1. The full moon occurs approximately once every 29.5 days.

2. The new moon is typically seen about 14 to 15 days after the full moon.
3. The English name for the constellation Saptarishi is the Big Dipper.
4. Saptarishi is part of the bigger constellation Ursa Major.
5. Stars are celestial bodies that produce their own light through nuclear fusion, while planets do not
produce their own light but instead reflect light from stars.
6. Venus is known as Earth's twin because of its similar size, mass, and proximity to the Sun.
7. One revolution of the moon around the Earth takes about 27.3 days.
8. Asteroids are small, rocky objects that orbit the Sun. The biggest asteroid is Ceres.
9. Asteroids are rocky objects that orbit the Sun, meteoroids are smaller rocks or debris in space, and
meteors are meteoroids that enter Earth's atmosphere and burn up, creating a streak of light.
10. The maximum value of latitude is 90 degrees (North or South), corresponding to the North and South
Poles. The minimum value is 0 degrees, which corresponds to the equator.
11. The Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn are defined based on the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the
plane of its orbit around the Sun.
12. The Torrid Zone is the area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, characterized
by high temperatures. Its antonym is the Frigid Zone.
13. Frigid Zones are the areas around the poles where temperatures are consistently cold.
14. The maximum value of longitude is 180 degrees East or West, starting from the Prime Meridian (0
degrees). The minimum value is -180 degrees.
15. India corresponds to longitudes approximately between 68 degrees to 98 degrees East.
16. The Earth has been divided into 24 time zones.
17. The angle that the Earth makes with its orbital plane is approximately 23.5 degrees.
18. The circles of illumination divide the Earth into areas of daylight and darkness, while the Earth's axis
determines the tilt of its rotation.
19. Winter Solstice occurs around December 21st, Summer Solstice around June 21st, Spring Equinox
around March 20th, and Autumn Equinox around September 22nd.
20. The Sun's rays fall directly over the Tropic of Cancer around June 21st, marking the Summer Solstice.
21. The biosphere refers to the regions of the Earth where life exists, including the land, water, and
atmosphere.
22. The deepest point of the ocean is the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific
Ocean.
23. The Ural Mountains separate Asia from Europe.
24. Asia is the biggest continent.
25. Africa is the only continent through which the Tropic of Cancer, the Equator, and the Tropic of
Capricorn all pass.
26. The continents ranked by size from largest to smallest are: Asia, Africa, North America, South America,
Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.
27. The Andes Mountains are located in South America.
28. The two Indian research stations in Antarctica are named Bharati and Maitri.
29. True, rivers and lakes are part of the hydrosphere, which encompasses all water bodies on Earth.
30. The Pacific Ocean is the biggest ocean.
31. The Bering Strait is a narrow passage of water connecting the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea. It is
located between Russia and Alaska.
32. The atmosphere can be divided into five main layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere.
33. The two main gases in the atmosphere by composition are nitrogen (approximately 78%) and oxygen
(approximately 21%).
34. The third most prevalent gas in the atmosphere is argon, making up about 0.93%.
35. Temperature does not always decline with altitude. In the stratosphere, temperature actually increases
with altitude due to the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone.
36. The force of gravity holds the atmosphere close to the Earth's surface.
37. The three kinds of mountains according to their origin are volcanic mountains, fold mountains, and
block mountains. Volcanic mountains are usually the highest.
38. The Himalayas are a fold mountain range.
39. The Aravalis are older than the Himalayas.
40. The highest plateau in the world is the Tibetan Plateau.
41. Plateaus are usually very rich in minerals because they are formed by the accumulation of sediments
and volcanic activity over long periods, which can concentrate minerals.
42. The latitudinal extent of India is approximately 8°4'N to 37°6'N, and the longitudinal extent is
approximately 68°7'E to 97°25'E.
43. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India, making it significant for marking the
northern boundary of the tropics and influencing the climate and agricultural practices.
44. The standard time of India is defined by the 82.5°E longitude, which passes through the city of
Allahabad.
45. India shares land borders with 7 countries: Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.
46. The Gulf of Mannar separates India and Sri Lanka.
47. The largest state of India is Rajasthan, and the smallest state is Goa.
48. The northernmost mountain range of the Himalayas is the Karakoram Range, and the southernmost is
the Shivalik Range.
49. Aravalis: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi. Vindhyas: discontinuous; Gujarat, UP, even Bihar. Satpuras:
Gujarat/Maharashtra border, MP, Chhattisgarh.
50. The Hindi name for the Western Ghats is "Sahyadri."
51. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers flow through the Sunderbans delta.
52. A tsunami is caused by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides that displace a large
volume of water, resulting in massive waves.
53. Two major west-flowing rivers of India are the Narmada and the Tapi (also known as the Tapti).
54. The five broad divisions of India's vegetation are Tropical Rainforests, Tropical Deciduous Forests,
Thorny Bushes, Mountain Vegetation, and Mangrove Forests.
55. Tropical rainforests can be found in areas like the Western Ghats, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
and parts of northeastern India.
56. Some states where you will find tropical deciduous forests are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha,
and West Bengal. Tropical deciduous forests differ from tropical rainforests in terms of their seasonal
shedding of leaves and less biodiversity compared to rainforests.
1. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their physical
environment.
2. The main mineral constituents of the Earth's crust over land are silicon and oxygen, forming silicate
minerals. In the oceans, the main constituents are salts, particularly sodium chloride (table salt).
3. The average thickness of the Earth's crust over land is about 30 kilometers (18.6 miles), whereas over
oceans, it is thinner, averaging around 5-10 kilometers (3-6 miles).
4. The mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of about 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles).
5. The mineral composition of the Earth's core is predominantly iron and nickel. Its average radius is
approximately 3,485 kilometers (2,165 miles) for the outer core and about 1,220 kilometers (758
miles) for the inner core.
6. The two different kinds of igneous rocks are intrusive (or plutonic) rocks and extrusive (or volcanic)
rocks. Examples of intrusive rocks include granite, while examples of extrusive rocks include basalt.
7. The primary rock that makes up the Deccan Plateau is basalt.
8. Fossils are typically found in sedimentary rocks, which form from the accumulation and compression
of sediments over time.
9. Lithospheric plates move due to the process of plate tectonics, driven by heat from Earth's interior
and the resulting convection currents in the mantle.
10. Endogenic forces originate from within the Earth and include processes like volcanic activity and
tectonic plate movements. Exogenic forces act on the Earth's surface and include processes like
erosion and weathering.
11. A floodplain is a flat or nearly flat area surrounding a river channel that is periodically flooded. Levees
are natural or man-made embankments along the edges of rivers or streams that help contain
floodwaters.
12. Sea arches are natural arches formed by the erosive action of waves along coastal cliffs. Sea stacks are
isolated pillars of rock that remain after the collapse of sea arches.
13. Moraines are accumulations of unconsolidated glacial debris (such as rock, soil, and sediment) that
are deposited by glaciers as they move.
14. Loess is a type of wind-blown sediment consisting of fine particles (silt and clay) deposited over large
areas, often forming fertile soil.
15. The layer of the Earth's atmosphere ideal for flying aircraft is the stratosphere, particularly the lower
part known as the lower stratosphere.
16. The ozone layer is primarily located within the stratosphere, particularly in the upper stratosphere,
although it is not a distinct layer but rather a region with higher concentrations of ozone gas.
17. Meteorites usually burn up in the mesosphere, the layer of the Earth's atmosphere above the stratosphere
and below the thermosphere.
18. Temperature begins to rise with altitude in the stratosphere, primarily due to the absorption of ultraviolet
radiation by ozone molecules.
19. Insolation refers to incoming solar radiation received by the Earth's surface.
20. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude.
21. The relationship between temperature and cloud formation is that warmer air can hold more moisture,
leading to increased evaporation and thus more cloud formation.
22. Winds can be broadly divided into three categories: planetary winds, local winds, and seasonal winds.
23. Jet planes leave a white trail behind them, known as a contrail, due to the condensation of water vapor from
the engine exhaust at high altitudes.
24. The major source of groundwater is precipitation that infiltrates the ground and percolates downward to
saturate the soil and rock layers beneath the surface.
25. The three mechanisms that cause rainfall are convectional rainfall, which occurs when warm air rises and
cools, leading to condensation and precipitation; frontal rainfall, which occurs when warm and cold air
masses meet, leading to the lifting of warm air and condensation; and orographic rainfall, which occurs when
moist air is forced to rise over elevated terrain, leading to cooling, condensation, and precipitation.
26. Cyclonic rain refers to rainfall associated with cyclones or low-pressure systems, where moist air is lifted and
condensed due to the convergence and uplift of warm, moist air.
27. A terrarium is a sealed glass container housing plants and sometimes small animals, creating a self-
sustaining ecosystem.
28. Amazon: Brazil, Peru, Colombia; Darling: Australia; Danube: Germany, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Serbia,
Bulgaria; Orange: South Africa.
29. The three main kinds of movements of ocean waters are currents, waves, and tides.
30. Waves are the result of wind blowing over the surface of the ocean, while tides are the periodic rise and fall
of sea levels caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun.
31. Spring tides occur when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are aligned, resulting in higher high tides and lower low
tides. Neap tides occur when the Sun and Moon are at right angles to each other, resulting in lower high
tides and higher low tides.
32. High tides provide increased water depth, allowing ships to navigate through shallow areas and harbors
more easily.
33. Unfortunately, I can't draw or provide visual information as requested.
34. The three main categories of natural vegetation are forests, grasslands, and deserts.
35. Tropical rainforests are characterized by dense vegetation with tall trees, including species like mahogany,
ebony, and teak.
36. The major factor distinguishing tropical rainforests from deciduous ones is the amount of rainfall and
temperature. Tropical rainforests receive high rainfall throughout the year and have consistently warm
temperatures, while deciduous forests experience seasonal changes and periodic droughts.
37. Temperate evergreen forests are found in regions with moderate temperatures and abundant rainfall,
typically at mid-latitudes. Temperate deciduous forests are also found in moderate climates but experience
seasonal changes, shedding their leaves in the fall.
38. Mediterranean vegetation is found in regions with a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry
summers and mild, wet winters. Fauna found here may include species adapted to dry conditions, such as
olive trees, grapevines, and various shrubs.
39. Coniferous forests are typically found in colder regions, such as boreal or taiga forests, and are sometimes
referred to as needleleaf forests due to the predominance of coniferous trees with needle-like leaves.
40. Tropical grasslands, also known as savannas, are found near the equator and are characterized by grasses
and scattered trees. Temperate grasslands, or prairies, are found at mid-latitudes and have a similar
vegetation structure but experience colder winters and less rainfall.
41. Tundra vegetation is found in polar regions with cold temperatures and short growing seasons. Examples of
tundra vegetation include mosses, lichens, and dwarf shrubs like Arctic willow and heather.
42. Deserts are often found on western margins of continents due to the presence of cold ocean currents
offshore, which create stable atmospheric conditions and inhibit moisture-laden air from reaching land.
43. On the basis of climate, the two different kinds of grasslands are tropical grasslands and temperate
grasslands.
44. Prairies are primarily found in North America, particularly in the central United States and parts of Canada.
45. Chinook is a warm, dry wind that occurs on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in North America,
leading to rapid temperature increases and snowmelt.
46. Velds are grassy plains or savannas found in South Africa.
47. The world's largest desert is the Sahara Desert in northern Africa.
48. Ladakh experiences little rainfall due to its location in the rain shadow of the Himalayas, which block
moisture-laden winds from reaching the region.
1. The percentage of India's land use is approximately: cropped - 60%, forest - 23%, other uses - 17%.
2. Soil profile refers to the vertical sequence of soil layers or horizons that form as a result of various
soil-forming processes over time. Each soil horizon has distinct characteristics such as color, texture,
structure, and composition, which together provide information about the soil's formation and
properties. Soil profile typically consists of layers like topsoil (A horizon), subsoil (B horizon), and
parent material (C horizon), among others, and it extends from the surface down to the bedrock.
3. Approximately 2.5% of the world's water is freshwater.
4. Deciduous trees shed their leaves in a particular season, usually in autumn, as a strategy to conserve
water and energy during periods of cold or drought. Shedding leaves helps them to survive adverse
conditions and prepare for new growth in the following season.
5. False. While evergreen trees retain their leaves throughout the year, they do shed old leaves
periodically as new ones grow.
6. Mulching is the process of covering the soil surface around plants with a layer of organic or inorganic
material, such as straw, leaves, plastic, or gravel, to conserve moisture, suppress weed growth,
regulate soil temperature, and improve soil fertility.
7. A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid substance with a specific chemical composition and
crystalline structure.
8. One can tell if a rock contains copper by conducting a mineral identification test, such as streak
testing (observing the color of the powdered mineral), conducting a hardness test, or using chemical
tests specific to copper minerals.
9. Metallic minerals are typically found in igneous and metamorphic rocks, while non-metallic minerals
are more commonly found in sedimentary rocks.
10. In North Sweden, one is likely to find iron ore; in Ontario, Canada, one may find nickel and copper;
and in South Africa, minerals such as gold, diamonds, and platinum are commonly found.
11. Asia produces more than half the world's total quantity of tin.
12. Six minerals found in abundance in Asia include coal, iron ore, copper, tin, bauxite, and nickel.
13. Australia is the leading producer of iron ore in the world.
14. Australia is also the largest producer of high-grade iron ore in the world.
15. Three minerals of which Africa is the world's largest producer include gold, platinum, and diamonds.
16. India is the world's leading exporter of mica.
17. In India, iron ore is found mainly in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Karnataka; bauxite in Odisha,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Gujarat; mica in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Telangana;
copper in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Karnataka; manganese in Odisha, Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka; limestone in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and
Chhattisgarh; and gold in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Kerala.
18. The world's six largest producers of coal are China, India, the United States, Australia, Indonesia, and
Russia.
19. Coal is also known as the "buried sunshine" because it is formed from the remains of ancient plant
matter that accumulated and were buried over millions of years, capturing the energy from sunlight
through photosynthesis.
20. The leading oil-producing areas in India include the Mumbai High offshore oil field, the Krishna-
Godavari Basin, and the Cambay Basin.
21. The four major producers of natural gas in the world are the United States, Russia, Iran, and Qatar.
22. Natural gas reserves in India can be found in Gujarat, Assam, and Andhra Pradesh.
23. The two largest producers of nuclear power in the world are the United States and France.
24. Thorium deposits can be found in the coastal sands of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Odisha in India.
25. Examples of geothermal energy include geysers, hot springs, and geothermal power plants that
harness heat from the Earth's interior for electricity generation and heating.
26. One place in India that uses tidal energy to generate electricity is the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat.
27. Sericulture is the cultivation of silk-producing silkworms; viticulture is the cultivation of grapevines for
winemaking; and pisciculture is the rearing of fish for commercial purposes.
28. The climatic conditions needed to grow various crops are:
 Rice: High rainfall, warm temperatures, and flooded fields.
 Wheat: Cool temperatures during growth, moderate rainfall or irrigation.
 Millets: Hot and dry climate, well-drained soil.
 Maize: Warm temperatures, moderate rainfall, and well-drained soil.
 Cotton: Warm temperatures, long frost-free growing season, and well-drained soil.
 Jute: Warm and humid climate, abundant rainfall, and fertile soil.
 Coffee: Tropical climate, moderate temperatures, abundant rainfall, and acidic soil.
 Tea: Cool temperatures, high rainfall, and acidic soil.
 Sugarcane: Warm temperatures, ample sunlight, and well-drained soil.
 Rubber: Warm and humid climate, high rainfall, and well-drained soil.
 Pulses: Varied requirements depending on the type of pulse, generally moderate temperatures and
well-drained soil.
29. Two major components of steel are iron and carbon.
30. Four states that have important steel-producing centers in India are:
 Maharashtra (Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur)
 Odisha (Rourkela, Jharsuguda)
 Jharkhand (Jamshedpur, Bokaro)
 Chhattisgarh (Bhilai, Raipur)
31. Steel-producing centers in India:
 Bhadravati: Karnataka
 Vishakhapatnam: Andhra Pradesh
 Vijaynagar: Karnataka
 Salem: Tamil Nadu
32. Four countries that are important producers of cotton textiles today include India, China, Bangladesh,
and Pakistan.
33. The cotton industry in India is widespread, with important centers in Maharashtra (Mumbai, Nagpur),
Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Surat), Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Varanasi), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Madurai), and
West Bengal (Kolkata, Murshidabad).
34. The Indian cotton industry initially flourished around Maharashtra and Gujarat due to factors such as
favorable climate, availability of water for irrigation, and proximity to ports for trade.
35. Places in India famous for their gold-wrought cotton pieces include Burhanpur in Madhya Pradesh,
and Surat and Vadodara in Gujarat.
36. Ahmedabad is known as the "Manchester of India" for its thriving textile industry.
37. Ahmedabad is located on the banks of the Sabarmati River.
38. Asia and Africa together account for over 60% of the world's population.
 Imp
1. The longitudinal extent of India is approximately 68°7'E to 97°25'E, and the latitudinal extent is
approximately 8°4'N to 37°6'N.
2. Equatorial type of climate is experienced in parts of India that lie close to the equator, primarily in the
southern regions including parts of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
3. The Indian states through which the Tropic of Cancer passes are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram.
4. The Standard Meridian of India is located at 82.5°E longitude. The Indian states through which this
meridian passes are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
5. The top seven countries in the world by landmass are:
1. Russia
2. Canada
3. China
4. United States
5. Brazil
6. Australia
7. India
6. Among the horizontal and vertical extents of India, the vertical extent (north-south) is shorter. India is
shorter in its vertical extent by approximately 3,200 kilometers (about 2,000 miles) compared to its
horizontal extent (east-west).
7. Talcum powder is primarily made from talc, a soft mineral composed of hydrated magnesium silicate.
8. There are seven major tectonic plates:
1. Pacific Plate
2. North American Plate
3. Eurasian Plate
4. African Plate
5. Antarctic Plate
6. Indo-Australian Plate
7. South American Plate
9. In plate tectonics, a transform boundary is a type of plate boundary where two tectonic plates slide
past each other horizontally. These boundaries are characterized by fault lines, such as the San
Andreas Fault in California, USA.
10. The northern part of the erstwhile Pangaea is called Laurasia, and the southern part is called
Gondwana.
11. Igneous and metamorphic rocks can be found in various parts of India, including regions of the
Deccan Plateau, parts of the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and the Himalayan region.
12. The altitudinal variation is higher in the Eastern Himalayas compared to the Western
Himalayas.
13. The Greater Himalayas or Himadri range contains most of the major peaks.
14. The Aravalli Range lies in the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi; the Vindhya
Range stretches across Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar; and the Satpura Range lies
in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh.
15. The core of the Himalayas is predominantly composed of granite rock.
16. The three ranges of the Himalayas are the Himadri (or Greater Himalayas), Himachal (or Lesser
Himalayas), and Shivalik. Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh lie in the Himachal range.
17. Duns are intermontane valleys or flat-bottomed basins found between mountain ranges, often
formed by the deposition of sediment eroded from the adjacent mountains.
18. Majuli Island in the Brahmaputra River is considered the largest inhabited riverine island in the
world.
19. The three major river systems that serve the northern plains are the Indus, Ganges, and
Brahmaputra rivers.
20. From west to east, the northern plains can be divided into Bhabar, Terai, and Bhangar regions.
21. The two broad divisions of the peninsular plateau are the Central Highlands and the Deccan
Plateau.
22. The central highlands lie to the north of the Narmada River.
23. Four rivers that drain the central highlands are the Chambal, Betwa, Ken, and Son.
24. These rivers generally flow in a southwest direction, indicating the topography of the central
highlands, which slopes downward towards the southwest.
25. The easternmost extension of the central highlands is called the Rajmahal Hills.
26. The Damodar River drains this region.
27. The highest peak of the Western Ghats is Anamudi, and the highest peak of the Eastern Ghats
is Mahendragiri.
28. The Satpura Range forms the northern flank of the Deccan Plateau, while the Eastern Ghats
form the eastern flank.
29. The Deccan Plateau has a gentle inclination towards the east.
30. The extension of the Deccan Plateau in the northeastern states is known as the Meghalaya
Plateau. Important hill ranges in this part include the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills.
31. On average, the Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats.
32. The Mahanadi River marks the northern boundary of the Eastern Ghats.
33. The Sirumalai and Karanthamalai Hills of southern Tamil Nadu mark the southern boundary of
the Eastern Ghats.
34. The Western Ghats cause more orographic rain due to their higher altitude and the moisture-
laden winds from the Arabian Sea.
35. Basaltic rocks are the most common in the Deccan Trap.
36. The Indian desert lies to the west of the Aravalli Range.
37. The only large river in the Indian desert is the Luni River.
38. Barchans are crescent-shaped sand dunes commonly found in desert regions.
39. The three parts of the western coast, from north to south, are Gujarat Coast, Konkan Coast
(including Mumbai), and Malabar Coast (including Kerala).
40. The two parts of the eastern coast, from north to south, are the Northern Circars Coast and the
Coromandel Coast.
41. The four major rivers flowing through the eastern coast and into the Bay of Bengal, from north
to south, are the Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna rivers.
42. Lake Chilika lies in the state of Odisha and is located in the delta of the Mahanadi River.
43. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are coral islands, while the Lakshadweep Islands are coral
atolls formed from submarine mountains.
44. The Northern Circars are plains.
 45. A drainage basin, also known as a watershed or catchment area, is an area of land drained by a
single river system and its tributaries.
46. Indian rivers can be divided into two main groups: perennial rivers, which flow throughout the
year, and non-perennial rivers, which flow seasonally or intermittently. Perennial rivers include
the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, and others, while non-perennial rivers include rivers like
the Narmada and Tapi.
47.The four different types of drainage patterns are:
 Dendritic: Resembles the branching pattern of tree roots, common in regions with uniform
lithology and slope.
 Trellis: Characterized by parallel main rivers with tributaries joining them at right angles,
often found in folded mountain regions.
 Radial: Rivers flow outward from a central high point, common around volcanic cones or
domes.
 Rectangular: Features right-angle bends and tributaries meeting at right angles, formed in
jointed or fractured bedrock.
48.Three rivers that flow from the Nepal Himalayas are:
 Kosi River
 Gandaki River
 Karnali River (Ghaghara River in India)
49.The three main rivers of the central highlands (Chambal, Betwa, and Ken) originate from
the Vindhya Range and join the Yamuna River, which later joins the Ganga.
50.The river where the Ganga and the Brahmaputra join is known as the Padma River in
Bangladesh.
51.The Sunderbans delta is named after the Sundari trees (Heritiera fomes) that are abundant
in the region.
52.The Brahmaputra River is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet.
53.The two major peninsular rivers of India from north to south that flow westward and make
estuaries are:
 Narmada River
 Tapti River
54.These rivers rise from the Satpura Range and the Western Ghats.
55.They cover the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
56.The largest peninsular river is the Godavari River.
57.The Godavari River originates near Trimbak in Maharashtra and drains into the Bay of
Bengal. It flows through the states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
58.The Godavari River is known as the 'Dakshin Ganga.'
59.The four major east-flowing rivers of peninsular India are:
 Mahanadi River
 Godavari River
 Krishna River
 Kaveri River
60.
 Mahanadi River: Source - Sihawa Hills (Chhattisgarh), States - Chhattisgarh, Odisha.
 Godavari River: Source - Brahmagiri Hills (Maharashtra), States - Maharashtra, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha.
 Krishna River: Source - Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra), States - Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh.
 Kaveri River: Source - Talakaveri (Karnataka), States - Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
61.A saltwater lake of India is Chilika Lake, located in the state of Odisha.
62.Even though the Brahmaputra originates in Tibet, it carries a lesser amount of water and
silt there compared to in India due to the higher precipitation and greater contribution of
snowmelt from the Himalayas in the Indian section of its course. Additionally, the river's
gradient is steeper in Tibet, leading to faster flow and less sediment deposition.
Differentiation between Weather and Climate:
 Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions of a specific place at a specific time, such as
temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind speed, and atmospheric pressure. It can change rapidly and
is typically observed over hours to days.
 Climate, on the other hand, refers to the long-term average of weather conditions over a specific
region or area, typically measured over decades or centuries. It encompasses the average
temperature, precipitation patterns, humidity levels, wind patterns, and other atmospheric conditions
of a region.
64. Coastal areas generally experience less variation in temperature conditions compared to the interiors
of countries due to the moderating influence of the ocean. The large thermal inertia of water helps to
regulate temperature variations by absorbing and releasing heat more slowly than land. Therefore,
coastal regions tend to have milder winters and cooler summers compared to inland areas.
65. In the Northern Plains, there is a decrease in rainfall generally from east to west due to the rain-
shadow effect caused by the presence of the Himalayas. The Himalayas block the moisture-laden
monsoon winds from the Bay of Bengal, leading to significant rainfall on the eastern side of the plains.
As the winds move westward and descend, they lose moisture, resulting in lower rainfall in the
western parts of the plains.
66. The six major control factors that determine the climate of any place are:
 Latitude
 Altitude
 Distance from the sea (Maritime vs. Continental effect)
 Ocean currents
 Prevailing wind patterns
 Relief features (mountains, valleys, etc.)
67. Effects of variation in each factor:
 Latitude: Determines the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth's surface, affecting temperature and
climate zones.
 Altitude: Higher altitudes generally have cooler temperatures due to lower atmospheric pressure and
thinner air.
 Distance from the sea: Coastal areas experience milder temperatures due to the moderating influence
of the ocean, while inland areas experience greater temperature variations.
 Ocean currents: Influence temperature and precipitation patterns by redistributing heat across the
globe.
 Prevailing wind patterns: Bring moisture or dry air to different regions, affecting rainfall patterns.
 Relief features: Mountains can block or redirect wind patterns and influence precipitation through
orographic lifting.
68. Continentality refers to the degree of variation in climate experienced by inland areas compared to
coastal areas. Regions with high continentality experience larger temperature variations between
summer and winter due to the absence of moderating influences from large bodies of water.
69. Areas lying above the Tropic of Cancer and below the Tropic of Capricorn (approximately 23.5
degrees north and south latitude) are called subtropics.
70. India experiences relatively milder winters compared to central Asia due to its proximity to the ocean
and the moderating influence of the Indian Ocean. The oceanic influence helps to keep temperatures
moderate, preventing extreme cold during winters.
71. During summer, India experiences the Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream, while during winter, it
experiences the Subtropical Easterly Jet Stream.
72. The Western Disturbances, also known as the Western Cyclonic Disturbances, bring rain to the north
and northwestern parts of India. These disturbances are associated with the westerly flow in the upper
troposphere and typically originate in the Mediterranean region.
73. The Coriolis force deflects moving things to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the
left in the Southern Hemisphere.
74. Another name for this deflecting effect is the Coriolis effect.
75. India is not arid despite the primary wind pattern originating over land because of the
influence of the Indian Ocean. The Indian Ocean provides moisture to the air, which helps
prevent aridity.
76. The seasonal reversal of winds that causes the southwest monsoon is primarily due to
differential heating and cooling of land and water masses during the summer months. The
landmass of the Indian subcontinent heats up faster than the surrounding oceans, creating a
low-pressure area over the land. This low-pressure area draws in moist air from the Indian
Ocean, resulting in the southwest monsoon winds.
77. Yes, monsoon winds are surface winds.
78. No, southwest monsoon winds are not the only kinds of monsoon winds that serve the Indian
subcontinent. There are also northeast monsoon winds that bring rain to parts of India during
the winter months.
79. Adiabatic refers to a process in which heat transfer occurs without the exchange of heat with
the surrounding environment.
80. Western cyclonic disturbances are weather systems that originate in the Mediterranean region
and bring rainfall to parts of India during the winter months, typically from November to
February.
81. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats play a crucial role in the monsoon by acting as
barriers that force moisture-laden air to rise, leading to rainfall on the windward side and
creating rain shadow areas on the leeward side.
82. The traditional theory of monsoon formation suggests that the differential heating and cooling
of land and water masses during summer and winter months cause seasonal changes in wind
patterns, leading to the monsoon.
83. A sea breeze is a wind that blows from the sea towards the land, occurring during the day
when the land heats up faster than the sea, creating a pressure gradient that causes the air to
move inland.
84. The northeast monsoon causes rain in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu but not the rest of the
country because these states lie in the path of the northeast monsoon winds, which originate
over the Bay of Bengal and bring rain to the eastern coast of India.
85. The dynamic theory of the creation of the monsoon system suggests that large-scale
atmospheric circulation patterns, such as the Hadley Cell and the Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ), play a significant role in the development of the monsoon.
86. Jet streams are usually located in the upper troposphere, near the tropopause.
87. The three major types of jet streams in each hemisphere are polar jet streams, subtropical jet
streams, and tropical easterly jet streams.
88. The main reason for the formation of jet streams is the temperature gradient between air
masses in the upper atmosphere.
89. Jet streams usually flow from west to east.
90. The Jet Stream Theory of the monsoons suggests that the position and intensity of the jet
stream influence the onset and duration of the monsoon season.
91. Geostrophic winds are winds that blow parallel to isobars at a constant speed. They are related
to jet streams because jet streams are a type of geostrophic wind that occurs high in the
atmosphere.
92. Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure systems that form over warm ocean waters. Their
primary cause is the release of latent heat from condensation of water vapor. In India, they
usually occur during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, primarily in April-May and
October-November.
93. Monsoons are typically experienced around the latitudes of 10° to 30°.
94. The Tibetan plateau plays a crucial role in causing the Indian monsoon by acting as a heat
source during summer months, creating a low-pressure area that draws in moist air from the
Indian Ocean.
95. The ITCZ, or Intertropical Convergence Zone, is a region near the equator where the trade
winds converge, leading to convectional rainfall and thunderstorms.
96. The Southern Oscillation refers to the atmospheric pressure changes between the eastern and
western Pacific Ocean, which are associated with El Niño and La Niña events.
97. The Southern Oscillation is caused by the interactions between the ocean and atmosphere in
the Pacific Ocean, primarily due to variations in sea surface temperatures and atmospheric
pressure patterns.
98. El Niño is a climate phenomenon characterized by warmer-than-average sea surface
temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. It is called El Niño, which means "the
Christ child" in Spanish, because it often occurs around Christmas time.
99. ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) affects the Indian monsoon by altering atmospheric
circulation patterns, leading to changes in rainfall patterns and temperatures across the Indian
subcontinent.
100. The cold Peruvian oceanic current is known as the Humboldt Current.
 101. The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is an irregular oscillation of sea surface temperatures in
the equatorial Indian Ocean. It can influence the Indian monsoon by affecting atmospheric
circulation patterns.
102. The Indian Ocean Dipole usually develops during the spring months (April-May) and
peaks during the fall months (September-October), occurring near the equatorial latitudes.
103. In ENSO years, a positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) effect is beneficial for the Indian
monsoon. This means that the Arabian Sea experiences relatively warmer temperatures
compared to the Bay of Bengal, leading to enhanced moisture transport and rainfall over the
Indian subcontinent.
104. Monsoon burst refers to the sudden onset of heavy rainfall that marks the beginning of
the monsoon season.
105. The two different branches of the southwest monsoon are the Arabian Sea branch and
the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch usually serves the western coast of India,
while the Bay of Bengal branch brings rainfall to the eastern coast.
106. Indian winters are usually dry because they coincide with the northeast monsoon
season, which brings dry and cold air from the landmass of Asia. However, some parts of the
country, such as the northeastern states and parts of the Himalayan region, receive rainfall
during these months due to orographic lifting and cyclonic disturbances.
107. The cause of winter rainfall received in the Ganga Plains and snowfall in the mountains is
attributed to the western disturbances. These are extratropical weather systems originating
over the Mediterranean region and moving eastward. When these disturbances interact with
the Himalayas, they bring rainfall to the plains and snowfall to the mountains. This winter
rainfall in the Ganga Plains is colloquially known as 'Mahawat' or 'Mahawat rains'.
108. In peninsular India, temperature usually remains lower during the summer compared to
the rest of the country due to the moderating influence of the surrounding oceans. The
proximity to the sea leads to the formation of sea breezes, which bring cooler air from the
ocean, thus keeping the temperature lower.
109. The western coast of India, particularly the Western Ghats and the coastal areas of
Kerala and Karnataka, receives the maximum rainfall during the southwest monsoon.
110. Tamil Nadu receives rain in winter due to the northeast monsoon, also known as the
winter monsoon. During this season, moisture-laden winds from the Bay of Bengal bring
rainfall to the eastern coast of India, including Tamil Nadu.
111. The delta region of the eastern coast, particularly the areas around the Bay of Bengal, is
frequently struck by cyclones due to its geographical location and the presence of warm ocean
waters. Cyclones often form over the Bay of Bengal and move towards the coast, bringing
strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges to the delta region.

112. Ferns are vascular plants that reproduce via spores rather than seeds. They are characterized by
their feathery leaves called fronds and are commonly found in moist, shady environments.
113. Yes, subtropical vegetation can be found in tropical areas. Subtropical vegetation typically
thrives in regions with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall, which are characteristics of many
tropical areas.
114. Photoperiod refers to the duration of time during which an organism is exposed to light in a
24-hour period. It is an important environmental cue for various biological processes, including
flowering in plants and reproduction in animals.
115. A biome is a large geographical region characterized by distinct plant and animal communities
adapted to specific environmental conditions. Biomes are classified based on factors such as climate,
vegetation, and geography.
116. The five major types of vegetation found in India are: a. Tropical Rainforests - found in the
Western Ghats, Northeast India, and parts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. b. Tropical Deciduous
Forests - widespread across India, including regions such as Central India, Eastern Ghats, and parts of
the Western Ghats. c. Thorny Bushes and Scrubs - found in arid and semi-arid regions such as
Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Maharashtra. d. Mangrove Forests - located in coastal regions of
India, especially in the Sundarbans (West Bengal), Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and parts of Gujarat.
e. Alpine Vegetation - found in the Himalayan region, including areas above the tree line in states like
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
117. The annual rainfall received by these vegetation types varies widely. Tropical rainforests
typically receive high annual rainfall ranging from 2000 to 6000 millimeters, while other vegetation
types may receive lower rainfall depending on their location and ecological conditions.
118. Tropical deciduous forests are the most widespread vegetation type in India.
119. Four commercially important trees found in tropical rainforests are Teak, Mahogany,
Rosewood, and Sandalwood.
120. Moist deciduous forests are found in regions with moderate rainfall, such as parts of Central
India, Eastern Ghats, and the foothills of the Western Ghats.
121. The most important tree found in moist deciduous forests is Sal (Shorea robusta).
122. Examples of tundra vegetation include mosses, lichens, grasses, dwarf shrubs (such as Arctic
Willow and Bearberry), and sedges.
123. Five Indian rivers that support Mangroves are the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, and
Mahanadi.
124. The 'Red List' is published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It
assesses the conservation status of various species worldwide.
125. The Nilgiri hills spread across the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala.
126. Sarpagandha - used in traditional medicine for treating hypertension. Jamun - fruits are edible
and have medicinal properties. Arjun - bark is used in traditional medicine for heart ailments. Babool -
wood is used for making furniture and tools, and gum is used in various industries. Kachnar - flowers
and young leaves are edible and used in salads and cooking.
127. Three areas in India where one can find tigers are: a. Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) b.
Ranthambore National Park (Rajasthan) c. Bandipur National Park (Karnataka)
128. Red pandas are found in the Himalayan region, including parts of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,
and West Bengal.
129. A biosphere reserve is a protected area that aims to conserve biodiversity while promoting
sustainable development through scientific research, education, and community involvement.
130. As of now, there are 18 biosphere reserves in India. Some of them are: a. Sundarbans Biosphere
Reserve (West Bengal) b. Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (Uttarakhand) c. Gulf of Mannar Biosphere
Reserve (Tamil Nadu) d. Simlipal Biosphere Reserve (Odisha) e. Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve
(Andaman and Nicobar Islands)
131. Six of India's biosphere reserves are included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
132. The two latest biosphere reserves to be declared in India are: a. Kanchenjunga Biosphere
Reserve (Sikkim) b. Panna Biosphere Reserve (Madhya Pradesh)
133. Uttar Pradesh is the most populous Indian state.
134. The five states that together account for about half of the total Indian population are Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh.
135. Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest population to area ratio among Indian states.
136. The demographic profile of India is characterized by a large and diverse population with a
relatively young age structure. The population is predominantly rural, but urbanization is increasing
rapidly. There are significant regional variations in population density, literacy rates, and economic
development across different states and regions.

1. Fisheries: Fish stocks that migrate across international waters or are shared by multiple countries are
considered international resources. Examples include the North Atlantic cod fisheries and the South
Pacific tuna fisheries.
2. Transboundary Rivers: Rivers that flow through or along the borders of multiple countries are
international resources. Examples include the Danube River in Europe and the Nile River in Africa.
3. Outer Space: Resources such as satellite orbits, lunar minerals, and other celestial bodies are
considered international resources and subject to international agreements and regulations.
4. Antarctica: The Antarctic continent and its surrounding waters are considered international resources
and governed by the Antarctic Treaty System. This includes resources such as marine life, minerals,
and scientific research opportunities.
5. Airspace: The airspace above national territories is considered an international resource, especially in
the context of air travel and navigation.
6. The Rio Convention, also known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) or the Earth Summit, aimed to address global environmental issues and
promote sustainable development.
7. According to the given information, the percentage of India's land covered with mountains,
plains, and plateaus respectively is 30% mountains, 43% plains, and 27% plateaus.
8. The desired percentage of forest area in India according to the National Forest Policy of 1952 is
33%.
9. Currently, 21.54% of India's land is under forest cover, which is approximately 70 lakh square
kilometers.
10. The four layers of the soil profile are:
1. Topsoil (or O horizon): The uppermost layer consisting of organic matter and
decomposed plant material.
2. Subsoil (or A horizon): The layer beneath the topsoil, containing a mixture of organic
and mineral materials.
3. Weathered rock material (or B horizon): Partially weathered rock fragments and
minerals.
4. Unweathered parent bedrock (or C horizon): The deepest layer consisting of solid rock
that has not undergone weathering.
11. Humus is the organic component of soil formed by the decomposition of leaves and other
plant materials by soil microorganisms. It contributes to soil fertility and structure.
12. Different kinds of soil occur in various regions of India:
1. Mountain soil: Found in hilly and mountainous regions.
2. Alluvial soil: Deposited by rivers and found in river plains and deltas.
 3. Black soil (also known as Regur): Predominantly found in Deccan Plateau regions.
4. Red soil: Common in parts of peninsular India.
5. Yellow soil: Found in parts of northeastern India.
6. Laterite soil: Found in regions with high temperatures and heavy rainfall, such as parts of
western India.
13. The three main constituents of alluvial soil are sand, silt, and clay.
14. On the basis of age, the major classifications of alluvial soil are Bangar (older soil with more
kankar) and Khadar (younger, more fertile soil free from kankar).
15. Another name for black soil is Regur.
16. The major constituent of black soil is extremely fine clayey material known as montmorillonite.
17. Black soils are usually poor in phosphoric mineral content.
18. The development of cracks during hot weather is helpful for cultivation in black soils as it
promotes proper aeration and moisture penetration into the soil.
19. The characteristic color of red and yellow soils is due to the diffusion of iron in crystalline and
metamorphic rocks. The color may appear yellow when hydrated.
20. Laterite soils are typically found in regions with heavy rainfall and high temperatures, such as
tropical and subtropical climates.
21. Two crops that laterite soil is good for are cashew nuts and tea.
22. 1. Gullies: Gullies are deep channels or ditches formed by the erosion of soil, primarily by
water. They are typically narrow and can vary in depth, ranging from shallow to deep. Gullies
usually develop on sloping terrain where water runoff concentrates, leading to the removal of
soil and the formation of channels. They can cause significant soil loss and land degradation if
not properly managed.
Sheet erosion: Sheet erosion is the uniform removal of a thin layer of soil from the land
surface by the action of rainfall and surface runoff. Unlike gullies, which form distinct channels,
sheet erosion occurs across a wide area and results in the gradual loss of topsoil. It often
occurs on gently sloping land where water flows evenly over the surface, carrying away soil
particles. Sheet erosion can lead to decreased soil fertility, reduced water infiltration, and
increased sedimentation in water bodies.
Strip cropping: Strip cropping is a farming technique where different crops are planted in
alternating strips or bands across a field. The purpose of strip cropping is to reduce soil erosion
and improve soil conservation. By planting crops in strips perpendicular to the direction of
prevailing winds or water flow, the crops act as barriers, slowing down the movement of wind
or water and reducing soil erosion. Additionally, strip cropping can enhance biodiversity,
improve water retention, and increase crop yields.
Shelter belts: Shelter belts, also known as windbreaks or wind barriers, are rows of trees or shrubs
planted along the edges of fields or farms to protect crops, soil, and livestock from the damaging
effects of wind. Shelter belts help to reduce wind erosion, prevent soil loss, and minimize the
impact of wind on crops by acting as physical barriers that deflect and disrupt wind flow. They also
provide habitat for wildlife, improve microclimatic conditions, and enhance the aesthetic value of
the landscape.