Optimizing Feed Milling Processes for Enhanced

Efficiency and Quality: A Comprehensive

Technical Study
Abu Rayhan1

Abstract:

Feed milling plays a pivotal role in the production of nutritionally balanced and
cost-effective animal feed, influencing the performance and well-being of
livestock and poultry industries. However, conventional milling practices often
encounter challenges related to inefficiency and inconsistent product quality. This
research paper presents a thorough investigation into the optimization of feed
milling processes to address these challenges. The study begins with a
comprehensive review of existing feed milling techniques and technologies,
examining previous research on their efficiency and product quality.
Methodologies for ingredient selection, formulation, and the evaluation of milling
equipment and settings are then detailed. Data is collected and analyzed,
assessing the impact of different milling parameters on particle size distribution,
feed pellet durability, and nutritional characteristics. The results and discussions
highlight the correlation between milling parameters and product quality, energy
consumption, and production rates. Additionally, case studies present successful
implementations of advanced feed milling processes, demonstrating real-world
applications and industrial-scale trials.

Keywords: Feed Milling, Optimization, Efficiency, Quality, Particle Size

Distribution, Pellet Durability, Nutritional Characteristics, Industrial-scale Trials,
Emerging Technologies.

1
Abu Rayhan, Head of R&D, CBECL, Dhaka, Bangladesh
rayhan@cbecl.com
 1. INTRODUCTION
2. GRINDING
3. MIXING
4. PELLETING

1. INTRODUCTION
Feed manufacturing and quality control play pivotal roles in achieving success in fish culture.
Without a thorough understanding and precise specifications for the feed mill and its laboratory
operations, profitable fish farming remains uncertain.

Dry feeds undergo a series of essential processes, including grinding, sifting, screening, mixing,
compression, expansion, texturizing, coloring, and flavoring. Through these techniques, a diverse
range of ingredients can be transformed into a standardized product. Given that fish exhibit size and
texture preferences, and often respond to color, odor, and flavor, dedicated processing research
becomes an integral aspect of effective fish culture.

2. GRINDING

2.1 Hammermills
2.2 Attrition Mills
2.3 Roller Mills
2.4 Cutters
2.5 Screening

Feed manufacturing relies heavily on grinding, a critical process that serves

multiple key purposes. When ingredients enter the feed mill, they undergo grinding
through a specialized grinder for several essential reasons:

1. Size Reduction: Grinding reduces clumps and large fragments to a finer size,
facilitating handling and processing.

2. Moisture Control: Through aeration during grinding, some moisture is removed

from the ingredients, enhancing storability.

3. Additive Blending: Grinding allows the incorporation of additives such as

antioxidants, further enhancing ingredient quality.

This grinding process significantly improves the overall ease of handling

ingredients and their longevity in storage.
Additionally, grinding and the subsequent sieving of ingredients in formula feeds
offer further benefits. For instance, small fish and fry require feeds in plankton-size
dimensions, which can be supplied in dry form as a meal or granule. Extreme
variations in particle sizes are not only wasteful but also pose potential dangers. For
example, fry have faced mortality due to their inability to digest large pieces of
connective tissue and bone found in dry animal byproducts, or hull fragments
present in cottonseed meal and rice bran. Conversely, excessive dust or "fines" can
form colloidal suspensions in water, diluting their nutritive value significantly.

Beyond size reduction, grinding plays a pivotal role in enhancing feed digestibility,
acceptability, mixing properties, pelletability, and bulk density of certain
ingredients. The process employs various manual and mechanical operations,
including impact, attrition, and cutting, to achieve the desired results.

By optimizing grinding and particle-size reduction, feed milling processes can be

made more efficient, leading to improved feed quality and overall productivity.

2.1 Hammermills

Hammermills predominantly function as impact grinders, employing either

swinging or stationary steel bars to forcefully propel ingredients against a circular
screen or a solid serrated section known as the striking plate (see Figure 1). The
material remains in the grinding chamber until it reaches the size of the screen
openings. Several factors significantly influence the grinding capacity and product
appearance, including the
number, size,
arrangement, sharpness,
and speed of the rotating
hammers, as well as the
wear patterns and
clearance at the tip
concerning the screen or
striking plate. The heat
generated during grinding
is related to the duration
the material spends in the
chamber and the
characteristics of the
airflow.

Dry, low-fat ingredients yield the most efficient impact grinding results, although
Figure 1 Hammer Mill other materials can also be
reduced in size through
proper screen selection and controlled intake. Typically, hammermills have a
horizontal drive shaft that suspends vertical hammers. However, for certain
ingredients like dried animal byproducts, a "vertical" hammermill proves more
efficient. In this configuration, the drive shaft is positioned vertically, while the
screens and hammers are arranged horizontally.
Once the material is successfully reduced to a size that fits through the screen holes
or smaller, it is carried outside the mill by gravity and then directed to storage in
"make-up" bins through the assistance of air or conveyors. Any oversized particles
that resist easy breaking drop through the mill and can be either recycled or
discarded. Consequently, foreign materials such as metal and stones are discharged
before they can cause damage by passing through the screen.

2.2 Attrition Mills

In attrition mills, the hammermill principle is partially employed, involving

shattering by impact. However, these mills also introduce a shearing and cutting
action to the process. The grinding occurs between two discs that come with
replaceable wearing surfaces. Either one or both of these discs are set in motion,
and if both, they rotate in opposite directions.

When one disc is in motion while the other remains stationary, this setup is utilized
for shredding and deferring purposes. Attrition mills are often employed to further
process materials that have been coarsely ground by other mills. They are
particularly useful for blending or refining mixtures containing liquids that may
have clumps.

The arrangement of the discs in attrition mills is typically vertical, allowing

materials that are not suitable for further reduction to pass out of the grinding area
under the influence of gravity.

2.3 Roller Mills

Roller mills employ a combination of cutting, attrition, and crushing mechanisms

during operation. These mills consist of smooth or corrugated rolls that rotate at an
identical speed, set at a predetermined distance apart, allowing materials to pass
through the gap between them. To introduce a tearing action, the rolls can be
operated at varying speeds and equipped with different corrugation patterns. For
instance, the top roll may have off-radial spiral corrugations, while the bottom roll
features lateral corrugations. This specific configuration, known as the "Le Page
cut," proves beneficial when producing granules from hard pellets as it creates a
breaking surface with minimal impact, reducing dust generation.

Roll grinding in roller mills is a cost-effective method, particularly suitable for

relatively dry and low-fat materials. However, it has its limitations concerning the
types of materials it can process effectively.

2.4 Cutters

Rotary cutters belong to the category of grinders, primarily employed in reducing

dry particle solids through shearing using knife edges that interact with a striking
plate. Additionally, the milling process involves attrition and impact, though their
effects are limited when the material can be easily reduced through cutting, and the
discharge screen has large perforations.

The milling equipment comprises a rotating shaft with four parallel knives attached
and a screen occupying a quarter of the 360-degree rotation. This setup proves most
effective in cracking whole grains with minimal production of "fines." However, it
should be noted that it is not suitable as a final process for reducing the size of
ingredients utilized in fish feeds.

2.5 Screening

The process of milling materials allows for achieving the desired particle size. In
this system, the materials that exceed the target size can be re-ground or discarded,
while those within the specified range can be selected based on the preferences of
the fish and then mixed according to formula specifications. For instance, feeds
sifted through a 177-micron opening (U.S. No. 100 sieve) have proven effective in
enhancing the survival and growth of minnows and catfish fry.

When using hammermill or impact grinding to process dry feeds, especially cereal
grains, particles within the size range known as "dust" are generated. To address
this, a dust-collecting system may be employed to remove the excess dust. Having
an excessive amount of dust in the feed can lead to gill disease, as organic matter
adhering to gills becomes a source of nutrients for bacteria or parasites.

However, the issue of excess dust can be mitigated to some extent by introducing a
spray of oil or a semi-moist ingredient, such as condensed fish solubles or
fermentation solubles, to the feeds before they enter the grinder. Additionally,
dehydrated alfalfa can be prepared as a dust-free meal, similar in texture to a sifted
crumblized pellet, by incorporating mineral oil into the hammermill chamber during
the grinding process. This helps to reduce the formation of dust and improves the
overall quality of the milled feed.

3. MIXING

3.1 Horizontal Mixers

3.2 Vertical Mixers
3.3 Other Types of Mixers
3.4 Liquid Mixers
3.5 Mixing Operation and Evaluation

The primary objective of feed mixing is to create a homogeneous blend of

ingredients known as a "formula" with a specific total weight. The process ensures
that each small unit of the feed, be it a mouthful or a day's portion, maintains the
same proportion as the original formula. Feed mixing is regarded as an empirical
unit operation, relying more on experience and artistry than strict scientific
principles.

Feed mixing encompasses various combinations of solids and liquids, each with its
unique physical properties. Solid ingredients differ in particle size, shape, density,
electrostatic charge, coefficient of friction (as represented by the angle of repose),
elasticity, color, odor, and taste. Liquids, on the other hand, differ in viscosity and
density.
The term "mixed" can denote either a blended state, implying uniformity, or a
composition of dissimilar parts, implying scattering. In the context of formula
feeds, the objective of mixing encompasses both definitions, meaning dissimilar
parts are scattered into a blend. However, achieving complete uniformity among
particles within a sample is unlikely. It has been proposed that a more appropriate
title for a discussion on mixing should be "mixing and unmixing," as there is a
constant tendency for particles that were once mixed to become separated. Three
mechanisms play a role in the mixing process:

(a) Transfer of groups of adjacent particles from one location in the mass to
another.
(b) Diffusion, which involves the distribution of particles over a freshly developed
surface.
(c) Shear slipping of particles between others in the mass.

In theory, the position of particles within a container is determined by chance, and

the effects of chance accumulate until they outweigh the direct effects of the mixing
action. In the case of mixing liquids, chance movements create order or uniformity.
Conversely, when dealing with dry solids, chance distribution leads to disorder.
When disorder stabilizes at a maximum level, it is referred to as "random." Various
factors in dry solids cause particles to resist a chance or random arrangement,
resulting in a definite pattern of particle segregation or non-random arrangement.

Particle segregation occurs due to differences in physical properties of ingredients

and the shape and surface characteristics of the mixer. Particle size often plays a
crucial role in causing segregation. A decrease in particle size can significantly
improve mixing by approaching a more random distribution of solids, and this
improvement can be quantitatively measured using statistical methods. Generally,
smaller and more uniformly sized ingredients tend to approach random distribution
during mixing.

In many formulas, reducing particle size becomes necessary to ensure a sufficient

number of particles of essential additives (such as vitamins, minerals, or
medications) for dispersion in each daily feed unit. This may require reducing the
particle size to the diameter of dust, typically 10 to 50 microns. Some ingredients
are unstable in finely divided form and may acquire an electrostatic charge, leading
to the concentration of particles on charged surfaces. Additionally, the roughness of
the mixer and the stickiness of oily and wet ingredients also contribute to
segregation when very small particles are mixed, especially when they are much
smaller than the bulk of other ingredients.

Mixing can be performed either in a batch or continuous process. Batch mixing may
involve an open flat surface with shovels or containers of various shapes like
cylinders, half-cylinders, cones, or twin-cones with fixed baffles or moving augers,
spirals, or paddles. Continuous mixing, on the other hand, is a technique suited for
formula feeds with few ingredients and minimal changes, with proportions being
measured by weight or volume.
3.1 Horizontal Mixers

3.1.1 Continuous ribbon mixers

The "continuous" or "twin-spiral" mixer is designed with a horizontal, stationary,

half-cylinder configuration. Inside, there are helical ribbons affixed to a central shaft,
enabling the movement of materials from one end to the other as the shaft and
ribbons rotate (refer to Figure 2). These mixers come in various capacities, ranging
from a few liters to several cubic meters. The optimal speed of shaft rotation is
inversely related to the circumference of the outer ribbon, usually set between 75-
100 meters per minute. Due to the uni-directional material travel, either end of the
mixer can serve as the discharge point. Additionally, these mixers can be inverted to
facilitate the cleaning process.

3.1.2 Non-continuous ribbon mixers

Non-continuous or interrupted ribbons share similarities with continuous ribbon

mixers, with the distinction lying in the presence of short sections, often referred to
as "paddles" or "ploughs," strategically arranged in a spiral around the mixer shaft.
This arrangement leads to a different mixing action compared to continuous ribbon
mixers, making it particularly suitable for blending liquids with dry solids. Available
in diverse sizes, these mixers exhibit paddle outer diameter travel ranging from 100
to 120 meters per minute.

Fig. 2 Continuous ribbon mixer

3.2 Vertical Mixers

Vertical mixers come in various shapes, such as cylinders, cones, or hopper-shaped

containers, and are equipped with either a single or double screw (auger) placed
vertically through the center (see Figure 3). The screw typically operates at speeds
ranging from 100 to 200 rpm, facilitating the vertical movement of incoming
materials from the bottom (usually the intake) to the top, much like a screw
conveyor. Once at the top, the materials are dispersed and allowed to fall under
gravity. This process is repeated multiple times until a homogeneous blend is
achieved, which typically takes around 10 to 12 minutes. Alternatively, these mixers
can also be loaded from the top.

Despite their versatility, vertical mixers have shown limitations in achieving uniform
mixing of solids and liquids, particularly when dealing with materials of significantly
different particle sizes or densities. Furthermore, cleaning this type of mixer can be
challenging, and there is a risk of inter-batch contamination.

Fig. 3 Vertical Mixer

Avibert: febrero 2014 by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC

3.3 Other Types of Mixers

There are three primary types of mixers used in various industrial processes. The first
one is the horizontal revolving drum, which can come as a straight-sided cylinder or
a tapered cylinder at each end. It may have smooth sides or baffles and shelves to aid
in ingredient pickup and distribution. This type of mixer works best for blending
smooth and dry materials with uniform physical properties.

A modification of this mixer is the turbine mixer, featuring a fixed cylinder with a
revolving shaft to which paddles, ploughs, scrapers, or shelves are attached. These
elements continually re-pile materials, making this mixer ideal for drying fish wastes
and blending different types of fish meal into a standardized product. Additionally, it
efficiently handles heavy ingredients and facilitates the addition of liquids to
mixtures that would clump or cake in other mixers. Some particle size reduction may
occur on soft materials during the mixing process.

The "Nauta" mixer, originating from Holland, takes the form of an inverted cone
with a rotating mixing screw inside, operating along the inner wall. Available in
various sizes from laboratory models for premixing chemical and vitamin additives
to large production sizes, it excels at premixing trace elements and effectively
incorporates moderate amounts of liquids into dry ingredients.

The "entoleter" mixer represents another type, employing a high-speed rotating disc
to forcefully throw the ingredients against the chamber walls. It effectively smoothes
out clumps or balls of compacted ingredients and renders grain weevil eggs inactive.
However, caution is advised, as it may shatter vitamin A beadlets encapsulated in
gelatine, making it unsuitable for certain mixtures..

3.4 Liquid Mixers

In the feed industry, oils and water-miscible oil preparations are commonly added to
dry ingredients to provide energy or specific nutrients. While oil-soluble vitamins A,
D, E, and K can be found in dry carrier concentrates, feed manufacturers may also
obtain them in pure form and premix them. Liquids containing nutrients are
preferable due to their faster and more uniform mixing capabilities compared to dry
concentrates. Thus, feed plants may require the use of a liquid blender.

Liquid blenders typically comprise a horizontal tub or cylinder with multiple wires or
paddles evenly spaced around a revolving shaft inside. In some models, the shaft is
hollow, allowing liquids to be sprayed through holes in the paddles. The speed of
these blenders can range from 400 to 600 rpm or even up to 1,200 rpm. Ingredients
like condensed fish or fermentation solubles, molasses, or fish oils are often
premixed in a bowl-type variable-speed mixer, ensuring efficient blending of liquids
with dry components.

3.5 Mixing Operation and Evaluation

To achieve accurate mixing, ingredients must be added in a tested sequence from

batch to batch. Larger-volume ingredients are usually added first, followed by
smaller ones. Unless already premixed, liquids should be introduced after all dry
ingredients have been mixed. The total mixing time is a crucial factor, influenced by
the formula's composition. All mixers should be calibrated by measuring the
recovery of known additives (either physically or chemically) to prevent under or
over mixing. Tracers such as uniformly sized salt, graphite, or iron particles coated
with water-soluble dyes are commonly used for this purpose. Each mixer should be
calibrated for its specific mixing time and volume capacity to ensure optimal results.

4. PELLETING

4.1 Application
4.2 Influence of Feed Composition
4.3 Cooling and Drying
4.4 Crumbles
4.5 Screening or Grading
4.6 Use of Hard Pellets
4.7 Hazards of Feeding Hard Pellets
4.8 Pellet Hardness and Stability
4.9 Floating Pellets

The process of transforming a soft, dusty feed into a hard pellet involves three main
steps: compression, extrusion, and adhesion. To achieve this, the feed mixture is
passed through a conditioning chamber, where approximately 4 to 6 percent water
(often in the form of steam) is added. This moisture serves as a lubricant for
compression and extrusion. Additionally, when subjected to heat, it causes
gelatinization of the raw starch present on the surface of vegetative ingredients,
leading to adhesion.

Upon entering the pellet mill, the feed undergoes a rapid change, transitioning from
an air-dry state with around 10-12 percent moisture at ambient temperature to 15-16
percent moisture at 80-90°C within just 20 seconds. As the feed is compressed and
extruded through holes in a ring die, friction further elevates the temperature to
nearly 92°C. After this stage, the pellets are discharged onto a screen belt of a
horizontal tunnel drier or into a vertical screened hopper, where they are air-cooled
for approximately 10 minutes until reaching slightly above ambient temperatures and
dried to below 13 percent moisture.

Contrary to early beliefs, the finished pellets retain nearly all the nutrients present in
the original feedstuffs and additives used in their formulation. While there might be
some loss of thermolabile vitamins, especially vitamin C, during processing, this can
be compensated for by adding extra supplementation in the vitamin premix to meet
formula requirements. Interestingly, diastatic enzymes like alpha and beta amylase,
naturally found in whole grains and cereal byproducts, remain active even after
processing through grinding and pelleting. However, if powdered enzymes are
included as an ingredient, they are inactivated during the process.

4.1 Application

The process of pelleting involves mechanically forcing soft feed through holes in a
metal ring-type die. These holes can be of various shapes, such as round, square,
tapered, or non-tapered. Inside the die ring, one or two rolls are mounted on a cam or
eccentric and rotate on a shaft, creating friction due to the presence of feed between
the rolls and the die. The feed is gradually pushed through the die holes, resulting in
tightly layered feed pellets when dissected.

A motor drives the die, while the rolls turn only as the feed develops friction between
them and the die. To make dry feed particles pliable and reduce friction while
absorbing mechanical heat, water is often added to the feed. This water addition can
occur during the mixing of the formula or in the conditioning chamber of the pellet
mill. Water may be supplied in the form of liquid and/or steam. When water is
provided as steam, it serves two purposes: first, a high volume of water vapor
condenses on the surface of feed particles, wetting and softening them for better
compression, and second, the high temperatures of the steam cause some
gelatinization of raw starch in the ingredients, providing the necessary adhesion for
firm pellets.
If adding sufficient moisture as steam is not possible, pretreatment with water can be
used to achieve the desired lubricating effect. However, it is not strictly necessary to
add steam to a soft feed to compress it into a pellet. Certain materials, such as rice
bran, ground cottonseeds, and palm kernel cake, can be pelleted with no added
moisture. However, the resulting pellets may be slightly charred from the high
temperature, and the electrical energy consumption is higher than if moisture were
added. The high fat content of these materials provides lubrication, but it may not be
enough to prevent excessive heating caused by friction. Consequently, the ring die
and rolls of the pellet mill exposed to such conditions show metal fatigue and require
frequent replacement. Properly conditioning dehydrated alfalfa meal can
significantly extend the lifespan of a standard die, allowing for the production of
over 2,000 tons of pellets.

Throughout the pelleting process, the texture of a soft feed mixture transforms from a
meal-like material with a bulk density of approximately 0.4 g/cc to a pellet with a
bulk density of 0.5 - 0.6 g/cc. Pressure within the ring die can reach 75-600 kg/cm2.
However, feed mixtures containing large amounts of fibrous ingredients can lead to
pellets that are too hard for gastric breakdown and digestion in fish. Conversely,
high-fat feeds and excessive moisture can result in poor-quality pellets. The quality
of the pellets is determined by certain factors, such as hardness and water stability,
ensuring efficient use without loss during handling on land or in water.

Balancing feed formulation and pellet mill operation is crucial to provide fish with
acceptable, available, and easily digestible feed. In this realm, ingredient selection
poses inter-dependent variables that require research for each fish species and culture
area. Several mechanical operation variables influence the process:

(a) The thickness of the pellet die relative to the diameter of the hole impacts pellet
quality.

(b) The speed of rotation must be carefully considered for each combination of die
thickness and hole diameter.

(c) The speed at which feed is introduced into the feed-conditioning chamber affects
the moisture/temperature relationship, directly influencing pellet quality.

(d) The amount of steam added to the feed must be balanced to ensure the pellet
mill's drive motor operates at its maximum amperage. The steam valve's opening
correlates with the amount of water entering the feed as steam at any given pressure.

(e) Atmospheric conditions in the factory, especially relative humidity, affect die
selection and operational settings by pre-conditioning the ingredients before
processing.

Examining the above factors for each feed formula highlights the artistry required in
pelleting, surpassing mere science. Emphasizing the optimal operation of the pellet
mill, the motor amperage use must align with the available voltage. Frequent
monitoring of the ammeter gauge during pelleting is essential. At the outset, a small
amount of soft dry feed enters the pellet chamber, causing suboptimal results on the
gauge. However, the addition of steam leads to a lowered reading, signifying the
lubricating effect. With further feed intake and steam adjustments, a stable condition
arises, maximizing the motor's rated amperage and pellet production capacity, which
aligns with the feed mix's composition for superior pellet quality.

Figure 4a depicts a large-capacity (200 hp) pellet mill with a V-belt drive (1) and an
alternative gear drive coupling (2). Feed from a surge bin (3) is metered into the
steam conditioning chamber through a variable speed screw feeder (4). Paddles
within the steam conditioning chamber (5) ensure even blending of feed and steam.
The conditioned feed then enters the pelletizing chamber via a distributor auger (6),
where extrusion occurs through the die (8). Three rollers (9) press the feed against
the die's inner wall, while the die is securely harnessed to the shaft using a two-piece
die cover assembly (10) and 12 bolts (11). Adjustable feed ploughs (12) continuously
redistribute feed within the pelletizing chamber. Extruded pellets of suitable lengths
are cut off by knives mounted on the die casing's inside.

In Figure 4b, small vertical die assembly with two rollers extrudes pellets. A control
valve introduces dry steam into a header, ensuring dry steam reaches the
conditioning chamber for contact with the feed. A gate at the discharge end of the
conditioning chamber restricts feed from immediate exit, allowing more time for
moisture absorption. Moisture-conditioned feed is guided into the pellet chamber for
compression and extrusion. If the ammeter reading exceeds the optimum, raising the
chute prevents feed choke-up in the die holes. From the pellet chamber, feed can be
directed to the cooler or the floor for inspection via a butterfly valve.

Furthermore, the rotational speed of the die introduces another variable in the pellet
mill operation. High rotation speeds are used for producing small diameter pellets (3
mm or less). This leads to a thinner layer of soft feed inside the die ring ahead of the
rolls, enhancing pelleting efficiency and pellet hardness. Die speeds can be adjusted
by replacing the pulley on the main motor shaft, typically ranging from 130-400 rpm.
Dies rotating at higher speeds are particularly suited for forming feeds of low bulk
density.

4.2 Influence of Feed Composition

Several factors play a crucial role in determining the quality of pellets in feed
milling. These include the bulk density of the soft feed, its texture, chemical
composition (comprising fat, fiber, carbohydrate, protein, and moisture), as well as
the ambient conditions, such as temperature and relative humidity.

Grinding plays a vital role in enhancing pellet quality by reducing the air spaces
between particles, leading to closer surface-to-surface contact within a given volume
of feed, ultimately increasing bulk density. The presence of large pieces of any
ingredient in the feed formula can create weak spots in the pellet, particularly if these
pieces are fibrous or bony. Grinding also increases the total surface area of the feed,
providing more space for steam condensation during the conditioning process. This
results in higher feed temperatures and increased water absorption, which, within the
given time, facilitates the gelatinization of raw starch. Starch gelatinization is a
crucial process for water-stable pellets, where starch granules rupture, allowing the
molecules to hydrate and become sticky in the presence of water. Gelatinization can
occur through mechanical means like grinding and pressure, as well as through the
use of hot water.

The addition of moisture from steam can raise the temperature of soft feed from an
environmental 25°C to 85°C. Frictional heat from the pellet mill further contributes 2
or 3 degrees of temperature. The combination of moisture, temperature, and time
results in a sticky surface on starch-containing ingredients, which, upon subsequent
drying, improves pellet hardness and water stability.

Both fat and moisture are necessary for pelleting as they act as lubricants during
compression and extrusion, reducing friction. However, excessive total crude fat
(above 8-10 percent) or moisture (above 15 percent) in the feed formula can lead to
an over-lubricated mixture, resulting in poor-quality pellets in terms of hardness. To
accommodate high-fat feeds, specialized dies may be designed with tapered or
slanted holes, or increased hole depth in relation to diameter. Dietary fat in the final
feed can be further increased by spraying liquid fat or oil onto pellets or crumbles
after they exit the pellet mill. An external coating of stabilized fat (about 5-6 percent)
does not significantly soften the pellet except externally, making it attractive in terms
of odor and texture for certain fish species.

In regions with high humidity, pelleting may face challenges. Ingredients that sun-
dry or absorb moisture on storage, such as marine products containing sodium
chloride, may need to be balanced with low-fat, fibrous ingredients or used in limited
quantities. Low-fat cereals or by-products like cassava cake and pressed copra can be
added to high-moisture, high-fat feeds to provide resistance during compression and
extrusion, crucial for forming hard pellets. For formulas containing sugar or
molasses, low-frictional heat is advantageous, as caramelization occurs at
approximately 60°C.

Fig. 4b Pellet extrusion (arrows indicate direction of rotation of moving parts)

4.3 Cooling and Drying

In the process of manufacturing pellets, the temperature plays a crucial role in aiding
the removal of moisture through air-drying. Typically, within ten minutes of
extrusion, the hard pellets are rapidly cooled to reach the surrounding ambient
temperature, while maintaining a moisture content slightly higher than that of the
initial soft feed. This cooling and moisture adjustment process can be achieved by
spreading the pellets thinly on the floor and directing air over them. Alternatively, in
commercial setups, hot pellets are passed through a specially designed vertical or
horizontal chamber, where ambient-temperature air comes into close contact with the
outer surface of the pellets, facilitating the desired cooling and moisture level.

4.3.1 Vertical cooler-dryer

When steam is added, it introduces a substantial volume of lubricating material with

minimal weight to the pellets. Moreover, the temperature conveyed to the pellets by
the steam plays a crucial role in their subsequent drying process. As air, at ambient
temperature, is drawn or blown through the newly formed pellets, its capacity to
absorb water relies on an increase in temperature. The affinity of air for moisture is
directly proportional to its temperature. Passing air over hot pellets elevates its
temperature, thereby enhancing its
ability to retain moisture.

However, using cold or warm water to

lubricate soft feed before pelleting fails
to achieve the necessary pellet
temperature required for gelatinizing
raw starch or significantly aiding air in
moisture removal during cooling.
Figure-5: This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under Although heated air can be employed in
CC BY-NC-ND
the cooling-drying process, it tends to be
economically impractical. A more
effective approach involves heating the newly-formed, wet pellets on trays in an
oven to facilitate drying, resulting in highly water-stable feed.

Figure 5 illustrates a vertical cooler-dryer setup. Pellets are discharged from the mill
into the upper portion of a flat-sided hopper and then drop into an attached cooling
bin. This bin is divided in the middle with a plenum connected to the suction side of
a blower fan. As the cooler fills with pellets, perforated louvers on both sides pivot to
allow cool air to permeate the hot pellets, removing moisture and cooling them
before entering the plenum for discharge through the blower. To maintain uniform
cooling and drying, the rate of pellet discharge is regulated based on the amount of
hot pellets entering the cooler.
Gradually, the pellets fill the cooler section until they reach a diaphragm near the top
of the enclosed hopper. Once the pressure on the diaphragm is activated, the
discharge gates open, and the pellets are discharged until the level falls below the
diaphragm. A bucket elevator or drag screw conveys the cooled pellets either to a
storage or bagging bin or directly to a truck for bulk delivery. This type of cooler is
ideal for limited spaces and is generally more cost-effective than the horizontal type.

4.3.2 Horizontal cooler-dryer

The horizontal type coolers are equipped with a moving wire belt or sectional belt
comprising perforated metal trays. This belt conveys the pellets from the pellet mill's
discharge spout (Figure 6). The depth of pellets on the belt and its travel speed can
be adjusted to ensure that the pellets attain the desired moisture and temperature
before being stored.

There are two configurations for horizontal

Figure – 6: This Photo by Unknown Author is
licensed under CC BY-SA
coolers: single deck and double deck. In the
single deck setup, pellets are discharged at the
end opposite to the intake. In the double deck
setup, two belts operate within the same
enclosure, and the pellets return to the same end
as they entered.

A centrifugal fan propels air to flow from the bottom of the cooler through the layer
of pellets. Similar to the vertical cooler, the air carrying fines or particles that
separate from the pellets is discharged into a dust-collecting system. The collected
fines are then continuously returned to the mill for re-pelleting.

4.4 Crumbles

After cooling, the pellets undergo a grinding process using corrugated rolls, resulting
in a sifted product available in various granule or crumble sizes. Especially for small
fish, crumbles are preferred due to their favorable physical properties compared to
meal rations, and they are also easier to manufacture than small pellets. The textured
surface of crumbles serves as a visual attractant for sight feeders. Additionally,
crumbles ensure that all formula ingredients are ingested, whereas meal feeds tend to
separate in water, allowing selective feeding.
To achieve a higher production rate, pellets with a diameter of 4 mm or larger are
preferred over smaller ones, as the compression process is more efficient. However,
creating small-diameter pellet dies is costly, and the time required to switch dies can
make the production of small amounts of fingerling feed financially burdensome.
Therefore, incorporating crumblizing rolls as complementary equipment in pelleting
operations is generally recommended.

4.5 Screening or Grading

In the production of pellets and crumbles, sifting plays a crucial role. During this
process, small fragments known as fines are generated. These fines result from
cutting hot, moist pellets off the die inside the pellet chamber and also as pellets
move through the cooling and conveying equipment. These fines can be reused by
sending them back to the pellet mill for reprocessing or utilized as feed for fry.

Various sifting and grading systems exist, encompassing both manual and
mechanized methods. Typically, these systems involve shaking or rotating from side
to side, allowing the material to pass over screens with specific openings. The
equipment is covered to contain dust effectively. The sifting process serves as the
final step in the manufacture of pellets and crumbles, and it is recommended to
position this equipment just above the bagging or final discharge bin.

4.6 Use of Hard Pellets

Testing various feeding methods in dirt-bottomed ponds or on feeding platforms with

different fish species (minnows, goldfish, catfish, trout, carp, and buffalo fish) has
revealed the advantages of using pelleted feeds for fingerlings and larger fish. Even
very small fish have exhibited better growth and feed conversion rates with pelleted
feeds, even if they disintegrate before ingestion, compared to the same formula in
meal form. The concentration of feed in a confined space and the inability of fish to
selectively choose or reject certain ingredients favor the use of pellets. As fish grow
larger, many species stop accepting small feed particles and suspended solids as
provided in meal-type feeds, resulting in the loss or waste of such "fines" that could
otherwise be used as fertilizer. For some fish, it is essential that feeds maintain a
bite-size texture to be effective.

For fish that rely on a feeding program involving planktonic blooms and artificial
supplemental feeds, pellets might not be cost-effective if sufficient natural food is
readily available. However, in newly-filled ponds, those with new bottoms, and in
tanks, pools, and raceways, using complete feeds in pellet form has led to better feed
conversion compared to meal feeds. Once a natural food forage is established in a
pond and vitamin additives are no longer necessary in the formula, it becomes
important to analyze the economics of pelleting versus meal feeding in terms of
manufacturing costs and feed conversion. Research has shown that pellets can be
effectively used to selectively feed larger fish, allowing them to grow rapidly to
market size without competing with smaller fish for the same feed.

An interesting set of tests was conducted on the acceptability of pellets by catfish,

including channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and blue catfish (Ictalurus catus) over
two growth seasons. Pellets of a standard formula were placed on saran screen trays
of two types. One type was lowered to the pond bottom and raised for loading and
inspection by attachment to a tripod located on the pond bank. The other type was
free to be placed directly on the pond bottom at any location and loaded and raised
by hand. Pellets were also scattered on the pond bottom and later recovered by an
Ekman dredge. Fish were seined at intervals of ten minutes to an hour after feeding
to analyze their stomach contents.

These tests were conducted at the Fish Farming Experimental Station, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, in Stuttgart, Arkansas.

Table 1 Water Stability of Test Pellets made from a Standard Formula as Measured by the
Percentage of Solids Retained on a Screen after Ten Minutes in Quiet Water

Treatment Percent Retained

5% gelatinized corn solids (dry) 85.0

5% bentonite 88.6

Control formula - unground 90.0

5% guar meal 90.2

5% gelatinized corn solids - wet 92.0

Control formula ground through 2 mm screen 93.0

5% rice mill dust, 75 microns diameter 93.0

5% soybean flour 94.0

5% lignin sulfonate 94.0

5% rice mill dust sifted through 180 microns 96.2

10% rice mill dust sifted through 180 microns 98.2

20% rice mill dust sifted through 180 microns 98.5

Fish weighing between 5 to 1,500 grams readily accepted pellets with a diameter of 3
mm, while all fish ingested pellets ranging from 3 to 9 mm in length. For fish
weighing over 225 grams, 5 mm diameter × 5 mm length pellets were favored, and
those weighing 454 grams and more preferred 6 mm diameter × 6 mm length pellets.
However, hard pellets measuring 13 mm in diameter × 13 mm in length were not
accepted by any test fish.

Within ten minutes after feeding in water temperatures ranging from 25 to 35° C, the
wet stomach contents of fish comprised five to nine percent of their total weight,
which translated to one to three percent of their weight as dry pellets. During the
pellet ingestion process, fish consumed water, leading to stomach contents consisting
of 70 to 80 percent moisture. After one hour post-feeding, approximately 75 percent
of the total gastro-intestinal contents remained in the stomach. Notably, considerable
amounts of protein and fat had been digested in the intestines, the water content in
the stomach had increased, and the fish's abdominal cavity remained significantly
distended.

4.7 Hazards of Feeding Hard Pellets

Certain fish species face a risk of over-feeding when consuming hard pellets, which
can lead to stomach swelling and rupture. Additionally, over-feeding can push pellets
beyond the point of proper gastric activity, leading to ineffective digestion. Another
concern arises during winter feeding when fish consume a full stomach's capacity on
a warm day, followed by a period of cold weather. This scenario may trigger
fermentation of undigested feed in the stomach, causing gas formation. As a
consequence, the affected fish may float upside down, vulnerable to extreme air
temperatures and potential predation.
4.8 Pellet Hardness and Stability

Fish are attracted to pellets based on their size, shape, and sensory properties,
ensuring they remain intact in water without any loss of components. This aspect,
referred to as "pellet quality," plays a crucial role in achieving good feed conversion.
A common measure of pellet quality under dry feeding conditions involves assessing
the amount of small broken fines produced during handling, which might be
influenced by the abrasive pressure required to break them down. However, the
hardness or percentage of fines in dry pellets does not necessarily reflect their water
stability.

Notably, even high-quality feed pellets, rich in cereal grains and formulated for
poultry, swine, and beef, can turn mushy within minutes of contact with water. This
issue can be attributed to coarse-textured feeds and the presence of water-soluble and
hygroscopic ingredients, which weaken the pellet structure in water, leading to
component separation and reduced acceptance by the animals.

To gauge pellet stability in water and establish feed formulation and processing
specifications, a practical laboratory technique has been devised. This test yields
reproducible values and correlates well with pellet recovery from feeding platforms
and bottom sampling devices.

Here's how the test is conducted:

(a) Ten grams of pellets with equal diameter and length are evenly distributed on a
screen tray, covering approximately 100 cm2 of surface area, with raised sides. The
mesh openings are slightly smaller than the pellet diameter.

(b) Duplicate samples of these pellets are then submerged in quiet water within an
aquarium or tank. In case of clumping or floating, a piece of cut screen is added on
top of the pellets to keep them scattered and submerged.

(c) After 10 minutes, the trays are removed from the water, slanted to drain any
excess liquid, and then placed in a moisture oven at 130°C for 2 hours, followed by
cooling in a desiccator.

(d) The residue left on the screen is recorded as the dry solids that were not lost in
water. To determine the total solids in 10 grams of air-dry pellets, oven-dry duplicate
samples are used. The nutrients lost due to leaching in water can also be measured by
freeze-drying the residue on trays and comparing the chemical analysis with
untreated pellets.

(e) The ratio of dry solids on the screen after 10 minutes in water to the total dry
solids in air-dry pellets serves as a comparative measure of pellet water stability.

In the early days of using hard pellets for fish culture, a random selection of
commercial feed was subjected to this technique, and none showed more than 60
percent retention after 10 minutes in water. To enhance the water stability of fish
feed pellets and improve feed conversion rates, the industry has proposed the
following guidelines:

(i) Before pelleting, grind the mixed feed through a 2 mm screen, reducing it to an
effective size of 125 microns.

(ii) Substitute at least 5 percent of a non-essential ingredient with an organic flour

such as rice dust, dried wood pulp liquor, wheat endosperm, or other binders.

(iii) Operate the pellet mill at its optimum rated amperage to achieve maximum
compression and extrusion pressures.

(iv) Introduce sufficient dry steam to condition the soft feed to a temperature of 85-
90°C, causing gelatinization of raw starch on the surface of all starch-containing
ingredients.

(v) Cool and dry the pellets before conveying them to storage or bag-off bins.

Please note that formulae containing 25 - 30 percent ground wheat or wheat

endosperm byproducts may not require the use of a binder.

Table 1 provides the formula of a standard feed used to test the water stability of
pellets. It represents a typical commercial catfish ration commonly used in the
southern region of the United States. Essentially, it meets the requirements of a 30
percent protein feed, with 25 percent of the protein derived from animal sources, and
a protein to calorie ratio of 90 (grams protein in 100 grams feed × 100 divided by
kcal/100 grams feed).
 Table 2 Physical Measurements Of Pellet Stability of a Standard Catfish Feed

Water stability % retained Broken by Stokes

Process variable 10 minutes in running pellet hardness
water tester

Unground, no steam, thin die 21.5 zero pressure

Unground, no steam, thick die 24.3 zero pressure

Unground, added steam, thin die 31.3 1 kg

Unground, added steam, thick die 78.9 3 kg

Ground, no steam, thin die 65.8 3 kg

Ground, no steam thick die 74.5 4 kg

Ground, added steam, thin die 84.9 8 kg

Ground, added steam, thick die 88.0 13 kg

Ground plus 20% gelatinized

potato starch and 6% added water, 98.9 20 kg
no steam

Please take note that water movement within the test container can serve as an
alternative to using still water.

In Table 2, you can observe the water stability results of both ground and unground
standard feed (refer to Table 1). Additionally, the table presents the outcomes of
substituting 5 percent of rice bran with different organic and mineral materials,
which have been proposed as binders. The formulae for common and mirror carp
resemble those for catfish, except that ground wheat will take the place of rice bran
or wheat offal. If properly steam conditioned before compression and extrusion in a
pellet mill, high-wheat feeds demonstrate excellent water stability.

Feeds low in starch require a thick ring die and additional steam during conditioning.
To enhance water stability in pellets created with low-starch formulas, special
binders of starch origin can be utilized.

4.9 Floating Pellets

Fish feeds can undergo pelleting through a process known as "extrusion," where the
ingredients are expanded rather than compressed. This technique allows for a wide
range of bulk density, with common values for fish feeding falling between 0.25 to
0.3 g/cc, making them suitable for specific types of fish culture. The feed intake can
be controlled by observing the fish while they eat, and no sampling is required to
monitor the number and health of fish in a water impoundment.

The expansion extrusion process generally involves the following steps:

(a) Conditioning the soft feed in meal form to contain 25-30 percent water.
(b) Conveying the conditioned feed through an auger into a pressure-sealed cylinder.
(c) Injecting steam to decrease material friction within the cylinder and increase the
gelatinization of raw starch.
(d) Extruding the material to atmospheric pressure, causing it to almost explode
through holes in the die plate at the end of the cylinder.
(e) Cutting off the extruding ribbon at the outside of the die plate using a rotating
knife.
(f) Drying the pellets in a high-temperature oven at approximately 120°C to achieve
a suitable moisture content for storage.

To better understand floating pellets, specific details should be added to this process
description. The feed formula plays a crucial role in achieving the desired expanding
texture. Cereal grains can be expanded to a very low bulk density, while protein
concentrates low in starch may retain their original bulk density. Raw starch is
essential for a good floating pellet, with about 90 percent gelatinization occurring
during the 30 to 60 seconds the feed is in the expander cylinder. The material
undergoes pressure build-up as it moves into a smaller volume, and the addition of
superimposed steam raises the product temperature, transforming the material from a
free-flowing meal to a dough-like consistency. The sudden release of pressure at the
discharge end gives the feed a "puffed rice" texture, similar to certain breakfast foods
and snacks.

Following oven drying, a standard pellet cooler is often employed to lower the
product temperature once the internal moisture is less than 13 percent. Despite this
treatment, previous high temperatures partially destroy heat-labile vitamins and
reduce the availability of some amino acids. To preserve heat-sensitive additives,
they can be sprayed onto expanded pellets after extrusion, instead of being over-
fortified before pelleting, as is done for hard pellets.

Biological tests under pond conditions with natural food available have indicated no
difference in the growth of catfish and goldfish when fed with formula feed
processed through hard pelleting or the extrusion process. Chemical analysis also
revealed no significant difference in total crude protein or individual amino acids for
several formula feeds, each prepared as hard pellets or extruded pellets. However,
when fish growth was tested in tanks and cages, some nutrients were found to be
partially destroyed in extruded feeds.

Evidence suggests that fish fed with floating pellets tend to have more liver and body
fat than those fed the same formula processed as hard pellets. This may be attributed
to the increased digestibility of the carbohydrate portion of the ration. The expansion
process incurs higher expenses compared to other feed manufacturing methods,
mainly due to equipment costs, steam generation, oven-drying, and nutrient loss. The
true value of extruded pellets is best evaluated through practical feeding tests, taking
into account feed conversion data, management costs, and acceptability by fish as
decisive factors.

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