PROTEINS - Amino acids are chiral, hence optically

Description
 Proteins are polymers of amino acids, with
each amino acid residue joined to its neighb
or
by a specific type of covalent bond called a
peptide bond.
active.
 Proteins are the most abundant biological
- The vast majority of αamino acids have the
macromolecules, occurring in all cells and al
L-configuration at the αcarbon (Proline is usually
l parts of cells.
D)
 Proteins are made up of 20 amino acids
linked by peptide bonds.
Classification of Amino Acids
 Polypeptide backbone is the repeating
Classification based on R Groups
sequence of the NCCNCC…
1. Aliphatic: G, I, L, V, A
 The side chain R group is not part of the
linear amino acid link.

Functions of Protein
1.Enzyme - many proteins function as enzymes,
biochemical catalysts. Enzymes catalyze nearly all
reactions that occur in living systems.
2. Transport – some proteins bind other molecules
together and transport substances such as
hemoglobin. Other proteins serve as pores and 2. Cyclic: P
channels in membranes, allowing for the passage of
small, charged molecules.
3. Support – proteins such as tubulin, actin,
collagen provide support and shape to cells and
hence to tissues and organs.
4. Hormones – some proteins are hormones, which
regulate biochemical activities in target cells or
tissues like insulin, oxytocin, HGH, etc.; other
proteins serve as receptors for hormones.
5. Regulation – control in the expression of genes
6. Receptors – proteins on the cell surface can act
as receptors for various ligands and as modifiers of
cell interactions. 3. Aromatic: W, Y, F
7. Protection – antibodies defending vertebrates
against bacterial and viral infections; toxins
produced by bacteria can kill larger organisms.

Chemistry of Amino acids

- Amino acids are compounds that contain
both an amino group and a carboxyl group.
- αamino acid has an amino group attached to
the carbon adjacent to the carboxyl group.
- R-group gives identity to the amino acid.
- With the exception of glycine, all protein-- 4. Sulfur-containing: M, C
derived amino acids have at least one stereocenter.
–

5. Alcoholic : S, T, Y
Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids
Essential amino acids:
• Histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine.
Nonessential amino acids:
• Alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid,
cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline,
serine, tyrosine
• Citrulline, cystine, gamma-aminobutyric acid,
ornithine and taurine.

6. Carboxyl: D, E Uses of Amino Acids

1. Alanine – Aids in the metabolism of glucose.
2. Arginine – Arginine retards growth of tumors
and cancer by enhancing immune function. It
increases the size and activity of the thymus gland,
which manufactures T-lymphocytes (T cells),
crucial components of the immune system. It also
aids in the detoxification of the liver by neutralizing
ammonia.
7. Amine: K, R, H 3. Asparagine – needed to maintain the balance of
the nervous system; it prevents you from being
overly nervous or overly calm.
4. Aspartic acid – increases stamina. Chronic
fatigue may result from low levels of aspartic acid,
because this leads to lowered cellular energy.
5. Carnitine – It helps to transport fatty acids which
are burned within cells for the generation of
metabolic energy. This prevents fatty buildup in the
heart, liver and other tissues. Thus, carnitine
increases the use of fat as an energy source.
8. Amide: Q, N 6. Cysteine – helps to detoxify harmful toxins and
protect the body from radiation damage. It is one of
the best free radical destroyers, and works best with
selenium and Vitamin E. Cysteine is also a
precursor to glutathione.
7. Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) – an
amino acid that acts as a neurotransmitter in the
central nervous system. It is essential for brain
metabolism, aiding in the proper brain function.
GABA is formed in the body from another amino
Classification based on polarity acid, glutamic acid. Its function is to decrease
neuron activity and inhibit nerve cells from over
firing.
8. Glutamic acid – is an excitatory neurotransmitter
that increases the firing of neurons in the CNS.
Glutamic acid can detoxify ammonia by picking up
nitrogen atoms, in the process creating another
amino acid, glutamine. The conversion of glutamic
acid into glutamine is the only means by which
ammonia in the brain can be detoxified.
9. Glutamine – is the most abundant free amino
acid found in the muscles of the body. Because it
can readily pass the blood-brain barrier, it is known
as brain fuel. Glutamine is unique among the amino
acids in that each molecule contains not one
nitrogen atom but two. Thus, its creation helps to
clear ammonia from the tissues, especially brain
tissue, and it can transfer nitrogen from one place to
another.
10. Glutathione – made up of 3 amino acids
cysteine, glutamic acid and glycine. Glutathione is a
powerful antioxidant that is produced in the liver.
The largest stores of glutathione are found in the
liver, where it detoxifies harmful compounds so that
they can be excreted through the bile.
11. Glycine retards muscle degeneration by
supplying additional creatine, a compound that is
present in muscle tissue and is utilized in the
construction of DNA and RNA. Glycine is essential
for the synthesis of nucleic acids, bile acids, and
other nonessential amino acids in the body.
12. Histidine is an essential amino acid that is
significant in the growth and repair of tissues. It is
important for the maintenance of the myelin sheaths
that protect nerve cells, and is needed for the
production of both red and white blood cells.
Histidine also protects the body from radiation
damage, aids in removing heavy metals from the
system, and may help in the prevention of AIDS.
13. Histamine, an important immune system
chemical, is derived from histidine. Histamine aids
in sexual arousal. Because the availability of
histidine influences histamine production, taking
supplemental histidine—together with vitamins B3
(niacin) and B6 (pyridoxine), which are required for
the transformation from histidine to histamine—
may help improve sexual functioning and pleasure.
14. Isoleucine one of the essential amino acids, is
needed for haemoglobin formation and also
stabilizes and regulates blood sugar and energy
levels. It is metabolized in muscle tissue. It is one of
the three branched-chain amino acids. These amino
acids are valuable for athletes because they enhance
energy, increase endurance, and aid in the healing
and repair of muscle tissue.
15. Leucine – is an essential amino acid and one of
the branched-chain amino acids (the others are
isoleucine and valine). These works together to
protect muscle and act as fuel. They promote the
healing of bones, skin, and muscle tissue, and are
recommended for those recovering from surgery.
Leucine also lowers elevated blood sugar levels,
and aids in increasing growth hormone production.
16. Lysine is an essential amino acid that is a
necessary building block for all protein. It is needed
for proper growth and bone development in
children; it helps calcium absorption and maintains
a proper nitrogen balance in adults. This amino acid
aids in the production of antibodies, hormones, and
enzymes, and helps in collagen formation and tissue
repair.
17. Methionine is an essential amino acid that
assists in the breakdown of fats, thus helping to
prevent a buildup of fat in the liver and arteries that
might obstruct blood flow to the brain, heart, and
kidneys. The synthesis of the amino acids cysteine
and taurine may depend on the availability of
methionine.
18. Ornithine helps to prompt the release of growth
hormone, which promotes the metabolism of excess
body fat. This effect is enhanced if ornithine is
combined with arginine and carnitine. Ornithine is
necessary for proper immune system and liver
function.
19. Phenylalanine – is an essential amino acid.
Once in the body, it can be converted into another
amino acid, tyrosine, which in turn is used to
synthesize two key neurotransmitters that promote
alertness: dopamine and epinephrine (andrenaline).
20. Proline – Proline improves skin texture by
aiding in the production of collagen and reducing
the loss of collagen through the aging process. It
also helps in the healing of cartilage and the
strengthening of joints, tendons, and heart muscle. It
works with vitamin C to promote healthy
connective tissue.
21. Serine – is needed for the proper metabolism of
fats and fatty acids, the growth of muscle, and the
maintenance of a healthy immune system. It aids in
the production of immunoglobulin and antibodies.
Serine can be synthesized from glycine in the body.
22. Taurine High concentrations of taurine are
found in the heart muscle, white blood cells,
skeletal muscle, and central nervous system. It is a
building block of all the other amino acids as well
as a key component of bile, which is needed for the c. Tertiary Structure – when the polypeptide
digestion of fats, the absorption of fat-soluble chains of protein molecules bend and fold in order
vitamins, and the control of serum cholesterol to assume a more compact three-dimensional shape
levels. d. Quaternary Structure – when two or more
23. Threonine is an essential amino acid that helps polypeptide chains of characteristic tertiary
to maintain the proper protein balance in the body. structure interact.
It is important for the formation of collagen and
elastin. Four Levels of Organization of Proteins
24. Tryptophan is an essential amino acid that is
necessary for the production of vitamin B3 (niacin).
It is used by the brain to produce serotonin, a
necessary neurotransmitter that transfers nerve
impulses from one cell to another and is responsible
for normal sleep. A sufficient amount of vitamin B6
(pyridoxine) is necessary for the formation of
tryptophan, which, in turn, is required for the
formation of serotonin.
25. Tyrosine – acts as a mood elevator; a lack of
adequate amounts of tyrosine leads to a deficiency
of norepinephrine in the brain, which in turn can
result in depression.
26. Valine an essential amino acid, has a stimulant
effect. It is needed for muscle metabolism, tissue
repair, and the maintenance of a proper nitrogen
balance in the body. Valine is found in high
concentrations in muscle tissue.

Classification and Occurrence of Proteins

Three basic classes according to shape and
solubility
1. Fibrous – simple, regular linear structures; often
serve structural roles in cells; typically insoluble in
water
2. Globular – roughly spherical in shape; the
polypeptide chain is compactly folded so that the
hydrophobic amino acid side chains are in the
interior of the molecule and the hydrophilic are
outside; usually very soluble in aqueous solutions.
3. Membrane – found in association with the
various membrane systems of cells;
characteristically have fewer hydrophilic amino
acids than cytosolic proteins.

Four Levels of Organization of Proteins

The architecture of protein molecules is quite
complex. Nevertheless, this complexity can be
resolved by defining the various levels of structural
organization.
a. Primary Structure – the amino acid sequence Non-covalent Interactions
b. Secondary Structure – helical and pleated These are weak forces that stabilize the higher
segments that results through hydrogen-bonding levels of protein structure.
interactions between amino acid residues 1. Hydrogen bonds
2. Hydrophobic interactions
3. Electrostatic bonds
4. Van der Waals forces

Denaturation of proteins
Denaturation is the process of unfolding the

protein.