The impact of choice of material

or design on the embodied

carbon of a floor slab.

Joseph Hanratty | Final year Project | Date

 Table of contents

Section 1: Introduction.......................................................................................................2

Section 1.1: The climate emergency..............................................................................2

Section 1.2: Aim of this report........................................................................................4

Section 2: Literature review...............................................................................................6

Section 2.1: Embodied carbon.......................................................................................6

Section 2.1.1: Barriers to low carbon building materials.............................................7

Section 2.1.2: Lower embodied carbon concrete designs..........................................8

Section 2.1.2.1: Waffle Slab....................................................................................9

Section 2.1.2.2 Post-tensioned Slab.....................................................................10

Section 2.1.2.3 Bubble deck slab..........................................................................11

Section 2.1.2.4 Hollow core slab...........................................................................12

Section 2.1.2.5 Thin shell floor slab......................................................................12

Section 2.1.3: Timber floor slab design.....................................................................13

Section 2.1.3.1: Cross-laminated timber...............................................................13

Section 2.1.4: Non-standard Composite floor slab design........................................15

Section 2.3: Material properties comparison................................................................15

Section 3: Design chapter................................................................................................15

Section 3.1: Selection of material and design..............................................................15

Section 3.2: Design No. 1. (Control or typical design for Ireland)................................15

Section 3.3: Design No. 2.............................................................................................15

Section 3.4: Design No.3..............................................................................................15

Section 4: Results & Conclusions....................................................................................15

PAGE 1
 Table of figures.

Figure 1. Pie chart showing greenhouse gas emissions.(‘DesignforZero[5054].pdf’, no

date)...................................................................................................................................4

Figure 2: Chart showing stages of embodied carbon and equations to calculate

embodied carbon below.(Moncaster and Symons, 2013).................................................8

Figure 3 representation of waffle slab with columns(Two-Way-Joist-Concrete Slab-Floor-

(Waffle-Slab)-System-Analysis-and-Design, no date).....................................................10

Figure 4: diagram of post-tensioned slab detailing. (Post Tension Slab – Working

Principle, Components and Construction - civilengineer friend, no date)........................11

Figure 5: bubble deck formwork with plastic bubbles in situ. (Bubble Deck Slab - Types,
Material Specification, Installation, and Advantages, 2014)............................................12

Figure 6: graphic of three different depth sizes of hollow core slabs. (Reed, 2021)........13

Figure 7: Thin shell floor with floor structure. (‘Thin shell’ floors could cut carbon in
construction, no date)......................................................................................................14

Figure 8; This graphic shows how a CLT panel is formed e.g., panels layers running
perpendicular to the previous. (‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf’, 2021)..................15

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 Table of tables.

Table 1 shows the availability of the individual boards that form a larger CLT panel. .
(‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf’, 2021)...................................................................16

Table 2 shows the size availability of finished CLT panels. . (‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-

Handbook.pdf’, 2021)......................................................................................................17

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Section 1: Introduction.
This report will examine the effect of material choice, and design choice on the
embodied carbon of floor slabs. We will examine what embodied carbon means and why
we should act to reduce it as much as possible in choice of materials and design.

This project will focus on the material used and design of floor slabs. Typical floor slab
design in Ireland usually consists of in-situ poured concrete or precast concrete. This
report will examine alternative concrete designs such as waffle slab, hollow core slab,
hardy slab, bubble deck slab, and composite slab for concrete. Timber floor slabs are
now available in the form of GLULAM (Glue laminated timber). and CLT (Cross
laminated timber), these are both relatively new to the market and are both forms of
engineered wood. This report will also look at the embodied carbon performance of
these engineered wood products.

In the construction industry there has been a growing chorus of demands for use of
energy saving materials and to reduce the amounts of materials being used. This is for
two reasons, the first being economical and the second being environmental. This has
resulted in a rethink of how we design many structural elements including floor slabs
which contribute a large proportion of any structures embodied impacts(‘LCA & LCC
analysis of hybrid glued laminated Timber–Concrete composite floor slab system’,
2022).

Section 1.1: The climate emergency.

The Irish government declared a climate emergency on the ninth of May
2019(Cunningham, 2019). The construction industry accounts for almost forty percent of
greenhouse emissions when you consider the full lifecycle of a construction
project(‘DesignforZero[5054].pdf’, no date). It is our duty as engineers to act wherever is
reasonably possible in our choice of material and design to reduce embodied carbon on
all projects given the fact that we contribute such a large proportion. New legislation in
Ireland, the nZED (nearly zero energy building standard). Below is a graphical
representation of the greenhouse gas emissions by sector. Construction industry and
buildings are combined, this is because our choice of material and design dictates how

PAGE 4
much energy a construction project will use in tis full life cycle. Below in figure one is a
diagram showing the carbon footprint of the built environment.

Figure 1. Pie chart showing greenhouse gas emissions.(‘DesignforZero[5054].pdf’, no

date).

In the last 100 years humanity has released more CO 2 and or equivalent global warming
compounds into the environment than the planets oceans plants and animals can
absorb. Carbon in the atmosphere has risen and with it so has the average global
temperatures. This has resulted in an almost 1°C rise in average global temperatures
when compared to preindustrial times. This warming has resulted in a disruption in
global weather patterns and in turn led to increased drought and flooding(Arnold, no
date).

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) globally we must

reduce CO2 emission by 45% from the levels recorded as of 2010. To limit global
warming to 1.5°C this must be achieved by 2030. Furthermore, we will need to reduce
CO2 output to net zero by 2050 to stay on course to stay below the 1.5°C of warming that
was agreed at the Paris climate conference on the forth of November 2016. (Webster,
no date a). 1.5°C is important because beyond this point climate models become very
hard to predict accurately, e.g., warming is now unpredictable and may cause feedback
upon itself and become hard to control. This will require a large change from all people
from all walks of life, and according to the IPCC these changes need to be ‘rapid, far-
reaching and unprecedented’ if they have any chance of being successful in keeping
global temperatures below 1.5°C(Arnold, no date)

For the construction industry to achieve this will be no easy feat. With structural
materials making up approximately half of all embodied impacts of residential and

PAGE 5
industrial builds, and an even bigger share of embodied impacts of infrastructure
developments. As structural engineers we have the opportunity to be leaders of the
transition to net zero embodied carbon(Webster, no date a).

Material choice can result in very large reductions in embodied impacts of any project.
Through the introduction of renewable materials especially those that have lower carbon
footprints and low impacts on the environment along with new technologies. In many
developing countries this practice has led to an era of sustainability in their construction
industries. Steel and concrete have been shunned in favor of wood and engineered
wood products due to timbers low embodied impact and in countries where strict
guidelines are implemented in replanting of trees post-harvest timber’s natural ability to
sequester carbon comes into its own(‘LCA & LCC analysis of hybrid glued laminated
Timber–Concrete composite floor slab system’, 2022).

The impact we can have as structural engineers on the climate crisis cannot be
understated. Considering that almost forty percent of all global emission are due to
buildings and construction. In most modern construction projects that use best practice
construction will contribute around half of the embodied impact of the structure over its
whole life cycle with the structure accounting for two thirds of the total embodied impact
during the construction phase. These numbers are already very high and are only going
to get worse as passive building technology improves and the electricity grid continues
to transition to greener alternatives(Arnold, no date).

Section 1.2: Aim of this report.

This report is focusing on how material choice affects the full life cycle embodied carbon
of floor slabs. The IPCC has warned that to keep on target to keep global temperature
rise below the 1.5° C that was agreed at the Paris Climate summit in 2015 that
emissions must be cut by 45% from the levels back in 2010 by 2030(‘Summary for
Policymakers — Global Warming of 1.5 oC’, no date). For the construction industry this is
a big problem that is only going to become larger. This is since buildings are performing
more efficiently in how they use energy, this is compounded by the greening of the
electrical grid. This is leading to the embodied carbon of cradle to the gate and gate to
waste as an ever-larger proportion of whole life cycle embodied carbon(Webster, no
date b). Material choice is our first and most probably the most potent tool we have in
lowering embodied carbon of structures. Floor slabs were chosen for this report as they

PAGE 6
represent a large percentage of embodied carbon of structures. Many new techniques
have been developed in recent years to help lower embodied carbon in floor slabs. In
concrete there have been many new ways to use the material that reduces the overall
amount of concrete that goes into a project without sacrificing the strength of the floor
slab or structure. There has also been a new material introduced that can take the place
of concrete entirely, engineered timber in the form of Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) and
Glue Laminated Timber (GLT). Very recently there has also been the introduction of
carbon sequestration techniques. In the next section we will look at the most promising
of the many solutions to reducing embodied carbon in floor slabs and select the best two
for design. The best two materials chosen must be of low carbon design and be
reasonably usable regarding production and availability of labor and skills to perform
installation.

PAGE 7
Section 2: Literature review.

Section 2.1: Embodied carbon.

What is embodied carbon? Embodied carbon is defined as any emission of Green
House Gases (GHGs) or activity that contributes to Global Warming. For this report we
will be focused on materials associated with the construction industry. Embodied carbon
accounts for any mining or harvesting of raw materials, any activities related to refining
or manufacturing of the raw materials into products, all transportation of raw materials or
finished product at any stage, any emission associated with installation or use of
products including maintenance over its operational life and finally the emissions
associated with disposal or recycling.(What is embodied carbon? - Irish Green Building
Council, no date) Embodied carbon can be separated into two categories, upfront which
has been described above, encompassing every step of construction, maintenance, and
demolition and disposal. The other category is known as whole life cycle. The whole
lifecycle embodied carbon includes the upfront embodied carbon and includes the
energy use of the building over it operation life span.(Whole Life-Cycle Carbon
Assessments guidance, 2020) Embodied carbon is a measure of a buildings impact on
the environment, for this reason it is an extremely valuable tool that we can use to
reduce the environmental impact of a structure in the design phase of any construction
project. Comparing embodied carbon of different designs allows us to optimize use of
materials and reduce overdesign and waste. It has been found that up to seventy five
percent of the embodied carbon of an average superstructure is found in floor slabs.
(‘Sustainable structural design of tall buildings based on embodied energy’, 2014). For
this reason, this report will focus on floor slabs as literature reviewed supports floor slabs
as a structural element that is commonly overdesigned and the through parametric
design and implementation of new techniques in reinforced concrete or changes in
materials can result in large reductions in embodied carbon. (Moncaster and Symons,
2013). Below in figure 2 is a chart showing the stages associated with embodied carbon

PAGE 8
measuring.

Figure 2: Chart showing stages of embodied carbon and equations to calculate

embodied carbon below.(Moncaster and Symons, 2013)

Section 2.1.1: Barriers to low carbon building materials.

As operational embodied carbon of buildings has been seeing a steady reduction in
recent years the contribution of upfront embodied carbon has become an ever larger
proportion of whole lifecycle embodied carbon. (‘Comparing different strategies of
minimising embodied carbon in concrete floors’, 2022). This means that as structural
engineers the impact of our choices of design and materials is having a bigger impact on
the environment than ever. Identifying areas or elements of structures from which we
can save on embodied carbon are essential. In a case study by (Moussavi Nadoushani
and Akbarnezhad, 2015) it was stated that embodied carbon could, from cradle to gate
meaning all emissions that were created to get a product or material to site can account
for between seventy to ninety percent.

There are many ways to reduce embodied carbon while still using the same common
materials that are already found on site like concrete. Engineered timber has also
become widely used. Glue laminated timber can replace steel and concrete beams in
many situations. Cross laminated timber has been used in place of concrete as floor
slabs. The construction industry seems to be resistant to change. The issues behind this
resistance are complicated. Individuals tend to stick to what the know which results in a

PAGE 9
slow rate of innovation. Institutions may be averse to using an unknown materials or
techniques due to time pressure or fear of legal consequences. Legislation can be slow
to keep up with new technologies and thus hold back the introduction of new
technologies. Technical knowledge can be lacking. New techniques can sometimes be
expensive and that ease and speed of construction is a priority above costs and
efficiency of materials in many cases (Giesekam, Barrett and Taylor, 2016).

Section 2.1.2: Lower embodied carbon concrete designs.

Flat slab floors are almost ubiquitous in the construction industry. They are cheap, easy
to construct, and relatively fast to erect, and provide a high degree of flexibility in the
design. Flat slab design starts by predetermining a span/depth ratio for a column grid.
Guidance can be found on this in (‘How-to-design-concrete-structures-using-Eurocode-
2.pdf’, no date). There has been a lot of research into the optimization of concrete floor
slabs. The only consensus is that there is not a one size fits all solution to the problem
and that column spacing had the largest impact on embodied carbon. (Goodchild et al.,
no date) has recommendations based on parametric analysis of one-way slabs, one-way
slabs with wide beams, post-tensioned slabs, two-way slabs on beams hollow core slabs
and some of the less common slab types like, ribbed slabs with wide beams, troughed
slabs, and waffle slabs. Through their research they have come up with a guide as to
which slab type will best fit a given span. With this report focusing on a reduction in
embodied carbon we will focus on the designs from what is mentioned above which
have been proven to result in a reduction in embodied carbon(‘Comparing different
strategies of minimising embodied carbon in concrete floors’, 2022).

Section 2.1.2.1: Waffle Slab.

PAGE 10
From the literature reviewed waffle slab has come out as giving good results in
delivering a reduced embodied carbon result. Waffle slabs have come to the fore in
recent years due to the climate crisis. Waffle slab is a deep slab with square indentations
in the bottom side. This form allows high strength with less material. Below in figure 3 is
a computer-generated image of a waffle slab design.

Figure 3 representation of waffle slab with columns(Two-Way-Joist-Concrete Slab-Floor-

(Waffle-Slab)-System-Analysis-and-Design, no date)

Waffle slab is a slab designed with cavities in the underside. These cavities result in a
much lower use of concrete and thus lower embodied carbon. Waffle slab is most useful
when used in wide spans as few columns. Concrete having very low to no tensile
strength and the tensile strength being provided by the reinforcing steel means that only
the rib areas of the waffle slab are reinforced. The cavities in between the reinforcement
mean that as much self-weight of the slab is removed. The cavities are achieved by
placing the waffle forms on top of existing formwork to achieve the desired result. Waffle
slabs are faster to construct than regular slabs and result in a rigid slab with a lower self-
weight than a regular flat slab. Due to the use of fewer materials, it has a cheaper cost,
using between twenty to thirty percent less concrete in its construction. Waffle slab
performs particularly well under vibration, deflection, and good fire resistance.(Idrizi and
Idrizi, no date)

PAGE 11
 Section 2.1.2.2 Post-tensioned Slab.

Post-tensioned slabs are constructed in a very similar way to a conventional flat slab.
Post-tensioned slabs are constructed the same way as conventional slabs with the
addition of high strength steel cable that protrudes from the slab ends, this steel cable
runs inside of a sleeve made usually made from plastic or steel and is then tensioned
after the concrete has cured. The tensioning occurs when the concrete has reached
around seventy to seventy five percent of its strength, this will usually happen around
day twenty to twenty-three. This configuration uses concretes high performance in
compression to add strength and rigidity to slab with a much smaller span depth, and
results in a very strong performance for wide spanning slabs. The figure below shows

Figure 4: diagram of post-tensioned slab detailing. (Post Tension Slab – Working

Principle, Components and Construction - civilengineer friend, no date)
the process of tensioning the slab.

This results in a slab design that is very good for long spans, and lower span depth, and
just like waffle slab post-tensioned slabs use approximately twenty to thirty percent less
concrete and as a result has lower embodied carbon.(Post Tension Slab – Working
Principle, Components and Construction - civilengineer friend, no date).

PAGE 12
 Section 2.1.2.3 Bubble deck slab.

Bubble deck slab is another slab type that decreases the amount of concrete used in the
construction of a slab. Bubble deck slabs are constructed in a similar fashion to a
conventional flat slab except there are plastic balls placed inside the formwork of the
slab before pouring, thus leaving hollow spaces inside the slab, and decreasing the self-
weight and concrete required. The concrete that would take the place of the plastic balls
inside a conventional slab does not increase the slabs structural performance. The
plastic balls are clamped inside the reinforcing structure eliminating the concrete at the
center of the slab and drastically increasing the strength to weight ratio of the slab. In the
figure below is a picture of form work for bubble deck with plastic balls in situ.

Figure 5: bubble deck formwork with plastic bubbles in situ. (Bubble Deck Slab - Types,
Material Specification, Installation, and Advantages, 2014)

Bubble deck performs much greater than a regular slab design due to the reduced
weight and is good for wide spans. Bubble deck is available in a prefabricated form, with
its reduced weight and availability in prefabricated format mean that savings on
transportation, and cranage can be made. There can be as much as a fifty percent
saving in the number of materials used. With each plastic ball saving up to one hundred
kilograms of concrete there is also a large reduction in embodied carbon. (Bubble Deck
Slab - Types, Material Specification, Installation, and Advantages, 2014)

PAGE 13
 Section 2.1.2.4 Hollow core slab.

Hollow care slabs are essentially pre-tensioned or pre-stressed floor slabs. Hollow core
slabs are usually manufactured using an extruder and slipform machinery. High tensile
steel cable is introduced into the element along with elliptical cavities that run the length
of the element during its manufacture. Hollow core slabs are well known in the
construction industry for being a quick and easy way to construct a floor and are very
versatile due to manufacturing of site. The reduced need for materials due to the cavities
and prestressing deliver a reduction in embodied carbon. The figure below shows a
graphic of hollow core floor slab.(Reed, 2021)

Figure 6: graphic of three different depth sizes of hollow core slabs. (Reed, 2021)

Section 2.1.2.5 Thin shell floor slab.

Thin shell floor slabs are a relative newcomer to modern construction. Thin shell floors
use concretes strength in compression to provide a huge saving in concrete of up to
seventy five percent and an embodied carbon reduction of sixty percent all while
maintaining strength. To maintain this strength the concrete is formed into a vault
structure so that the floor structure can use the natural strength of an arch to support the
floor above. The figure below shows thin shell floor slab with standardized floor
structure. (‘Thin shell’ floors could cut carbon in construction, no date)

PAGE 14
Figure 7: Thin shell floor with floor structure. (‘Thin shell’ floors could cut carbon in
construction, no date)

Section 2.1.3: Timber floor slab design.

Section 2.1.3.1: Cross-laminated timber.

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is relatively new product in the floor slab market. Cross
laminated timber is several layers of glued boards. Each layer of boards is laid
perpendicular to the last layer. This results in strength in both directions with each layer
reinforcing the layer below. Cross laminated timber is a member of the engineered
timber family of products. Cross laminated timber has a wide variety of uses and has
been used to construct medium to low rise structures and is being used for anything
from office blocks to sports centers. Cross laminated timber can be used to form the
walls floors and roofs of structures and offers strength and a level of insulation making it
a very efficient building material. If cross laminated timber is correctly protected from
elements, it can last a long time. Cross laminated timber is a renewable construction
material. The rules around reforestation in the European Union, America, and Canada,
where most timber for CLT production comes from require that for every tree that is
harvested, at least two trees are planted in its placed. This over time will result in more
trees not less. Cross laminated timber offers a material that can be manufactured in

PAGE 15
 large panels with large cross-sections. This results in a product that has high stiffness
and load bearing characteristics. Cross laminated timber is mostly prefabricated
resulting in fast build times and with its low mass when compared to steel and concrete
cost savings can be made on foundational works, transportation, and cranage. Below is
a graphic of how a cross laminated timber panel is constructed and two tables showing
the versatility and range of sizes of CLT panels.(‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf’,
2021)

Figure 8; This graphic shows how a CLT panel is formed e.g., panels layers running
perpendicular to the previous. (‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf’, 2021)

Table 1 shows the availability of the individual boards that form a larger CLT panel. .
(‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf’, 2021)

Parameter Commonplace Available

Thickness 20 – 45 mm 20 – 60 mm

Width 80 – 200 mm 40 – 300 mm

Strength class C14 – C30 -

PAGE 16
 Width to thickness 4:1 -

Table 2 shows the size availability of finished CLT panels. . (‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-

Handbook.pdf’, 2021)

Parameter Commonplace Available

Thickness 80 – 300 mm 60 – 500 mm

Width 1.20 – 3.60 m Up to 4.80 m

Length 20 m Up to 30 m

No. of layers 3, 5, 7, 9 Up to 25

Cross laminated timbers structure of layers of timber boards running in opposite

directions to each other helps to alleviate natural differences in characteristics of wood.

Section 2.1.3.2: Glue-laminated timber.

Glue-laminated timber (GLT) is another engineered timber product and is much the
same as CLT except the layers in a glue laminated timber panel run parallel to the next.
GLT has been around for around a hundred years and is a reasonably well-known
material that can withstand the test of time. A GLT beam has been shown to be stronger
than a regular sawn timber beam of the same cross section making it a more attractive
option as a construction material. Glulam has one of the highest strengths to weight
ratios of any construction material on the market even today, this low weight to high
strength ratio allows for shallower and lighter foundations and provides savings on
transportation and costs. Environmentally it performs very well with the raw material
timber, being renewable and the growth timber sequesters carbon, at end of life of the
structure glulam members can be resized and reused if the member is still in a
serviceable state. If the member does not meet serviceable state requirements it can be
used as fuel to recover some energy.

PAGE 17
Section 2.1.4: Non-standard Composite floor slab design.
Non-standard composite floors have been around for as long time. Techniques such as
steel decks that form the formwork for concrete pours but remain in place and add to the
structural strength of the floor slab. The benefit of using this type of floor slab is that
reinforcement can be prefabricated and installed on to the steel deck. Recently there has
been some interesting additions to this market with several timber-concrete composites
now becoming available. Most of these slab types offer quick and easy build times along
with faster build times and lower embodied carbon. There are so many different types of
non-standard composite floor slab systems on the market today that it would be
impossible to review literature on all. For the purpose of this report we will focus on only
the most promising in regard to embodied carbon or the most well-known for ease of
installation.

Section 2.3: Method for measurement of embodied carbon.

Section 3: Design chapter.

Section 3.1: Selection of design and choice of materials.

Section 3.2: Design No. 1. (Typical design for control).

Section 3.3: Design No. 2.

Section 3.4: Design No.3.

Section 4: Results & Conclusions.

PAGE 18