の意図があり、本調査の場合は、discussion 担当の倉本が作成し
た Power Point・提案資料を提示し、それについて意見交換をする形で discussion を進
めた。その意味で、完全なる自由 discussion ではなく半構造化 discussion とした（提案
資料は主として AR と Ed.D. の関係性についての提案内容であった）
。
その際、石井が客観的立場で傍聴、または discussion を行い、中妻・宮下が録音、お
よび筆記による談話記録を作成した。本調査（調査１・２・３）報告は、以上の方法論
を前提に作成した。

４）調査のフレームワークの全体構造図
本調査の全体構造図は、①地域学校（教育長・校長等）と博士課程との関係性、② Ph.
D. プログラムと Ed.D. プログラムとの相違点、およびその指導方法、③修士課程と博士
課程との接続、④州教育委員会と大学との連携、⑤学部段階の教員養成と地域学校との
関係性（インターンシップ等）⑥教師の資質向上において Lesson Study の活用等につ
いて、その調査イメージを整理したものである。以上、本調査１～６は、本構造図を念
頭におきながら実施した（参考：資料１）。

第３節　調査結果と考察

１．Ed.D. の指導方法論と Action Research

１）調査１：Ed.D. カリキュラムの概要
調査内容の概要 調査方法 留意点
調査１ ● BSU の Ed.D. プログラムの概要 〇半構造化 Interview 法 ◎渡 米 前 に 質 問 内 容
について。 を提示。
愛知教育大・調査メンバー BSU 回答メンバー 期　日
調査１ 中妻雅彦・宮下治（記録） J. Dee（Coordinator） 2013 年 11月６日
（水）
倉本哲男・石井拓児（discussion） Teachers College 9:30 am-12:00
小笠原有香（Stuff） Dean & Associate
Deans

Discussion 法による調査の導入段階としては、以下の通りである。ただし、あくま
でも導入段階であるので discussion 法の形式は取らず、半構造化 Interview 法による
Q&A 的な流れとなっている。

189
 Ｑ１「すなわち Ed.D. とは何か？ Ph. D. との違いは？」
　　“What is Ed.D.? What is the difference from Ph. D.? ”

Ａ１「Ed.D. は、一般に教育実践を対象にした博士号で、Ph. D. はそうとは限らず、

アカデミック研究を前提とした博士号。ただ、現実には、そう明確な大差はない。
様々な文献でその住み分けが論じられるが、思い切って言えば、全く変わらない
とも言える。一般に Ph. D. の方が評価されると言うが、そうでもない。」

Ｑ２「アメリカにおける Ed.D. 成立の歴史は？」

　　
“The history of Ed.D. program. Why did Ed.D. program need to be distinguished
from Ph. D. program?”

Ａ２「1900 年以前から、私の理解では Teachers College, Columbia University で最初

に設立され、その後に Harvard University で現在の原型ができたとされている。
そして、現在は管理職養成の社会的要請に乗って、拡大したと解釈できる。
」

Ｑ３「Action Research は、Ed.D. 論文に有効か？」

　　
“The research methodology for Ed.D. dissertation. Do you have basic templates/
manuals for conducting Ed.D. dissertation?（Ex, Action research style with
qualitative/ quantitative research）.”

Ａ３「必ずしも Action research で取り組まなければならないと言うことはない。文

献解釈、および質問紙による量的研究の分析で成り立つ場合も多々ある。ただし、
Ed.D. としては Action Research も１つの方法論だろう。ただ、一般に AR は研
究的 Status が低いのが現状だ。」

Ｑ４「アメリカでは、管理職になるには Ed.D. を取得する傾向にあるのか？」

　　
“Penetration of Ed.D. program in the USA. Do most of superintendents and
principals have an Ed.D. degree?”

Ａ４「校長や教育長になるには Ed.D. を取った方がいいのかもしれない。今日は、デー

タを用意していないので統計的にはわからないが、一定の割合で管理職は Ed.D.
を取得する。給与にも出世にも多少の advantage がある。少ないけどね。それに

190
 Action Research Appendix 2

働きながら part time で所得できるのも魅力だろう。」

Ｑ５「BSU の Ed.D. カリキュラムと教授法にはどんなものがあるか？」

　　“The curriculum and Instruction for Ed.D. program（Samples/Contents）.”

Ａ５「例えば教育リーダーシップでは、議論や実践に基づくロールプレイ、レポート
作成などの実践的な力量形成に重きを置く。一般にコースワークの単位が増加す
る。博士取得のためには 90 時間単位が必修であるが、キャンパス内での履修は
48 時間単位である。それ以外はメディア媒体も活用できる。博士論文の執筆は、
勿論、必修で先行研究の総括、研究方法論、理論枠などが求められる。
」
　　
「Ed.D. のコース例としては、教育行政や管理職・教育心理学・一般教育学・学校
教育学（小学校）・特別支援教育コース等がある。」
　　
「特に管理職養成コースは、インディアナ州の免許要件を満たす協働的なプログ
ラムとなっている。ただし、受講者の個人的ニーズに柔軟に対応することが最重
要であり、その『ゆとり』はカリキュラム上、備えている。」
　　
「Ed.D. ／ Ph. D. ともに博士課程の入学の要件は、修士号を所持していることは勿
論だが、学部 GPA は最低でも 3.2（4.0 中）が目安。実務経験も少なくとも 2 年
以上が必要。満たしていないとパスしない。」

２）調査２：Ed.D. 研究指導における方法論−AR の視点から−

調査内容の概要 調査方法 留意点
調査２ ● Ed.D. 院生の論文指導方法につい 〇 Discussion 法 ◎本学／教職大学院
て。 （調査側が資料を提示 の論文指導における
し、相互に検討する方 Action Research につ
法。） いての資料提示。
調査２ 愛知教育大・調査メンバー BSU 回答メンバー 期　日
中妻雅彦・宮下治（記録） Ed.D. 担 当 者（２名 ） 2013 年 11月７日
（木）
倉本哲男・石井拓児（discussion） と Ph. D. 担当者
（３名） 4:00pm-6:00pm
Dr Mullen :
discussion moderator

（１）　Discussion topic １：「Ed.D. と Action Research の関係性について」

Ed.D. の指導法の一環と認識される AR との整合性について半構造化 discussion
（参考：
資料３）を行った。以下は、その discussion の大意である。
発問「Ed.D. の論文指導に AR を導入することは可能か？」の問いに対して、回答を

191
総括（文面は大意）すれば以下の通りであった。
「AR
 の定義にもよるが、本人が関与する教育実践を対象とする意味では、AR は妥当
な方法論である。ただし、Ed.D. 論文の全てが自己実践を対象とするとは限らない。
現実に Ed.D. でも、他者の実践も対象にした質問紙等の量的研究も多いので、その場
合 Ph.D. との大差はない。そもそも Ed.D. コースでは Ph. D. コースよりもコースワー
クが多く課され、負担は大きい。よって、その分、Ph.D. 論文よりも質的には大目に
見られる部分はあるかもしれない。」
（Ph. D. 担当者）
「私は
 Ed.D. 担当者であるが、校長と行政経験が長かった。その後、Ed.D. を取得し、
BSU の管理職養成 Ed.D. コースで教えているが、Ph. D. 論文レベルの質を担保した研
究指導をしている。だから自己実践 AR が Ed.D. 論文の全てとは限らない。
」
（Ed.D. 担当者）

以上のような見解の後、BSU 側からの質問として「AR と Ed.D. の接点に関して具体

的な方法論はあるのか？」と問いかけられた。
（これが調査２の Research Question、『Ed.D. の具体的な指導方法論を AR に求めてい
る。それが妥当であるのか再確認し、さらに深化・拡充する知見を得る。』に該当する。）
図２－２、２－３、２－４、２－５の資料（他資料も参照）を配布し、以下のよう
な提案説明をしたところ、総じて「確かに成り立つであろう。
（Sure, it might work,
possible.）」との一定程度の合意を得た。
●提案内容「Ed.D. と AR の関係性を図２－３、２－４、２－５、２－６のように考え
ている。」
（提案／倉本）

まず、図２－３に示す研究構造が最重要である。何を持って研究対象とするのかが、
Ed.D. 研究の価値、および方向性の全てを決める。ここでは、「① 研究テーマそのもの
が論じるに値するものなのか、先行研究を総括して、学的に価値があるのか」、「② 教育
実践上（学校や地域、および教育委員会等）、価値があるのか」
、そして「③ 自分自身の
教師人生にとって価値があるものなのか」等の要素を考察しながら慎重に決定すべきも
のである。
次に Ph. D. ／ Ed.D. 博士論文レベルでの研究対象の総体（概念）を、真の意味で一個
人が論じることは、一般的には困難性が予想される。（例：アメリカにおけるカリキュ
ラムマネジメント論は、学問体系の総体であり、とても一個人が論じきれるものではな
い。
）

192
 Action Research Appendix 2

Curriculum
Management
1.Object：Curriculum Management

ng
2.Approach：Service-Learning

ni
ar
Curriculum

Le
Integration

e-
3.Originality：

vic
er
S
extract the 2 concepts of
Curriculum
“Curriculum Integration”&
Collaboration
“Curriculum Collaboration”

図２－３　Ed.D. における AR 論文の基本構造例

よって、その具体的対策としては、研究対象を貫く「分析視点」が必要となる。つまり、
その研究対象を分析視点に特化した一断面を論じることは、現実的・実際的な研究とな
り得るので、その断面から浮かび上がる独自性（Something New）を発見・整理するこ
とが、Ph. D. ／ Ed.D. 研究の１つの基本構造ではなかろうか。
例 え ば、 提 案 者 の 博 士 論 文 の 場 合、「 ア メ リ カ に お け る Curriculum Management
の 研 究−Service-Learning の 視 点 か ら− 」 で あ っ た。 そ の 研 究 対 象 は Curriculum
Management in the USA であり、それを一個人で論じることは不可能だったため、
Service-Learning に特化した一断面を論じた。そこから浮かび上がった概念（Concepts）
が、
カリキュラム開発論としての「統合性」
（Integration）
、学校マネジメントの「協働制」
（Collaboration）であった。こうした構造性を持たせることは、Ed.D. 研究方法の全てで
はないが、１つの方法論である。
これに対するディスカッション反応（discursive reaction）としては、以下のような
議論があり（報告者による総括・大意）、総じて一定程度の合意が得られたと考察でき
よう。
「研究対象の概念が大きすぎる場合は、明確な分析視点が必要となり、確かに特化す
べきだろう。一方、質量的な実証研究、つまり Research Question が明確な仮説検証タ
イプの場合、必ずしもそうではない。ただし、今の提案は、Ph. D. ／ Ed.D. 研究、双方
の一方法論としては納得がいくものである。」
次に、「具体的に AR 指導の方法論とは何か、それが Ed.D. 指導に有効か」について

193
 The process of Action Research
Academic theory Intermediate theory practice

Intermediate
theory
Reflection

Subjective theory Specific / situation theory

Goal
Academic
Practice theory

Reflection / Empirical research

図２－４　Ed.D. における AR のプロセス論

の提案・discussion を進めた。
まず、演繹的な研究プロセスにおいては、自己分析・状況論等の固有性を踏まえてア
カデミック理論を解釈し、自分なりの「中間理論」（Intermediate Theory）を形成する。
その後、同様なプロセスで実践化を図る。そして最重要なことは、振り返りによって理
論の修正を求めることになる（図２－４）。
さらに、AR から Ed.D. 論文へと発展する際には、量的研究を中心とする予備調査（傾
向性・普遍性の把握）を踏まえて、本調査へと移行する過程が望ましいと言える（図２
－５）。その本調査においては、ケーススタディーを前提とした自己実践の改善研究と
して把握できる。
本 AR 事例の場合、小中連携プロジェクトを市教育委員会のプロジェクトとして展
開した。これを教師・Community ／ Parents・生徒の各意識調査を実施し、経年調査
（2011 と 2012 の比較調査）によって傾向性を把握した。同時に、全学校の中で先進モデ
ル学校に School Adviser（第３人称）として継続的に関与し、教師集団（第１人称）と
Community ／ Parents（第２人称）ともに協働化を図りながら、学校改善に取り組むタ
イプの AR を実施した。

194
 Action Research Appendix 2

Survey for teachers

2011
Quantitative Survey for parents Quantitative
data methods
2012
Survey for students

BOARD OF EDUCATION
Meta-
cognitive The project of Schools integration： Interview
lesson study Quality Management
Communication Management

Qualitative
methods

Kizato
Case-study
Meta-cognitive LS Micro-observation
TRANG 2013

図２－５　Ed.D. における AR の予備・本調査例

図２－４、２－５の discussion において、「AR で全ての Ed.D. 論文を執筆しようとす

ると危険である。なぜならば、博士論文においては普遍性・科学性・転用性が基準とな
るからである。ただ、Ed.D. ／ AR の提案には一定の研究価値があり、教師の自己実践
改善のためには有効な方法論である。」との結論に至った。

（２）Discussion topic 2：「Ed.D. 指導におけるＸＹＺ軸」

教職大学院における教育研究を基軸ＸＹＺの３次元で把握できるとした場合、仮説的
ではあるものの、以下のように整理できよう。

195
基軸 構成要素１ 構成要素２
Ｘ軸：実践軸 帰納的研究：自己の実践経験を分 演繹的研究：理論性・普遍性を念
析・総合することにより、一定の 頭におき、その援用による実践性
法則性・一般性を抽出する研究。 を高める研究。
Ｙ軸：アカデミック軸 理論研究：法的アプローチ・歴史 実証研究：歴史・文学的実証性に
事実認識・哲学的アプローチ等、 加えて、経験科学領域では量的・
学問的に認知された認識解釈論。 質的な方法論。
Ｚ軸：国際軸 輸入的研究：外国研究の知見に照ら 輸出的研究：わが国の実践的・理
し合わせながら、わが国の教育への 論的な研究成果を海外に発信する
示唆を得る研究スタイル。 研究スタイル。

これを踏まえて BUS にて提案した。本件は提案者の私見に過ぎないが、提案者はこ

のＸＹＺ軸をあらゆる教実践育研究に該当する基軸と位置付けており、BUS の AR ／
Ed.D. 指導論と本学 WG との整合性についての Discussion であった。
図２－６を示し、discussion を実施したところ、BSU 側のコメント（大意）は、概し
て以下の通りであった。
「 教 育 実 践 研 究 で あ る 以 上、 特 に Ed.D. に は 演 繹 的・ 帰 納 的 方 法 論（Deductive・
Inductive Approach）は重要なファクターである。教師の経験の積み重ねが研究テーマ
となったり、一定の法則性を構築したりする。一方、理論・定理の学びが、今後の実践
を演繹的に発展させていくこともあり得る。その意味で実践軸（Practical aspect）の考
察は納得できるものである。」
ただし、他のアカデミック軸・国際軸についてのコメントは一切ないままに、本件に
ついての discussion は終了した。

For EdD & PhD instructors

Z: International aspect
(Export research / Import research)

Y: Academic aspect
(Theoretical research / Empirical research)

XYZ aspects for Action research

X: Practice aspect
(Inductive research / Deductive research)

図２－６　ED. D. における AR のＸＹＺ軸

196
 Action Research Appendix 2

（３）Discussion topic ３ ：「アメリカにおける Lesson Study について」

次に USA における教師の力量形成の視点から、Lesson Study（以下 LS）についても
discussion を行った（図２－７）。例えば Fernandez & Yoshida らは、日本の教師は、
指導案の作成、事前研究、教師の参観による研究授業、そして経験知の共有を通した「職
業的学習コミュニティー」（Professional Learning Community）を形成している点に着
目している（Fernandez & Yoshida,2004）。
著名な『ティーチング・ギャップ』での Stigler らによる研究は、全米レベルで「校
内研修」
「授業研究」ブームを生起させ、LS の概念が国際的に普及する１つの契機となっ
た（Stigler and Hiebert, 1999）。それを体系化した一連の研究は、日本発の LS によるカ
リキュラム開発・学習指導の充実、および教師の資質向上論を構築し、国際的にも評価
され（秋田 & ルイス，2008）、現在では LS に特化した国際学会（World Association of
Lesson Studies, 2014）も発展中である。
LS に関連する「内部的協働性」（Internal Collaboration）とは、学校文化（School
Culture）との関連で把握できるものであり、教職員相互の主流となる価値観や行動規範、
校長 / 主任層のリーダーシップ、学校組織内の職員研修のあり方等を包括的に捉え、こ
れを前提にすれば学習指導がさらに充実すると言えよう。
具体的には、「他の教科担任教師や学級担任教師間で、学校の課題について意見交換
をしたり、教材を共有したりする機会が増えた。」「保守的な雰囲気からものごとに挑戦
して新しいものを創りだそうという積極的な雰囲気が出てきた。」「教師の勤務意欲・モ
ラールが向上した。」等が挙げられる（Kuramoto, 2009）。
BSU での Discussion（図２－７）では、「私の Ed.D. 論文指導にも Lesson Study を取
り入れている。Lesson Study を実際に取り入れている学校群もインディアナ州には存在

Lesson Study=LS
Feed Back

Main Theme of LS
Goals of LS Hypothesis of LS Evaluation
School Level
Investigation
Consideration

Consideration

Consideration

New Practice
School Goals

Analyze Goal

Check Plan

Observation

Collaboration Collaboration

Individual
Teacher Level Lesson Plan Practice of LS

図２－７　Action Research と Lesson Study

197
するし、Professional Learning Community に合致する１つの方法である。
」（Ed.D. 担
当者の大意）
以上のことから、LS & Ed.D. との整合性を見出すことは、不十分であるが、我が国発
の教育実践である LS が、部分的であるにせよ、評価されるコメントを得たことには一
定の研究価値を認識することができたと考察したい。

３）調査３：Ed.D. 論文の作成方法論の事例検討−AR の視点から−

さらに、Ed.D. における AR の有効性を検討することを目的として調査３を実施した。
しかし、残念ながら BSU は公的な Ed.D. 執筆テンプレートを作成しておらず、そこ
で先進事例の Washington State University（以下、WSU）の Ed.D. program２ のテン
プレートを提示し、調査先の BSU　Service-Learning ／ Ed.D. 担当 Chin-Sook & Maria
Hernández と共同で検討する discussion 調査方法を取った。
調査内容の概要 調査方法 留意点
調査３ ●Ed.D. 論文の作成方法論の特徴に １．担当者と事例検討。 ◎ Action Research を
ついて、特に Ed.D. における AR ２． 図書館の博士論文 前提とした論文の
の有効性を検討する コーナーにて sample 構 造・ テ ン プ レ ー
博士論文の検討。 トについての解読。
愛知教育大・調査メンバー BSU 回答メンバー 期　日
調査３ 倉本哲男（博士論文の分析／ Service-Learning 2013 年 11月８日
（金）
discussion） Ed.D. 担当 Chin-Sook 3:00pm-6:30pm
& Maria Hernández

これまで述べてきたように Ed.D. は、教育実践分析・改善論を基底に据えた教育学

関連の博士号である。検討サンプルの WSU の教育的リーダーシップ養成課程における
Ed.D. の学位論文の特徴は、明確に AR を基本的な方法論として規定しており、表２－
１に示す「Ed.D. 論文執筆のテンプレート」に依拠する点である。また WSU が定義す
る AR による Ed.D. は、
「勤務校の学校内部者（第一人称）
」、あるいは「他校内部者との
協働研究者（第３人称）」の立場で研究をする。
BSU でも、実践協力者、および直接の実践者を対象に AR を援用した Ed.D. を推奨し
ている。周知の通り AR は、実践の実際において改善性・実用性が求められ、まず実践
上の研究課題の明確化をすることから開始する。
Chin-Sook & Maria Hernández と倉本との discussion では、概して教育実践 AR は、
自己実践の完結型が多くなるが、Ed.D. レベルでは一般化・客観化、および転用性を求
めた自己 / 他者との協働 AR の方が望ましいとする。例えば、研究者の立場から第３人
称として学校等の教育実践対象に関与するコンサルテーション（Consultation）型も AR

198
 Action Research Appendix 2

の一形態である。他にも、実践主体を外部から客観的に観察することにより、その研究
対象の実態を可能な限り分析しようとするタイプの AR も存在する。
特に下記のテンプレートでは、主観性と客観性の統合アプローチの視点から、実践協
力者との協働性を含むこと（Collaboration with a set of Stakeholders）を重視している。
この協働性は、決して強制的なものではなく、実践協力者との主体・自発的で民主的な
関係性を前提としたものであり、相互の関係者にとって教育実践の発展を意図した研究
意義が求められる。以上に鑑み、AR による Ed.D. 論文執筆のテンプレート事例を整理
した。

表２－１　AR による Ed.D. 論文テンプレート，倉本／加工３）

論文構成 構成内容 AR による Ed.D. 論文執筆の推奨事項
（１）AR 研究バックグラウンド（Research Background）
　①実践環境における教育課題・イッシュー等が、これまでの自分
の先行研究・体験によって、どこまで明らかになったのか。
　②当該課題を解明する教育理論は何か。その研究範疇に関係する
理論性から拡大した広義概念とは何か。
　③本研究を構成する研究目的と意義、基本的原理とは何か。

（２）AR 方法論（Methodology of AR）−AR 過程を含む方法論−

　①研究概要（The study Overview）の明示。
　②研究のセッティング（Research Setting）の明示。
「導入・序章」 　③協働性の明示（誰といかに協働化したか）。
Chapter1
（Introduction） 　④データ収集の方法論（質的・量的・マルチメソッドの活用）。
　⑤研究の有益な結果予想。

（３）自分の AR 研究的な立ち位置（Your Positionality）

　①学校環境における自分の役割の明確化。また、本研究において
いかなる役割を果たすのか。
　②研究のパースペクティブをいかに持っているのか。
　③研究に代表性・典型性があるか（Representativeness）。
　④多文化論・構成主義論・フェミニズム論・人種理論等の代表的
理論概念を援用した解釈学的パラダイムからの研究アプローチ
があるか。

199
 （１）AR 先行研究の総括
　① AR の研究課題に関連する先行研究の総括・分析を包括的に実
施する。
（２）AR ルーブリックスタンダード（Rubric Standard）の活用
「先行研究の総
　①同様な研究課題を他の研究が、何をどこまで明らかにしたのか
括」
Chapter2 を論じ、これまでの残余部分を明らかにする。
（Review of the
　②研究対象と分析視点を設定する。
Literature）
　③研究対象を分析した断面において、研究概念を決定する。
　④研究の全体構造図を作成し、理論的枠組を構築する。
　⑤ AR に援用可能な方法論を総括する。
　　（質的・量的・マルチメソッド）
（１）AR 研究の実際（チェックポイント）
　①研究経過の記述：いつ、誰（実践協力者のタイプ）によって何
が成されたのか。
　②教育研究者との協働性：誰と協働したのか。どのような形態で
協働者が研究に参画したのか。
「 研 究ナラティ
　③先行研究の役割：先行研究が本研究にどのような影響を持って
ブ・レポート」
いるのか。明らかにされた研究課題が何であり、その概念を
Chapter3 （ N a r r a t i v e
説明できているか。実践協力者への情報提供は十分で、信頼性
Report of the
（Reliability）があるものか。
Study）
　④データ分析と収集：同様な研究課題への研究アプローチは妥当
か。どのタイプの方法論を活用しているか（質的・量的・マル
チメソッド）。その妥当性（Validity）とは何か。何のデータが
収集されていかに分析されたのか。そのデータ分析の結果は何
か。
（１）研究の結果（AR の研究価値）
　① AR の研究結果は、当事者にとって実践改善の有効性・発展性
を持つか。
　② AR の研究結果は、Chapter1 に整理した教育課題に対応した
因果関係があるか。
「 研 究 の 結 果・
　③ AR の研究結果は、その過程において一定の実践改善行為がな
考察」
されたか。また、十分な意思決定がなされたか。
（Outcome
Chapter4 　④ AR の研究結果は、当該分野の教育実践に対して広義の意味で
of the Study
の発展性がある推奨ができたか。
and Critical
　⑤ AR の研究結果は、単なる個人研究ではなく、継続的・組織的
Reflection）
な学びとなっているか。
　⑥ AR の研究結果は、今後の実践展開にとって一定のテンプレー
トを提供しているか。
　⑦ AR の研究結果は、個人的リフレクションを促進したか。最終
的に AR の当事者は何を学んだのか。

以上、Ed.D. における AR の有効性を検討することを目的として調査３を実施し、上

述のテンプレートがその結果である。さらに、前出の Service-Learning ／ Ed.D. 担当

200
 Action Research Appendix 2

Sook & Maria Hernández と discussion を実施する中で、Ed.D. における AR の有効性に

関して、以下の２点の留意点が浮かび上がった。
第１に、「研究成果の通知」および「実践協力者への有効性」についてである。AR と
は、当事者・関係者が介在する行為的研究であるから、明確化すべき課題に関する結果
については総体的に通知する還元義務がある。また、Ed. D／AR の実践課題・イッシュー
把握の過程で、実践協力者が教育実践の改善に対して一定程度の有効体験ができるよう
に図らねばならない。例えば、新しいカリキュラム開発・プログラム開発等が挙げられ、
Ed. D／AR の抽出知見を再活用して、実践協力者の理解促進と今後の実践の質的向上を
支援していく。故に、この協働研究体験が転移して、実践協力者が、次段階の研究に積
極的に関与する可能性もある。こうした視点から Ed.D. の社会貢献も、検討課題とすべ
きである。
第２に、Ed.D. 取得後の個人的なリフレクションについてである。Ed. D／AR 過程で
の学びが、自己の職業的な発展的体験となるように、常に、研究のリフレクション・デー
タを蓄積していく必要がある。特に、客観的な第３人称・他者と協働する Ed. D／AR
過程では、実践主体である自分自身にいかなるインパクトを与えたのか、他者との協働
研究で自分自身が何を学んだのか、Ed. D／AR 研究の成果が示した自己実践の普遍性、
および固有性とは何か等の視点から、Ed.D. 取得後も、間主観的な総合的リフレクショ
ンを必修とすべきである。
以上のように、公的 Ed.D. 執筆テンプレートは未策定ではあったが、BSU の Ed.D. 担
当者は、先進事例の WSU の Ed.D. program を肯定的に評価していた。よって、本報告
のように Ed.D. における AR の有効性を検討することは、極めて重要な課題であり、今
後の我が国の Ed.D. の発展にとっても、動的な教育実践に対する AR の信頼性・有効性、
および主観と客観の統合的方法論の確立においても、潜在的な鍵があると総括できよう。

４）小結：Ed.D. 調査１・２・３に関する発展的提案−AR の視点から−

以上のように BSU でも、実践協力者、および直接の実践者を対象に AR を援用した
Ed.D. を推奨している。周知の通り AR は、実践的現実において改善性・実用性が求め
られ、まず実践上の研究課題の明確化をすることから開始する。Ed.D. は、主観性・固
有性・状況性等を前提とするものの、それでも博士論文である以上、一般化・客観化、
および転用性を求めた自己／他者との協働 AR 型の方が望ましく、特に上述のテンプレー
トでは、主観性と客観性の統合アプローチの視点から、実践協力者との協働性を含むこ
と、すなわち間主観性を重視していた。
よって、Ed. D／AR 過程に焦点化して、わが国の教育実践を理論化するプロセスに

201
有効であり、とりわけ組織・授業経営論等に効果的な PDCA 経営過程論を踏まえた研
究アプローチを考察する。そこで、Ed. D／AR の研究過程を展開する Data-Data Model
の考察が、特に示唆に富む。（Sainz，2008（４））。

PartⅠ−第 1 人の視点を中心に−
PDCA 経営過程論の Plan に該当するのは PartⅠの Describe/Analyze/Theorize の段
階である。まず、Describe とは自己の実践における文脈・状況を踏まえて、仮に実践者
の主観であってもリサーチの一定の方向性を決定することである。Analyze とは、実践
状況における具体的な疑問「当該状況発生は何故か」について明確化することであり、
そこでは、事前に「予備調査」が必要となる。
具体的な行動ステップの計画をたてて、その行動を実施することを第１人称の研究と
すれば、Theorize とは、自己の実践理論において何が有効か、何故、その状況が発生し
たのかについて整理し、仮説を設定することになる。Act では、その実践的理論を計画
化して、いかに取り組むか実践（Plan Intervention）段階である。これは、PDCA 経営
過程論の実践化／ Do に該当する段階であり、調査（実験）の設計、および事象につい
ての継続的な観察・参加によってデータ収集を実施する。
PDCA 経営過程論の Check に該当する結果の分析の際には、研究結果の分析活動と
して、集めたデータの分類や分析後に第１人称的な解釈を加え、初期仮説の正当性を確
かめる（データ分析、考察）。また、導入した理論の再検討（仮説の受容・棄却）を通
して、概念分析を再構成し、新たな理論仮説を設定しながら PartⅡへと展開していく。

PartⅡ−第２人称・３人称の視点を中心に−
PartⅡの Describe/Analyze/Theorize は、PDCA 経営過程論の Check の第２段階に相
当する。Part Ⅱの Design は、PartⅠで実施された Check の深化・拡充である。予備調
査的な位置付けにある PartⅠの自己理論・実践に関する研究課題を再吟味し、本調査の
ための分析データ収集のための方法論を開発する。
その際に Analyze は、行動の過程と結果の分析から課題の明確化を進めるステップで
あり、既存の分析結果に第２人称的視点を加えて行動分析することにより、行為者の省
察が行われる点が特徴的である。よって、AR は「有効性」
「実用性」
「受容性」の観点
から考察できる。
予測不可能な出来事に関する状況記述の重要性が AR の特徴であり、
「どのような計
画や目的が暗黙に存在していたのかという意図」、「その意図や計画がどのようなできご
とで妨げられたのかという偶然性」、「教育実践場面では予想外の出来事に対して普遍的

202
 Action Research Appendix 2

表２－２　データ・データモデル／ Data-Data Model, Sainz, 2008）

Data-Data Phase Focus Tasks Questions
（Part Ⅰ）
First Person
Research
① Describe 自 己 の 実 践 に 関 す る 文 実践が生起する状況と課 自己の実践とは何か。自
脈、及び関心の明確化。 題を把握する。 分が追求・改善したい状
重要な目的は、実践の文 況とは何か。
脈把握と客観的記述をす
る。
② Analyze 自己の状況における実践 自分の課題・疑問を定義 な ぜ 自 己 の 実 践 が、 当
上の課題。何故、その状 し、その要因を明確化す 該 状 況・ 文 脈 に お い て
況が発生するのか原因の る。 Describe の課題が生起す
追究・分析。 自己分析によって実践課 るのか。
題を明確化する。 その理由とは何か。
③ Theorize 自己の実践理論は果たし 自己の実践課題、関心領 Describe 状況を明確化す
て 自 己 の 実 践 に 有 効 か。にアプローチする実践的 るために何ができるのか。
その理由も分析・総合化 理論を公式化する。 なぜ、このアプローチが
する。 例）いかに自己の課題を 他よりも有効なのか。再
明確化するか 構築をする。
④ Act 実践的理論をベースに積 ①から③のアクションプラ このアプローチでいかに
極的に実践化する。 ンを詳細に検討し、その実 実践化するか。留意点の
践的理論による実践化。 確認をしておく。
（Part Ⅱ）
First/Second/ Third
Person Research
１）Design Part Ⅰを通した研究課題 自己の理論に関する研究 自己の実践後の研究課題
と研究手続きの再構築。 課題を、再度、明確化する。をいかに追求するか。
分析データの収集のため 以前はいかなる研究手続
の 手 続 き 論 を 再 開 発 す を取っていたか。
る。
２）Analyze 結果 収集データを分析する。 研究課題に関するいかな
る結果が導かれたのか。
３）Theorize 結果からの理論再構築 データ分析に立脚した実 実践理論の概念・枠組み
践的理論の批判的検討を と 導 か れ た 結 果 的 齟 齬
する。 は、 何 を 意 味 す る の か。
結果が妥当ならば、必要に 以 前 と ど こ が 異 な る の
応じて理論枠を修正する。 か。
４）Act 実践本質の再考察 自己の Describe を再考察 全 過 程 で 何 を 学 ん だ の
し、データ分析結果から か。自己の実践理論の概
必要に応じて変容を求め 念とその実践的結果から
る。次段階で何が必要か、考察して、次段階の状況
Describe のリサイクルを 的行為が改善可能か。
する。

203
解答はないので、不確実性に直面していかなる対応をしたのかという判断」、「その判断
の結果から何が学ばれ、課題となったかという省察」の４側面が記述されることで、第
３人称も代理経験をすることが可能となり、実践の意味や価値が見出されていく探究活
動こそが AR とする。
次に、Theorize は、PartⅡ理論の再構築段階であり、PartⅠの修正理論の位置付けと
なる。データ収集・解釈における妥当性が問われ、研究の信頼 / 信憑性を検証するには
「トライアンギュレーション」（Triangulation）が参考になり「第１人称・第２人称・第
３人称論」に対応することが求められる。
以上、調査１・２・３の主たる目的は、教職大学院と博士課程（Ed.D.）の接続を研究
対象として論じるにあたって、
「理論と実践の融合・往還」を分析視点に特化して設定し、
その一断面に浮かび上がる指導方法論を Action Research に求めることであった。その
観点から、目的の妥当性を半構造化 discussion 法によって一定程度は実証できたものと
考察する。今後も、本調査研究で検討した一断面を深化・拡充する知見が得られるように、
同時に、わが国における関連領域の発展を意図して、Ed. D／AR の関係性に関する研究
活動を継続したい。

注
１　米国西海岸の CA 州では AR 研究が盛んであり University of San-Diego で 5th Annual
Symposium,“Action Research in Education and Leadership”（May16&17,2008）が開催
され、本調査は部分的に当学会の論調を援用している。http://www.sandiego.edu/（08.5/
１閲覧）
２　USA で 開 催 さ れ た（09.4/16）AERA（American Educational Research Association）
で Washington State University の Gail Furman が 発 表 し た 資 料（State-wide Ed.D.
Program in Educational Leadership: Action Research Dissertation Studies）を参照した。
３　前掲の
（State-wide Ed.D. Program in Educational Leadership: Action Research Dissertation
Studies）と www.gradsch.wsu.edu/forms.htm を参照し、筆者が加工したテンプレートに
ついて、Service-Learning ／ Ed.D. 担当の Chin-Sook & Maria Hernández と discussion
（2013.11/８）したものである。
４　Sainz. は、AR で著名な Torbert 理論を受けて実用化・実際化を試みた実践的理論として
University of San-Diego で５th Annual Symposium,“Action Research in Education and
Leadership”の分科会で提案し、その配布資料である（08.5/17）。
５　Torbert の基調講演の配布抜粋資料（08.5/16）
その「第１人称・第２人称・第３人称論」に対応して以下の４観点が挙げられる。

204
 Action Research Appendix 2

「① Data triangulation：異なる時間 / 空間や人間を含むデータを収集する。」

「② Researcher triangulation：様々な研究者がクロスチェックを相互にできるよう研究を組
む。」
「③ Theoretical triangulation：観察を支える理論のために複数の理論から解釈を考える。」
「④ Methodological triangulation：探究に複数の方法論を用いる。」
Torbert の AR 資料は、University of San-Diego5th Annual Symposium,“Action Research in
Education and Leadership”（May16&17,2008）の Action Research Symposium で配布された
基調講演資料であり、これまでの Torbert の研究を凝縮したものであった。

参考文献
Douglas, T., Legitimacy, Differentiation, and the Promise of the Ed.D. in Higher Education.
PUB DATE, 2002.
Kuramoto, T.,“A Case Study of Lesson Study in Japan: from the point of view of student
achievement” The 2009 AERA Annual Meeting, a Paper Session titled, International
Studies on Teacher Education, San Diego, CA, USA, 2009.
McCarthy, M., Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers, Cambridge Language Teaching
Library, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1991.
Osterman, K., and Furman, G., Action Research in EdD Programs in Educational Leadership,
Journal of Research on Leadership Education, v9 n1 p85-105, 2014.
Reason, P., and Torbert, B., The action turn toward a transformational social science: A
further look at the scientific merits of action research, Concepts and Transformation 6
（1）,2001, pp.1-37.
Reason, P., and Bradbury, H., Handbook of Action Research, London: Sage, 2001.
Rosemarye, T., & Valerie, S., Action Research and the Educational Doctorate: New Promises
and Visions, Journal of Research on Leadership Education 8: 97-112, 2013.
Sainz. L., Bi-national collaborative action research project with the Purepecha community in
Rosarito, B.C. Mexico.（Presentation at Action Research Symposium）2008.
Sagor, R., Guiding School Improvement with Action Research, ASCD, Alexandria, VA, 2000.
Shulman, S., Reclaiming education’s doctorates: A critique and a proposal”. Educational
Researcher（American Educational Research Association）35（3）:26, 2006.
Stringer, T., Action Research Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999.
Torbert, B., Developing Wisdom and Courage in Organizing and Sciencing, In S. Srivastva
& D.Cooperrider, eds., Organizational Wisdom and Executive Courage, San Francisco:

205
 New Lexington Press, 1998.
Torbert, B, A developmental approach to social science: integrating first-, second-, third-
person research/practice through single-, double-, tipple-loop feedback, Journal of
Adult Development 7（4）,2000, pp.255-268.
Torbert, B., and Associates, Action Inquiry, The Secret of timely and Transforming
Leadership, Berrett-Koehier Publisher, Inc, San Francisco, 2004.
Uchiyama, K., A New Theoretical Grounding of Action research: Based on Checkland’s Soft
System Methodology（Presentation Paper at Action Research Symposium）2008.
Uchiyama, K., The Theory and Practice of Actuality, Institute of Business Research, Daito
Bunka University, Tokyo, 2003.
秋田喜代美／キャサリン・ルイス『授業の研究・教師の学習』明石書店　2008 年。
草郷孝好「アクションリサーチ」小泉潤二・志水宏吉編『実践的研究のすすめ：人間科学の
リアリティー』有斐閣　2007 年 pp.251-266.
倉本哲男『アメリカにおけるカリキュラムマネジメントの研究－サービス・ラーニング
Service-Learning の視点から－』ふくろう出版　2008 年。
日本カリキュラム学会　2008 年 pp.45-58.
平山満善編『質的研究法による授業研究』北大路書房　1997 年。
野口祐二『物語としてのケア ナラティヴ・アプローチとしての世界へ』医学書院　2002 年
pp.3-15.
Flick, U.,（小田博志 / 山本則子 / 春日常 / 宮地尚子訳）『質的研究入門－〈人間の科学〉のため
の方法論』春秋社　2002 年。
Schoen, D.,（佐藤学 / 秋田喜代美訳）『専門家の知恵－反省的実践家は行為しながら考える』
ゆみる出版　2007 年。
Checkland, P.,（妹尾監訳）『ソフトシステムズ方法論』有斐閣 1994 年。
Lewin, K.,（末永俊郎訳）『社会的葛藤の解決－グループダイナミックス論－』創元新 1954 年。
http://www.walsnet.org/（2014/6/30）

（Tetsuo Kuramoto）

206
Action Research Appendix 3
Action Research による「理論と実践の融合・往還」の
指導事例

第１節　はじめに（教職大学院におけるアクションリサーチ）

今後の教職大学院の発展・充実期に先立ち、先述の「大学院段階の教員養成の改革と
充実等について」に派生する全国的動向、およびその他の教員養成系の先行研究を総括
して浮かび上がった検討課題の１つは、教職大学院におけるカリキュラム開発論、およ
び方法論（Curriculum & Instruction）を再考する必要性である。特に本報告では、全
国の教職大学院のスローガンとして挙げられる「理論と実践の融合・往還とは何か」を
分析視点に設定し、19 国立大学・教職大学院を訪問調査した。そこで、数多くの教職大
学院が指導方法論としてシラバスにも位置付けている Action Research（以下、AR）の
視点から、暫定的に「理論と実践の融合・往還とは何か」について論じておく。
近年、わが国に限らず、国際的にも AR は実践研究方法の一環として大いなる注目
を浴びているが（American Educational Research Association 2014, World Association
of Lesson Studies 2013）、概して AR とは、社会 / 経験科学分野の実践的課題において、
現在進行形の問題解決のプロセスを重視した研究であり、実践者の「経験知」「固有知」
等によって提起され、実践者自身の実践的改善、および質的向上を図る研究思想・方法
論と総括できよう。
多領域で発展した AR の起源を特定することは困難であるが、例えば K, Lewin の組
織改善論である Group Dynamics は著名であり、源流とする論考もあるが（末永訳／
Lewin, 1954）、必然的に AR の定義は、例えば以下のように多義にわたる。　
「AR は、行為者のための行為者による過程原理である。AR の重要な研究意義は、
実践者の行為を改善し、再チャレンジを促す支援を目的とすることにある。」（Sagor
2000）。
「AR は実践者自身による職業的実践についての学びであり、計画性と継続性の要素
を含み、他の研究要素を体系化したものである。また AR とは、実践者にとって実践結
果の望ましい向上のために、自らが納得できる実践改善案を提起するための研究でもあ
る。」（Stringer 1999.）

一方、実践者の主観性と研究者の主観性による「間主観性によって可能な限り客観性
にアプローチする」AR も代表的である。主観性の視点からは、経験や出来事から生成

207
する意味、研究対象の主体性・固有性に焦点をあて、取り巻く状況論的な事物・行為・
出来事等の意味を志向する動態的研究の方向性と把握できる。また、AR において主観
性と客観性を統合する研究アプローチとして「第１人称・２人称・３人称論」（First/
Second/ Third Person）が提唱された（Torbert 2004）。
教育実践を研究対象とする AR の理論的・実証的枠組みは、「行為中の知」（Knowing-
in-Action）を「行為中の知識」
（Knowledge-in-Action）へ置き換えるものであり、これは「行
為中の省察」（Reflecting-in-Action）によってのみ可能となると論じられる。（Schoen ／
佐藤・秋田 2007）。
同時に AR は、単なる個人に内在化する実践研究に終始せず、当該研究課題の明確化・
改善過程において進歩主義的な問題解決学習の指向性を含みながら、第３人称的な実践
協力者・研究者・学校組織 / システム等と協働化する「実践コミュニティー」
（Community
of Practice）の研究形態を取る。故に AR とは、協働化した研究文脈を前提にした問題
解決過程の行為研究であり、個人的実践、および組織的実践の改善過程において主観性
と客観性との統合的バランスを重視した弁証法的な研究である（Reason & Bradbury,
2001）。
国 内 の 著 名 な AR 論 者 で あ る 内 山 は「 ソ フ ト シ ス テ ム 方 法 論 」
（Soft System
Methodology）を例示しながら、企業組織マネジメントのハード（客観）的側面とソフト（主
観）的側面の二極統合 AR を論じている。
内山の AR は、主観性や個人的な「思い」を客観化する研究方法論として「実在論」
（Actuality）と「自己触発論」（Auto-Affection）を導入し、客観性を欠くとして排斥さ
れがちだった主観性・固有性を実証化する可能性を模索した（内山 2008）。　
一方、教職大学院の枠組みにおける AR は、実践的研究者（指導者）の「研究知」と
協働してより望ましい問題解決の方法論を構築し、概して PDCA 過程を含みながらも、
実践者自身が、自己フィードバック・リフレクションを通して改善・発展する動的・行
為的研究でもある（倉本 2014）。
一般に教師自身は、日常の実践に対しても実感による振り返りは行うものであるが、
「理論と実践の融合・往還」を考察する場合は、それらを理論、実証的データ、および
関係者との意見交換等による体系的な学びを図ることが重要となる。
例えば質的研究論に着目した場合、教師が実践している一般的な授業記録ではあるが、
主として主観性のみに依拠したエッセイであり、研究手続きや記述方法についての特定
法則が曖昧となりがちである。しかし、教職大学院の AR は、客観性・科学性の視点を
加えて授業過程を分析し、優れた授業特性や法則性を導き出すことにある。その研究方
法は、知見を一般化する上で研究手続き・記述形式・評価判定の一定基準を示しており

208
 Action Research Appendix 3

（平山 1997）、こうした注目を浴びる質的研究論の現代的動向も AR における「理論と実

践の融合・往還」に対して一定の示唆を含んでいると整理できよう。

以上、国内外の AR 先行研究を踏まえつつ、本研究では、教師自身が、これまでの教
師経験で培った「実践知／固有知」を前提としながらも、教職大学院カリキュラムの
PDCA 過程を通した「研究知」を培う観点から、「自己の理論性と実践性を融合したり、
往還したりする」形態の AR を検討対象とする。換言すれば本学の AR とは、自己実践
において協働化した研究文脈を前提とし、その実践的問題の解決過程に関する行為研究
であり、個人的・組織的実践の改善過程において「実践知／固有知」と「研究知」との
統合的バランスを重視するものである。
この AR 論の文脈に位置づけ、育成すべき「めざす教師像」を後述する「理論的言語
と実践的言語を状況・場面によって使い分けたり、相手のニーズに応じて通訳したりで
きる Bilingual 教師」とした（愛知教育大学／教職大学院 WG，2013）。

よって、具体的に本学の AR は、
「Straight Master や現職院生が、自己実践の改善を
通して、
教師的素養に関する自己成長を実感できるよう行う第一人称の実践研究」
であり、
その実践に関与・観察しながら、結果に対応する「省察」
（Reflection）をするものである。
教師は誰でも、自分自身の実践を振り返り、その成果についての主観的な「実感」を基
に判断するものだが、本報告における教職大学院の AR は、実践研究の方法論やリサー
チデザインを学び、可能な限り体系的に一般化し、反復可能性を求める点に特徴がある。

第２節　第１・２・３人称論のアクションリサーチ

近年、AR は実践研究方法の一環として注目を浴びているが、概して AR とは、社会

／人間科学分野の実践的課題において、現在進行形の問題解決のプロセスを重視した研
究であり、実践者の固有性・状況論を前提にして、自己実践の質的向上を意図した研究
と概括できよう。また、教育実践研究の視点から AR は、
「実践知」と「研究知」とが
協働して問題解決の具体的な方法論を構築し、リフレクションを通して発展する動的な
PDCA 実践研究でもある（Kuramoto, &Tsuyuguchi, 2009; Kuramoto, 2011b）
。
多領域で発展した AR の起源を整理することは困難であるが、例えば K, Lewin の組
織改善論である Group Dynamics は著名である（Lewin ／末永 1954）。これは「計画・
実施・評価・修正・適用」の実践過程論を確立したが故に、社会・対人環境の PDCA

209
組織改善論を学校マネジメントにも援用されている。AR の定義は多種多様にあるもの
の、本稿では、主観性と主観性による「間主観性によって可能な限り客観性にアプロー
チする」AR を検討対象とする。その AR で典型的なものは「第１人称・第２人称・第
３人称論」（First-Person, Second-Person, Third-Person Theory, Triangulation）による
複眼 / 間主観的な行為研究論である（Reason and Torbert, 2001; Reason and Bradbury,
2001）。
本 AR 論者の一人が Torbert であり、AR が盛んな米国でも極めて高い評価を受けて
いる。その第１人称とは、主観的行為を前提にした「実践主体者」を意味しており、第
２人称とは学校教育の場合、学習者（Students）を意味する「実践対象者」である。ま
た第３人称とは「外部観察者・関与者」であり、第１・２人称との民主的関係を前提と
しながら、それらの主観的認識 / 理解、および社会的・文化的意味付けを体系化・構築
化する客観的立場に位置づけられる。
つまり Torbert の AR 論によれば、この「第１人称・第２人称・第３人称論」の統
合的アプローチは間主観的に「共感する」（Compassion）ことである。その間主観性と
は、対象者の第１人称（主観性）の状況と、第２人称の主観的状態との相関関係が、何
らかの方法論で「繋がる」「重なる」という重層性・複眼性を持つ。その行為をより多
面的に理解する補助として、第３人称（学術的主観性・漸次的客観性）の実証的な方法
論等により、実践の全体性を可能な限り客観化・対象化することである（Torbert and
Associates, 2004）。
本稿における AR 論とは、第１・２・３人称論の観点から、実践者の実践的主観性と
研究者の専門的主観性による「複眼性・間主観性によって可能な限り客観的なアプロー
チをする」研究方法論と把握した。よって、
「間主観的に実践を理解する」ということは、
自己の主観的な状態が、相手側の主観に通じる状況であり、当事者相互が民主的な位置
関係で「相手が思っていることを感得する」状況を意味しており、実践の関与主体が関
与対象の思いを間主観的に理解できるかどうかが AR の鍵となる。

第３節　研修主任のリーダーシップ
　　　　−アクションリサーチの視点から−

ここでは、図３－１に示したように LS と CM の関係性を校内研修による学校改善論
と理解した上で、既述の AR の方法論により、それを実際的に推進する研修主任のリー
ダーシップの視点から、その典型事例を質的に分析する。

210
 Action Research Appendix 3

わが国では、カリキュラム運用を効率的にマネジメントする担当者、および新たなカ
リキュラムを開発する直接的な担当者として、研修・教務主任等の主任層教諭のミドル
リーダーが挙げられる。その主任層教諭のリーダーシップとは、「主任層教諭による教
職員への影響過程」と把握し、主任層教諭は、管理職と教職員の中間的立場に位置づけ
られ、管理職の考え方や方針を教職員に周知徹底させる機能だけでなく、教職員全体の
意見調整や管理職・上層部に対する積極的な働きかけも求められると整理している（露
口 2008，淵上 2009）。
一方、米国の学校改善・地域改善論を踏まえた変革的カリキュラムリーダーシップ論
（Transformative Curriculum Leadership）も重要な観点である（Henderson, 2000）。国
内では木原／矢野／森／廣瀬（2013）が、これを「カリキュラムの知恵ある問題解決」
「創
、
造的」「民主的」「管理的」の概念で整理し、「学校を基盤とするカリキュラム開発」を
推進するリーダー教師を詳細に論じている。
以上、わが国の校内研修における主任層のリーダーシップとは、管理層教諭（校長、
教頭）、主任層教諭（教務、生徒指導、研修主任など）、学級層教諭（学級担任、副担任

管理層リーダー カリキュラムリーダー
カリキュラムマネジメント
（校長、副校長、教頭） （学校内部と学校外部）

マネジメント マネジメント
トップダウン

ボトムアップ

トップダウン
主任層のアップダウン

カリキュラムに関する
教授的・変革的 教授的・変革的
アイデア
などのリーダー などのリーダー
職員の心情や組織の
シップ シップ
状態の伝達
主任層リーダー 職員の育成
協調性（促進要因と
の育成 （コーチング・
阻害要因）
（コーチング・  メンタリング）
 メンタリング）
カリキュラムに関する
アイデア
協調性（促進要因と
阻害要因）

ボトムアップ
   主任層リーダー 学級層リーダー
 （教務主任・生徒指導主事・ 主任層のアップダウン
小中一貫教育コーディネーターなど）
（学級担任・教科担任）

カリキュラムマネジメント カリキュラムリーダー
  カリキュラムリーダー
（学校組織・学校文化） 各学級のマネジメント
※カリキュラムコーディネーター
職員の育成 （各学級の児童・生徒
（カリキュラムリーダーシップ）
（コーチング・メンタリング） を中心としたリーダー
人間性
教職員の協調性を高め、教 シップ）
職務専念・指導力・忍耐力
育目標を具現化するための
ポジティブ志向・言語能力
研修計画とメンタルサポート

図３－１　Action Research の構造

211
など）の３グループに対応するアップ・ダウン行為を図るカリキュラムマネジメントの
PDCA 過程と理解して図３－１に整理した。
特に校内研修を推進するリーダーシップの特徴は、カリキュラム（顕在的・潜在的）
カリキュラムを効果的にコーディネートし、新たなカリキュラムを開発・実践・評価し
再構築（改善）するリーダーシップであり、学校組織文化を積極的に醸成し、適材適所
に配慮した分散型のリーダーシップと概括できよう。
そこで既述の間主観的な AR 論の視点から、如何に校内研修を活用して学校改善が図
られたのか、典型的な実践事例を分析対象にしながらナラティブ記録を質的に分析し、
その解釈を進めていく。

第４節　小中連携プロジェクトによる学校改善の事例分析

１）事例の概要１
Ａ県Ｂ市のＣ公立小中学校は、同一敷地内・校舎併設型の小中一貫校を 2015 年度に
開校する予定である。そこで本件は、2011 年度当時、校内研修等を活用しながら学校改
善を図ろうとする学校マネジメントの実践事例（行為研究）である。尚、本稿では AR
の立場から、学校改善を推進する研修主任のリーダーシップに限定して検証する（AR
対象者は 2011 年度修了・現職教員院生）。

２）事例調査の目的
研修主任のリーダーシップに着目し、特に校内研修を中心に小中連携プロジェクトを
進めていく態様を質的に分析することで、校内研修と学校改善の関係性の一断面を論じ
ることを調査の目的とする。仮説的には「小中学校の組織文化の協働的醸成を前提にし
た小中連携プロジェクトにおいて、カリキュラム開発・経営に取り組むことで、積極
的な学校改善が推進される。」と理解し、研修主任のリーダーシップに関する促進要因、
阻害要因を検証する。

３）事例調査の方法
本稿 AR の視点から「第１人称・第２人称・第３人称の間主観論」を前提とする。実践者・
分析対象者の第１人称・研修主任（中学校）が、毎回、校内研修の提案後に「振り返り」
を記録し、それを基に第２人称・小学校の研修主任と「第２の振り返り」を実施する。
その後、その記録を参考に第３人称（倉本）との総合考察「第３の振り返り」を実施し、

212
 Action Research Appendix 3

間主観 AR によって整理をした。
自己とはセルフナラティブ（Self-Narrative）であるとの立場から、実践者の「自己の
語り」を間主観的に理解して可能な限り客観化し、「実践者・積極派・消極派」の観点
から分析した。

４）調査期間・調査対象者
①期間：H23 年度 4 月から 12 月まで合計 17 回実施した（日程は以下の通り）
。
　4/5, 5/25, 5/26, 6/4, 6/9, 7/7, 8/2, 8/9, 8/24, 9/17, 10/6, 10/11, 11/9, 11/17, 11/24,
11/25, 12/4．（校内研修は 5/26, 6/9, 8/2, 8/9, 8/24, 9/17, 10/6, 11/17 の計８回）
　それ以外は、事前打ち合わせ等の小委員会のナラティブ記録である。
　倉本は 5/26（第１回校内研修），10/6（中学校授業発表会）に合計２回、校内研修
に直接参加したが、残り 15 回は大学院にて総合考察を実施した。
②調査対象者：Ｃ小中学校・全教職員（特に小中学校の研修主任、管理職）

５）事例調査の結果
上述の調査枠に対応して、17 回相当のナラティブ構造図を作成した。その間主観性の
AR ナラティブの結果と具体的な分析方法を図３－２に示した。ただし、本稿では紙面
の都合上、全構造図ではなく、抜粋による一部紹介とする。

６）事例調査の考察
紙面の都合で割愛したが、予備調査（地域学校の教師 725 人、学校文化・校内研修・
小中連携の 52 項目に対して主因子法 / プロマックス回転）によって、①学校組織文化
における「同僚性と自律性」、②研修主任における「組織革新性と同僚支援性」、③カリキュ
ラムビジョンにおける「子どもの将来性と革新性」、④「組織保守性」の因子が抽出された。
間主観性のナラティブ AR から①「同僚性と自律性」については、実践者は日常から
人間関係の構築に努め、組織文化の改善に取り組んでいる。また、校内研修においては、
教師集団のモチベーションが高まるような検討資料を提示したり、ワークショップスタ
イルの研修を実施したりすることで、
「同僚性と自律性」を意識した取り組みがナラティ
ブに現れていると解釈されよう。
②主任層教諭の「組織革新性と同僚支援性」においては、当該年度の「学習メソッド・
生徒指導メソッド」の開発や、小中合同の「あいさつ運動やクリーン作戦」等の率先し
たリーダーシップが挙げられよう。更に組織を革新的に導くために、同僚を理解・支援
していく必要性を意識した「コーチング・メンタリング」手法も有効であり、即効性が

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 ４月以降の実践をナラティブレポート

カテゴリー ４月５日（運営委員会） ５月２５日（打ち合わせ）

実践者 ◎小中一貫 ◎小中の先生方は、９カ年の C 校の教 ◎組織文化の改善のための手立ては、こど
教育に関する 師であるという自覚を持つ必要性があ もの将来像にかかっていると考えた。
組織文化 ることを告げる。 そこで「子どもの貧困」という資料を用い
（以下◎） めざす子どもの将来像を考える必要性 て話をすることとした。
を告げた。 近年の子どもの環境が著しく悪化している状
教育目標の必要性を告げた。 況で教育の果たすべき役割は何かを考える
ことにより、小中の教師集団が少しでもまと
まればと考えたからである。
★授業面 ★学習メソッドを考え、授業に関する
保護者・地域へのアンケートの集計を終え
（以下★） 視点が必要であることを提案する。
プリントにまとめた。

☆生徒指導面 ☆生徒指導に関する共通理解と協働性
（以下☆） の必要性から、その視点を整理するこ
とが課題であると告げる。

積極派 ◎小学校の校長が、９カ年の教師である、という実践
者の考えに賛成された。
教育目標は、保護者・地域にアンケートを取る方が良
い、という意見が出た。
今年度は、学習面と生徒指導面に焦点化して話し合い
を行うこととなった。

★来年度は、B 市の輪番制で C 校が授業研究会を開く

ことになるため、学習メソッドが必要であると理解され
ていた。
☆生徒指導面で共通理解や共通実践ができるよう手
立てが必要である。

消極派 ◎小中組織文化の違いを乗り越えようとせず、否定的
傍観者 な発言が多い。

☆来年度の授業研究会に否定的である。

★生徒指導面での共通理解や実践が難しいと考え、
否定的である。

第２人称 小学校の小中一貫教育コーディネーターから、昨年
度までの経緯を聞く。会議の時間の確保が難しかった。
また、なかなか組織文化の違いを融合させることがで
きなかった、ということであった。

第３人称 小学校の校長には前向きな姿勢が感じられるが、一方
（倉本先生） では、中学校長姿勢に疑問がある。

総合考察 実践者は、前年度までの経緯から計画的に前進させ
る必要性があることを実感している。また、校長のリー
ダーシップに対する今後に期待をしているといえよう。
更に、組織文化の違いと今後の組織文化の改善が必
要であると解釈できる。

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 Action Research Appendix 3

【５月２６日第１回研修】
◎「子どもの貧困」という資料を第１回目の会議前日に全職員に渡し
て、モチベーションが高まるように仕組んだ。
アンケート結果を下に教育目標について校長同士で話し合いをしても
らった。

★☆ C 校の児童・生徒の実態を踏まえた目標（ミッション）を全職員
に書いてもらった。
ＫＪ法を活用し、学習部・生徒指導部の２つの部会に分かれ、話し合
いを仕組んだ。

◎子どもの将来のことを考えれば、小中一貫の取り組みも必要であろ
う、という気持ちが表情から伝わってきた。
ＫＪ法で教職員の話し合いが深まったと好評であった。

★学習面の課題（学習規律など）が多くあがってきた。

☆学習面で、気になることや生徒指導面で、人権教育などの課題が
挙がってきた。

◎会議後に、教育目標とか今更という声が聞こえてくる。それを中学
校職員室で大きな声で発言する教師がいることが残念である。小学
校の先生方と連携をしようという気持ちが全く感じ取れなかった。

（第２人称）小学校のコーディネーターが、昨年度までの会議が進ん
でいないことを実感していたが、話し合いの時間の確保ができていな
いことに不満を感じられていた。

（第３人称）小中学校の組織文化のネガティブ性を感じられた。しかし、
カリキュラムコーディネーター（以下、ＣＣ）はＫＪ法を活用したり、短
時間でまとめたりして、積極的なリーダーシップを発揮していた。

（総合考察）組織文化の壁を取り除くべく、会議に KJ 法を活用し職
員のコミュニケーションを深めるなど、昨年度までとは違う取り組み
が職員の関心を高めた部分が多かったといえよう。

215
 ４月以降の実践をナラティブレポート

【8 月 2 日先進校視察】 【８月９日第３回研修】
実践者 ◎福岡と佐賀の先進校視察を全職員で行い、 ◎教師の協働性を図るために「思考力」に関する
職員のモチベーションを高めたかった。 資料を配付し、モチベーションを高めた。
視察のお蔭で一貫校の良いモデルとなった。 ３ブロック（１年∼４年、５年∼中１，中２と中３）
に分かれて話し合いを行い、特に中期の部会が充
実していた。また、その後の教科部会においても
今後の計画を立てることができた。
学習メソッドを１時間の授業と単元ごとかの話し合い
★☆学習面や生徒指導麺での課題が見えてき が長引いたので、実践者が１時間の授業で話をまと
た。 めた。
特に学習や学習規律・その他の行事など参考
★学習メソッドを「4・3・2」のブロックで話し合
になった。
いを行った。

☆実践者は、ブロック別にリーダーを置き、会議の
前に話し合いの手順を説明し、会の進行をスムーズ
になるように進言した。

積極派 ◎施設が新築で部屋数や設備が充実しているこ ◎初めて前期・中期・後期と３ブロックで話し合い

とは、それとして、今の C 校で必要なものを を行ったことで教職員の意識の変容が感じられた。
取捨選択している教職員の姿があった。特に小 各ブロックで話し合うことで課題が見え始めてきた。
学校職員は、前向きであった。 特に中期ブロックの話し合いが、他のブロックにも
関心をよぶこととなり話が進展した。
★☆学習面、生徒指導面、行事など参考にな
★特に中期ブロックの話し合いが充実していた。
ることが多かった。という意見が大勢を占めた。

消極派 ◎視察後のアンケートで、中学校職員から「や ◎★学習メソッドの柱の部分で批判が出た。指導過

傍観者 はりハード面ができないと小中一貫はだめよ 程の流れだが、小さなことにこだわりすぎていた。
ね」、「市全体でバックアップしてもらってるから 小学校ＣＣがそれに対して答えたが、それでも納得
良い、だから C 校は難しい」。そういう否定的 していなかったので、中学校ＣＣが、指導案を作成
な声が聞こえてきた。 するときは起承転結があるはずと、話を打ち切り会
議を進めた。話し合う時間は無性に過ぎていった。

第２人称 小学校コーディネーターは、昨年度から中学校 （第２人称）小学校コーディネーターは、学習メソッ

側からの否定的な発言が多く、小学校の先生 ドの柱で悩むこととなった。ブロックに分かれる前に
方と意見の不一致が続いている、という話で ブロックリーダーを決めておくべきであった、と反
あった。会議に前向きさが感じられない、とい 省されていた。
うことであった。

第３人称 先進校のように時間をかけて会議を重ね、校舎 （第３人称）メッソッドの開発検討に単元レベル・1

（倉本先生） のハード面も職員の意見を生かすべきだ。 時間レベルでの利点を議論した。1 時間レベルを
PISA 等の広い視野も示していきたい。教育的 導入・展開・まとめの視点を提案している。年 8
リーダーシップの発揮場面である。 回の限られた機会を今後いかに生かすかを考え、
リーダーシップの発揮場面を計算している。

総合考察 先進校視察によって、モラールが高まった職員 （総合考察）実践者は、教職員のモラールを高める

と一部には、ハード・ソフト面を見てモラール 資料づくりや職員のコミュニケーションを深めるた
が下がった者もいた。机上の論理から早めの実 めのブロック別の話し合いを計画するなどの実践に
践が、職員の意識を高めることにつながること 取り組んでいる。しかし話し合うことで、小中の問
が推測される。 題点が露わになってきた。そのため、計画的に内
容を深めるプログラムがやはり検討不足であったと
反省される。

216

【８月２４日第４回研修】
◎メソッドのまとめと道徳及び生徒指導でグループ別会
議を予定した。しかし、なかなか進まなかった。ただ、
内容が深まっていた。誰もが自分のこととして考え始め
たように感じる瞬間がそこにはあった。
学習面の話し合いが進んだ。そのため、生徒指導の話
が予定通り進まなかった。
★学習メソッドが整理された。次に学習規律と話し方に
話題が移り、意見が多く出され深まりを見せた。
☆時間が無くなりできなかったため、リーダーで後日、
話し合うこととした。
各部会にリーダーを置き、話し合いがスムーズに進行す
るうよう打ち合わせを行った。
◎前回の福岡研修の後、実は懇親会であった。その際、
会議の時間が少ないことと、コーディネーターに任せす
ぎ、という意見が出た。少人数で話し合いをしましょう、
と言ってくれる職員が現れた。
★学習面の話が進んだことで、授業に関する教職員の道
しるべができた感じである。また、話し合いが深まりつ
つあることが実感できてきた。
◎●会議後、生徒会担当教諭と環境部の教諭が、次の
合同行事である「クリーン作戦」を話し合っていた。そ
の後、他の中学教師から、「もっと少数で話し合いを深
めた方がいいよね」、と前向きな意見をもらうことができ
た。少し氷山の一角が溶け始めている感じがした。
（第２人称）小学校コーディネーターも今回の会議で全
体的に前向きな教職員の姿勢が感じられた、ということ
であった。
（第３人称）小中間での意見の食い違いに対して、 ＣＣは
折衷案を提案している。中学側・小学側から建設的なコ
メントをもらい、「うれしかった。」
ＣＣとしての達成感を味
わっている。意欲が高まった様子である。
（総合考察）部会別、ブロック別の話し合いを計画した
成果が出てきていることが感じられる。また、
ＣＣとして、
話し合いをまとめる能力も必要であるといえる。そのこ
とが職員の反応から伺えるようになってきている。
図３－２　小中連携における第１・２・３人称の間主観による考察・抜粋
Action Research Appendix 3
【９月１７日第５回研修】
◎学習部、生徒指導部の２つの研修を積み重ねる
ことで少しずつ会話が増えてきていた。
学習部の話し合いが中心となり、生徒指導部の話し
合いは、なかなか進まなかった。教育目標やめざす
生徒像を管理職にお願いしていたが、コーディネー
ターとして管理職とのアップダウン（モデル図
1-12）を考える必要があった。
★学習部は、学習規律について話し合いを行った。
☆生徒指導部は小中の年間指導計画を話し合った。
◎★☆学習規律では、話す内容に深まりを見せて
いた。生徒指導部の年間計画では、時間が必要で
あるとどの職員も感じた。
B 事務所の先生から「他の学校を参考にした方が
よい」、「中学校職員は小学校へ授業へ行く、反対
に小学校職員は教え子が中学校へ入学して、どの
ように成長するか観察する必要がある」と助言して
いただいた。
◎話し合いを積み重ねることで批判の声が少なく
なってきていた。
話し合いの時間の確保が課題である。
☆生徒指導部は、話し合いが進まず、苦慮していた。
（第２人称）小学校コーディネーターは、話し合い
が充実してきているが、それぞれのグループやブ
ロックで先に進むための手立ての工夫が必要であ
る、ということであった。
（第３人称）目指す児童・生徒像が重要と認識した。
ＣＣは先見の明が必要と実感した。ＣＣの自己教育力
がＵＰした場面である。児童・生徒像が小中連携の
有効手段として位置づけている。
（総合考察）計画や実行には、予想される教育目標
や目的がなければ、見えてくるものも見えてこない。
それをもっと見える形で考え、伝えていくことの必
要性がＣＣには、必要である。また、第３人称の言
うようにＣＣの教育力が上がってきているようであ
る。
217
高い現実的な手立てであった。
③「子どもの将来性と革新性」においては、カリキュラムビジョンとしての「子ども
の将来性」に関して、校内研修を積み重ねることにより、小中一貫教育における共通目
標を設定できたとし、目標管理による小中一貫教育という革新的実践が徐々に実現化さ
れたと解釈できた。
しかし、ここでの重要課題は阻害要因の④「組織保守性」への対応である。小中連携
のような革新的プロジェクトに対して、消極的意見を述べる教師が存在することは必然
である。これに対応して実践者は、普段の何気ない職員室での会話など、日常から支援
する姿勢を取っていた。実践者の「振り返り」では、校内研修のプログラム内容の検討
不足、消極的な教職員のモラールを高める更なる手だて、管理職と教職員とのコミュニ
ケーションを促進する組織的なアップ・ダウン機能が希薄であったこと等を反省材料と
して挙げている。

第５節　結語

学校組織マネジメントの PDCA 経営過程論は、各学校のマネジメント実践の課題分

析することから始まり、その問題点に対する改善策を計画・実行し、その効果を検証し
た上で、我校独自の改善過程へと発展していくものである。その実践改善を意図する典
型的な研究方法が、間主観性の AR であり、
「第１人称・第２人称・第３人称の間主観論」、
つまり主観性と客観性を統合するアプローチとして学校経営の改善に効果的な方法論で
あると言えるのではなかろうか。
本稿では、小中連携プロジェクトを事例に主任層のリーダーシップに着目した。これ
を「小中学校の組織文化の協働的醸成を前提にした小中連携プロジェクトにおいて、カ
リキュラム開発・経営に取り組むことで、積極的な学校改善が推進される。」と理解し、
特に研修主任のリーダーシップに関する促進要因、阻害要因を検証し、校内研修と学校
改善の関係性の一断面を質的に分析した。
教育方法学と教育経営学が交差する範疇における学校改善論とは、組織の問題解決性・
教育経営の活性化・ポジティブな学校文化形成・自主的 / 自立的な組織体・開かれた協
働性等の項目が挙げられるが、究極的な学校組織の存在意義は、生徒の知的・人間的成
長の教育機関であることが最重要ミッションである。
以上に鑑み、教育方法学と教育経営学が融合する代表的概念である CM を論じる際に、
LS を分析視点に考察することは学問的価値があると考えている。　　

218
 Action Research Appendix 3

例えば「内部的協働性」（Internal Collaboration）とは、学校文化論との関連で実態把
握ができるが、教職員相互の主な価値観や行動規範、学校長のリーダーシップ、学校組
織内の職員研修のあり方等を包括的に捉えるものであり、これを前提にすれば更に学習
指導が充実すると提案できよう（Peterson,1999）。
よって、LS 等を核としてポジティブな学校文化に位置づくカリキュラムの開発・経
営が効果的に機能すれば、包括的な「学校力」を育成し、究極的にはこのことが、生徒
への教育活動を充実させる組織的原動力となり得る。以上の考察から、LS と CM を学
校改善論の発展可能性として捉え、今後も国内に限定せず、関連する海外の国際学会の
動向にも注目すべきであると総括したい。

注
１　本稿の事例は、H23 年度修了生の修士論文（佐賀大学）から引用・再整理している。本
人と相談の結果、本稿では匿名の方が望ましいと判断した。

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（Tetsuo Kuramoto）

220
 About the authors

　Professor Tetsuo Kuramoto (PhD) is teaching at Aichi University of Education,

Graduate School of Practitioners in Education and the PhD program of Saga
National University in Japan.
　He is an Executive Committee member of“The Japanese Society for
Curriculum Studies”. Also, he is enthusiastically working for the World
Association of Lesson Studies and the American Educational Research
Association, among others. His focus is on Action Research & School
Management from the perspective of the Lesson Study System which
historically originated in Japan. This concept falls under the umbrella of
Curriculum Management. He has been actively leading action research & school
management with Lesson Study projects in various schools, particularly in
Central and Western Japan, but also including overseas.
　He has published books regarding the curriculum management, service-
learning, and other educational topics in Japanese. However, this book,“Lesson
Study and Curriculum Management in Japan -focusing on Action Research-”, is
his first book published in English. He hopes to share the Japanese educational
culture and knowledge with the world.

　Dr. Kuramoto＇s PhD course graduate students at Saga University (Bruce

Lander, Nguyen Huyen Trang and others) are great contributors as associates in
this book. Also Dr. Kanji Tsuyuguchi (Professor of Ehime National University),
who is specialist in the area of principal leadership, has been a research
colleague of his since the days when they were both working on their own
doctorate degrees.

221
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Lesson Study and Curriculum

Management in Japan
Focusing on Action Research

2014 年 10 月 5 日 初版発行

代表著者  倉本 哲男

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