Applied Physics

VECTORS

Dr. Hayat Muhammad Khan

 VECTORS

 A model is a simplified version of a physical system that

would be too complicated to analyze in full detail
 The size and shape of the physical system is
represented as a point object or a particle
 For consistency, same set of units’ system is adopted for
computations
 VECTORS

Scalars: which has only magnitude, e.g. mass,

temperature, work etc.

Vectors: which has magnitude as well as direction, e.g.

force, velocity, acceleration etc.
 VECTORS
Vector Addition

Parallelogram

Commutative Law
 VECTORS
Vector Addition
 VECTORS
Vector Subtraction
 VECTORS
Components of Vectors
 VECTORS
Multiplying a vector by a scalar
 VECTORS
Vector Addition and subtraction
 VECTORS
Vector Addition and subtraction
 VECTORS
Vector Addition and subtraction
Resolution of a Vector
A vector can be resolved into its components having
known lines of action using the parallelogram law.

Define axes for resolution !!

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Components of Vectors
 VECTORS
Unit Vector

A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1,

with no units.
 2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES

Experimental evidence has shown that a force is a vector quantity since it has
a specified magnitude, direction and sense and it adds according to the
parallelogram law.
Two common problems in
statics involve:
• Either finding the resultant force,
knowing its components,
• Or resolving a known force into
its components
Both these problems require
application of the
parallelogram law.
• If more than two forces are to be
added, successive applications
of the parallelogram law can be
carried out in order to obtain the
resultant force.
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 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Problems that involve the addition of 2
forces and contain at most 2 unknowns can
be solved by using the following procedure:
Parallelogram Law
 Make a sketch showing vector addition.

 If possible, determine the interior angles of the

parallelogram from the geometry of the problem.

The total sum of these angles is 360º.

 Unknown and known angles and forces should be

clearly labeled.

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Trigonometry
 The 2 unknowns can be determined from the data listed
on the triangle.
 If the triangle does not contain a 90º angle, the law of
sines and/or cosines may be used:

Sine Law: A B C
 
sin a sin b sin c

Cosine Law:
C A  B  2 AB cos c
2 2

EXAMPLES: 2-1, etc…

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 ADDITION OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR FORCES

When the resultant of more

than 2 forces have to be
obtained,
It is easier to find the
components of each force along
specified axes.
Add these components
algebraically.
Then form the resultant.
•Eliminates the successive application
of parallelogram law to forces

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• Scalar notation is only used in computation
and not for graphical representation in figures.

• The arrowhead indicates the sense of a

vector graphically.

• Magnitude of a vector is always a positive

quantity.

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 Coplanar force resultants
 Any of the above methods can be
used to determine the resultant of
several coplanar forces
• Each force is resolved into its x
and y components
• Respective components are then
added using scalar algebra.
► To solve it using Cartesian vector notation:
 Each force is first represented as a Cartesian
vector, e.g.
F1 = F1x i + F1y j
 The resultant vector is then found by adding
these Cartesian vectors.
FR = F1 + F2 + F3 22
 In general, the x and y components of the resultant of any
number of coplanar forces can be represented symbolically
by the algebraic sum of the x and y components of all the
Once the resultant
forces, i.e.
components are
determined, they may be
sketched along the x and y
FRx = Fx axes in their proper
directions, and the
FRy = Fy resultant force can be
determined from vector
addition (Figure 2-16c).
The direction angle  (which
The magnitude of FR is then found specifies the orientation of the
using Pythagorean theorem; force) is determined from:
FRy
FR  F  F2
Rx
2
Ry
  tan 1

FRx 23
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Rectangular Components of a Vector

 A vector may have 1, 2 or 3 rectangular components

along the x, y, z coordinate system depending on how
the vector is oriented relative to the axes.

A = A’ + Az

and A’ = Ax + Ay

Combining the two

eqn’s,

A = Ax + Ay + Az
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Unit Vector

In general, a unit vector is

one having a magnitude
of 1.
If ‘A’ is a vector having a
magnitude A  0, then the
unit vector having the
same direction is
represented by:
uA = A/A (dimensionless)
or A = A uA

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Cartesian Unit Vector

In 3-D,
i, j, k, are used to designate
directions of the x, y, z, axes.

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Cartesian Vector Representation

A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k

Advantage of writing vectors in terms

of their Cartesian components:

• Since each of these components has the

same form, the magnitude and direction
of each component vector are
SEPARATED. (This will simplify the
operations of vector algebra particularly
in 3-D)

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 Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector

A A  A  A
2
x
2
y
2
z

Hence, the magnitude

of A is equal to the
positive square root of
the sum of the
squares of its
components.

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 Direction of a Cartesian Vector

Ax Ay Az
cos   cos   cos  
A A A

 Commonly known as the DIRECTION

COSINES of A
 An easier way of obtaining the direction
cosines of A is to:
 Form a unit vector in the direction of A.
 Provided A is expressed in Cartesian vector
form, A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k, we have

A Ax Ay A
uA   i j z k
A A A A

where A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2

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 by comparison with direction cosines
written before, we can see that:
 i, j, k, components of uA represent the
Finally, magnitude and coordinate
direction cosines of A. direction angles of A
i.e. uA = cos  i + cos  j + cos  k
Also, cos2  + cos2  + cos2  = 1 A = A uA
 Provided vector ‘A’ lies in a known = A cos i + A cos j + A cos k
octant, this eq’n can be used to
determine one of the coordinate direction = Axi + Ayj + Azk
angles if the other 2 are known.

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2.6 ADDITION & SUBTRACTION OF CARTESIAN
VECTORS

 Consider vectors A and B as shown

A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
B = Bx i + By j + Bz k

 Resultant vector R,

R = A + B = (Ax+ Bx) i + (Ay + By)j + (Az +

Bz)k

 Subtraction,

R’ = A - B = (Ax - Bx) i + (Ay - By)j + (Az -

Bz)k

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 Concurrent Force System
Above concept of vector addition can be
generalized and applied to a system of
several concurrent forces.
The force resultant is the vector sum of all
the forces in the system,
FR = F = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk

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 2.7 POSITION VECTORS
 Concept of a position vector.
 Position vector is important in
formulating the Cartesian force
vector, which is directed between
any two points in space.
 x, y, z Coordinates:
• Right-handed coordinate system is
used.
• Positive z-axis is always directed
upwards
(measures the height of an object).
• x and y axes lie in the horizontal
plane.
• Points in space are located relative
to the origin of coordinates, O.

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POSITION VECTOR
 Position vector r is defined as a fixed vector, which
locates a point in space relative to another point.
e.g. If r extends from the origin, O, to point P (x, y, z),
• Then r can be expressed in Cartesian vector form as
r = xi + yj + zk
• Note how the head-to-tail vector addition of the three
components yields vector r.

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In general, a position vector r may be
directed from point A to point B in
space. (Normally ‘r’ is written as rAB)
By head-to-tail vector addition, we require
rA + r = rB
Solving for r and expressing rA and rB in
Cartesian vector form yields:

r = rB - rA = (xBi + yBj + zBk) – (xAi + yAj + zAk)

OR r = (xB – xA) i + (yB – yA) j + (zB – zA) k

Thus, the i, j, k components of the position vector r may be formed by taking

the coordinates of the tail of the vector, A(xA, yA, zA), and subtracting them
from the corresponding coordinates of the head, B(xB, yB, zB).

NOTE: head-to-tail addition of these three components yields r.

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 2.8 FORCE VECTOR DIRECTED ALONG A LINE

In 3-D static problems, the direction of a force can be specified by

two points through which its line of action passes.

Force F is directed along the

cord AB.
 F can be formulated as a
Cartesian vector,
• Since it has the same direction
and sense as the POSITION
VECTOR r directed from point A
to point B on the cord.
 This common direction is
specified by the unit vector u
= r/r
Hence, F = F u = F ( r/r )
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PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
When F is directed along a line, which extends from point A to point B,
then F can be expressed in Cartesian vector form as follows:
Position vector Determine the position vector r directed from A to B, and
compute its magnitude r.

Unit Vector Determine the unit vector u = r/r which defines

the direction and sense of both r and F.

Force Vector Determine F by combining its magnitude F and direction

u, i.e., F=Fu

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 2.9 DOT PRODUCT
 Sometimes one has to find the angle between two
lines or the components of a force parallel and
perpendicular to a line.
► In 2-D these problems can be readily solved
by trigonometry since the geometry is easy to
visualize.
► In 3-D, however, it is difficult and
consequently vector methods should be
employed.
► The dot product defines a particular method
for multiplying two vectors for solving the
above-mentioned problem.
A . B = AB cos 
Where  is between 0 - 180

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 Laws of Operation

1. Commutative Law:
A.B=B.A
2. Multiplication by a Scalar:
a(A . B) = (aA) . B = A . (aB) = (A . B)a
3. Distributive Law:
A . (B + D) = (A . B) + (A . D)

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 CARTESIAN VECTOR FORMULATION

Dot product of the Cartesian unit vectors may be

determined by using the above eq’n.

e.g. i . i = (1) (1) cos 0 = 1

i . j = (1) (1) cos 90 = 0

Similarly,

i.i=1 j.j=1 k.k=1

i.j=0 i.k=0 k.j=0

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Dot product of two general vectors A and B:

A . B = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) . (Bxi + Byj + Bzk)

Expansion will give,

A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

Thus, to determine the dot product of two Cartesian

vectors, multiply their corresponding x, y, z
components and sum their products algebraically.

NOTE: Vector Dot Product results in a Scalar

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 APPLICATIONS

 Two important applications in mechanics:

1. The angle formed between two vectors or intersection lines.

The angle  between the tails of vectors A and B can be determined

from;
 A B 
  cos 1 
 AB 
 
where 0    180

e.g. If A.B=0

Then  = cos-1 0 = 90

So the vector A will be perpendicular to B.

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2. The components of a vector parallel and
perpendicular to a line.
 The components of vector A parallel to or collinear with line aa’
defined by A,
where A = A cos.
 This component is also called projection of A onto the line.

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 If the direction of the line is specified by unit vector u,
then we can find A directly from the dot product;
A . u = (A)(u) cos
A = A cos  = A . u (since u = 1)
 Hence, the scalar projection of A along a line is
determined from the dot product of A and the unit
vector u which defines the direction of the line.
 The component A represented as a vector will be
given as
A = A cos u = (A . u) u

After this, the component A which is perpendicular to line aa’ can

also be obtained easily (using the right-angle triangle).

A = A – A
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