COURSE TITLE: EPIDEMOLOGY & PUBLIC HEALTH

COURSE CODE: MCB 405

DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY 2023/2024 SECTION

ACADEMIC PRESENTATION.

BY
KEZIAH DANJUMMA
1910502036

TOPIC: AS AN EPIDEMOLOGIST CONDUCT AN

INVESTIGATION/STUDY/ANALYSIS ON LEPTOSPIROSIS

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 INTRODUCTION TO THE DISEASE
Define and introduce leptospirosis. Leptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by spiral-
shaped bacteria known as Leptospira. These bacteria are commonly found in the urine of
infected animals, such as rodents, cattle, pigs, and dogs. Leptospirosis can affect both animals
and humans and is considered a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted between animals
and humans.
History, Discovery, and Relevance of Leptospirosis:
Leptospirosis, a disease caused by Leptospira bacteria, has a historical background dating back
to the late 19th century, officially coined in the 20th century. Dr. Adolf Weil's identification of
the causative agent in 1886 marked a significant moment, leading to the naming of severe cases
as Weil's disease. Microbiological advancements in the early 20th century, particularly the
isolation of Leptospira by Dr. Inada and Dr. Ito in 1916, contributed to understanding the
disease. Ongoing technological developments, including molecular biology techniques, have
aided in classifying serovars and improving diagnostic methods. Leptospirosis remains a global
infectious disease affecting both humans and animals, with its zoonotic nature posing a constant
threat, especially in high-prevalence regions. The disease's severity varies, ranging from mild
flu-like symptoms to organ failure, making it a challenging public health concern. Certain
occupational groups, such as farmers and sewage workers, face higher exposure risks,
emphasizing the disease's relevance in specific industries.
CAUSATIVE AGENT
Leptospirosis is caused by various strains of Leptospira bacteria, with different strains being
associated with different animal hosts. In the case of leptospirosis, both animals and humans can
serve as hosts. Animals, particularly rodents, act as reservoirs for Leptospira bacteria, while
humans can become infected as accidental hosts.
MODE OF TRANSMISSION
Humans typically contract leptospirosis through direct or indirect contact with the urine of
infected animals or contaminated water or soil. The bacteria can enter the body through cuts or
abrasions on the skin, mucous membranes, or by ingesting contaminated water or food.
SYMPTOM
The symptoms of leptospirosis can range from mild to severe and may include fever, headache,
muscle aches, vomiting, jaundice, and in severe cases, kidney or liver failure. In some instances,
the infection can lead to a more severe form known as Weil's disease.

PATHOGENICITY OF THE INFECTION

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 The pathogenicity of leptospirosis refers to the ability of the Leptospira bacteria to cause
disease and the mechanisms by which it infects and affects the host organism. Here's an
overview:
Entry and Spread: Leptospira bacteria enter the host through mucous membranes, skin
abrasions, or the conjunctiva, with the main infection route being exposure to water, soil, or
environments contaminated with the urine of infected animals.
Tissue Invasion: Once in the bloodstream, Leptospira disseminates throughout the body, often
targeting organs such as the liver, kidneys, lungs, and central nervous system. The bacteria can
also colonize the proximal renal tubules, leading to persistent kidney infection.
Immune Response: The host's immune response is triggered, leading to the production of
antibodies and immune cells aimed at eliminating the bacteria. However, Leptospira has
mechanisms to evade the immune system, allowing it to persist in the host.
Duration of Infection: The acute phase of leptospirosis lasts for a variable period, and in some
cases, the bacteria may persist in the kidneys, leading to chronic carriers who can shed the
bacteria in their urine for an extended period.
Severity Factors: The severity of the infection can depend on various factors, including the
strain of Leptospira, the individual's immune response, and the presence of underlying health
conditions.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF THE DISEASE

Epidemiology of Leptospirosis Worldwide: Leptospirosis is a globally distributed zoonotic
disease with varying prevalence, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions with warm
climates. Human-animal contact is a key factor, influenced by environmental conditions like
flooding. The reported incidence varies, often underreported due to diagnostic challenges. The
disease affects both rural and urban populations, with higher risks for certain occupational
groups like farmers and sewage workers. Outbreaks can occur after heavy rainfall. Leptospirosis
contributes significantly to the global burden of disease, impacting millions annually and posing
economic implications in regions reliant on agriculture and livestock.

EPIDEMIOLOGY IN AFRICA
As of January 2022, specific and recent data on leptospirosis prevalence in Africa may be
limited. The disease has been reported in various African countries, but its prevalence varies
across regions. Challenges in surveillance and laboratory confirmation contribute to under
diagnosis and underreporting. Factors such as the presence of reservoir animals, environmental
conditions, and certain occupational activities contribute to leptospirosis prevalence. Limited
comprehensive studies and surveillance systems, coupled with low awareness and resources for
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disease monitoring, contribute to gaps in data on leptospirosis in many African countries. For the
latest information, it is advised to refer to the most recent studies or public health reports.
EPIDEMIOLOGY IN NIGERIA
As of January 2022, specific and up-to-date data on leptospirosis epidemiology in Nigeria is
limited. The disease is recognized in the country, with reported cases, but prevalence may vary
across regions. Underreporting is common due to limited awareness, diagnostic capabilities, and
surveillance systems. Risk factors include the presence of reservoir animals and environmental
conditions conducive to Leptospira bacteria survival, with certain occupational activities like
farming posing a higher risk. Similar to the broader African context, there are limitations in
comprehensive data on leptospirosis in Nigeria. Enhanced surveillance, increased awareness, and
research efforts are crucial to better understand the epidemiological landscape and implement
effective prevention and control measures. For the most current information, it is recommended
to refer to recent studies, public health reports, or contact relevant health authorities and research
institutions in Nigeria.

DIAGNOSIS OF THE DISEASE AS AN EPIDEMIOLOGIST:

As of January 2022, specific references for the latest epidemiological methods related to
leptospirosis diagnosis may be limited. Clinical diagnosis relies on recognizing non-specific
symptoms, posing challenges in differentiation from other febrile illnesses. Serological tests like
ELISA and MAT are commonly used for serological diagnosis, while PCR detects the genetic
material of Leptospira. Culturing the bacteria from clinical specimens is challenging but possible
in specialized laboratories. Surveillance methods, including both active and passive approaches,
are employed to monitor leptospirosis incidence. For the most recent developments, it is advised
to consult recent scientific literature, public health reports, and authoritative sources

.PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES:

Vaccination: Currently, there is no widely available human leptospirosis vaccine. However,
some veterinary vaccines are used to protect animals, reducing the risk of transmission to
humans. The development of a human vaccine is an area of ongoing research.
Health Education and Awareness: Public awareness campaigns play a crucial role in
preventing leptospirosis. Educating communities about the risks, modes of transmission, and
preventive measures, such as avoiding contact with contaminated water and soil, can reduce
exposure.

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Personal Protective Measures: Individuals at higher risk, such as those working in agriculture
or outdoor occupations, should use personal protective equipment, including gloves and boots, to
minimize direct contact with potentially contaminated water and soil.
Rodent Control: Reducing the rodent population, which serves as a reservoir for Leptospira, can
be an effective control measure. This may involve implementing rodent-proofing measures and
using rodenticides.
Environmental Management: Controlling and improving environmental conditions can limit
the survival of Leptospira. This includes proper waste disposal, reducing exposure to
contaminated water in recreational areas, and managing flooding in urban and rural settings.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, addressing the complex challenges posed by leptospirosis requires a
multifaceted approach involving research, surveillance enhancement, targeted interventions, and
collaboration across disciplines. Investing in these areas will contribute to mitigating the impact
of leptospirosis on both human and animal populations, advancing global health efforts.
Reference:
Torgerson PR, Hagan JE, Costa F, et al.** (2015) Global Burden of Leptospirosis: Estimated in
Terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years.
Adler B, de la Peña Moctezuma A. (2010) Leptospira and leptospirosis. Veterinary
Microbiology, Costa F, Hagan JE, Calcagno J, et al. (2015) Global Morbidity and
Mortality of Leptospirosis: A Systematic Review.
Vincent AT, Schiettekatte O, Goarant C, et al. (2019) Revisiting the taxonomy and evolution of
pathogenicity of the genus Leptospira through the prism of genomics.
Cumberland P, Everard CO, Levett PN.** (2001) Assessment of the efficacy of an IgM-elisa and
microscopic agglutination test (MAT) in the diagnosis of acute leptospirosis. The
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
Hagan JE, Moraga P, Costa F, et al.** (2016) Spatiotemporal Determinants of Urban
Leptospirosis Transmission: Four-Year Prospective Cohort Study of Slum Residents in
Brazil. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Goris MGA, Leeflang MMG, Boer KR, et al.** (2013) Establishment of Valid Laboratory Case
Definition for Human Leptospirosis. Clinical Microbiology and InfectionMicrobiology,

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