GEOLOGY

The Earth’s Make -Up

 Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and beneath its surface, and
the processes that have shaped that structure.
 A geologic hazard is an extreme natural events in the crust of the earth that
pose a threat to life and property, for example, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, tsunamis (tidal waves) and landslides.
 The Earth’s Make -Up
The best way to appreciate the earth fully and to distinguish the materials
that it is made of is to study the earth from outer space. Swirling above the
surface of the earth are patches of white which are clouds. In-between clouds are
blue patches of what seems to be the ocean and brown or red patches that appear
to be land. These three colors represent the three physical states of the materials
which make up the earth: The lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.
The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
The earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases. At the lower part of the atmosphere,
the predominant gases are nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).

Gases in the Atmosphere

Gas Percent Volume Gas Percent Volume

Nitrogen 78.08 Hydrogen Trace
Oxygen 20.94 Xenon Trace
Argon 0.93 Ozone Trace
Carbon dioxide 0.03 Sulfur dioxide Trace
Neon Trace Iodine Trace
Krypton Trace
The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S HYDROSPHERE
The water surrounding the earth is called hydrosphere.
The ocean alone covers 70% of the earth’s surface. The three
great oceans of the world are the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific
Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. Together the are called the
world ocean.
Other components of the hydrosphere are lakes, rivers
and ice fields.
 The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
At first it may seem surprising that much is known about the deep interior of the earth.
Most of the substantial data, however, are collected through indirect means. One of these is
through the use of waves produced on earth as waves are called seismic waves, and may take
three possible forms called the P, S and L waves. The P waves are compressional waves, whose
oscillating motion is parallel to the direction of the motion of the waves. These kind of waves are
transmitted in solids and liquids fast. The S waves are transverse or shear waves. The vibrations
occur perpendicularly to the direction of the motion. S wave require that the material they pass
through have some rigidity and, unlike the P waves, they cannot be transmitted through a liquid.
The L wave s travel only along the surface of the earth and thus do not provide much information
on the deep interior.
By measuring both the timing and the intensity of these seismic waves at various
locations away from the site of the earthquake, scientists can determine what the earth interior is
like.
 The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
The general picture that has developed from studies shows that of a layered earth. At the surface is a
crust whose thickness varies from a few kilometres beneath the ocean to 60 kilometres under the continents.
The crust is made of solid rock of two general types: sial, or silicon-aluminium rock, known as the scalic layer,
and sima, or silicon-magnesium rock known as the simatic layer. The scalic layer is predominant in the upper
continental crust while the simatic layer is found in the deeper portions of crust and the ocean floor.
The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
There is a sharp break between the crust and the underlying material called the
mantle. This special boundary is called the mohorovicic discontinuity or simply the moho.
The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
The mantle (about 2,885 km) transmit S waves, so it must be solid; on the other
hand, it undergoes slow, steady flowing motions in its uppermost regions. Perhaps it is best
described as a plastic material, one that has some rigidity, but which can be deformed, given
sufficient time.
The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
The uppermost part of the mantle and the crust together form a rigid zone called the
lithosphere. The part of the mantle itself where the flued motions occur, just below the
lithosphere, is called the asthenosphere. Below the asthenosphere, there is a more rigid
portion of te mantle that extends nearly half to the center of the earth. The lower mantle is
called the mesosphere.
The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
Beneath the mantle is the core, consisting of the outer outer core (2,270 km wide),
and an inner core (1, 216 wide). The S waves are not transmitted through the outer core,
which is therefore thought to be liquid. As a result, the inner core can be probed only with P
waves. Since these wave travel more than that of the outer core, and the innermost region is
thought to be solid.
The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
 The Earth’s Make -Up
THE EARTH’S SURFACE MATERIAL
There are 104 naturally existing elements found on the earth’s surface, but only eight
element make up more than 98% of the earth’s crust by weight. We all know that copper and tin are
element, but they are also minerals. Many element are minerals. They are solids with a definite
chemical make-up and structure, but do not contain remains of living things. Since there are more
than three thousand different kinds of minerals found on earth, most minerals are compounds. A rock
is usually made up of one or more minerals, though some rocks are made up of only one mineral.
Rocks are classified into three kinds based on the way they probably formed: Sedimentary, igneous,
and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous Rocks
Just below the earth’s crust, rock materials melt because of increased temperature and
pressure. This molten material is called magma. When this hot magma finds its way through the
crocks in the earth’s crust, it rises to eh surface and is called lava. When magma cools and hardens, it
forms igneous rocks. Igneous rock can be extrusive igneous rock or intrusive igneous rock.
 The Earth’s Make -Up
Sedimentary Rocks
Sediments are bits of matter that settle t the bottom of lakes and oceans, They are also
deposited on land by water, wind and glaciers. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediments hardens
and are packed together. Since there are three kinds of sediments, then there are also three kinds of
sedimentary rocks: Clastic sediments (formed by weathering and erosion, ex. Gravel, sand and mud are
clastic sediments forming clastic sediments), Chemical sediments ( come from minerals that are usually
dissolved in water separated either through evaporation or precipitation, ex. Rock salt, limestone
gypsum), and Organic sediments which are remains of once living organisms (ex. Shells and plants)
Metamorphic Rocks
When igneous rock and sedimentary rocks undergo changes through heat and pressure,
metamorphic rocks result and this change is called metamorphism. Pressure within the rock may
squeeze and bend rocks and cause them to undergo certain changes. These changes may be in the shape
of the crystals. Pressure coupled with heat, might even change the kind of crystal found in the rock and
their make-up.