Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction

In general, what is the finite element method (FEM)?

In other words

The geometry of the overall problem is divided into several

with simple geometry. We know how each element behaves individually, so
we can connect all the elements together to represent the behaviour of the
Boundary and loading conditions are
applied, and the response of the system at all locations can be determined

1
Definition

Boundary problem: A mathematical problem in which one or more

must satisfy a
everywhere within a known domain of independent variables and satisfy
specific conditions on the of the domain.

In other words

In a boundary problem, there is a differential equation that describes

behaviour over a region of interest. Specific conditions are defined on the
boundary.

ie. the differential equation defining the deflection of a beam subject to

lateral load w(x) is:

w(x)
v

What type of problems can FEM be used for?

The finite element method (FEM) can be used for a wide variety of
engineering problems in fields such as:

- solid mechanics
- heat transfer
- fluid dynamics
- electricity and magnetism

2
This course will focus on solid mechanics applications as this was the field
that FEM was originally designed for, and it provides a means for
introducing basic techniques and methods. Applications to heat transfer will
be briefly introduced.

1.2 The Design Process

Finite element analysis (FEA) has become an integral part of the engineering
design process in order to predict the prior to
performing . It also provides a method
for quickly evaluating the effects of changes in
such as the thickness, the cross-sectional area, loading or the material used.

FEA is a very powerful tool, but it must be understood that that quality and
accuracy of the solution will be proportional to the knowledge of the user.
Erroneous results will occur if the user is not aware of such issues as:

Figure 1-1 presents a flow chart outlining how finite element analysis fits
into the design process.

3
 Conceptual design

Preliminary analysis
and design

Is FE analysis
No required Yes

Modify
model
Analytical
solution

No

Yes Yes
Does the design need to
be optimized or modified

No

Prototyping

Testing

Does the design need to

Yes be optimized or modified

No

Fabrication

Figure 1-1: FEM and the design process.

4
1.3 Basic Steps in the Finite Element Method

A typical finite element analysis consists of the following three stages:

Preprocessing:

Solution: the is created and

a set of algebraic equations are solved to determine the

Postprocessing: additional results such as

are generated and are visually represented.

These stages are outlined in Figure 1-2 for a structural analysis.

5
 Define geometry: Import from
CAD package, or create in FE
software

Choose element type: Consider

dimension, shape, lower or
higher order...

Each element type will have its

own shape functions and
element matrix

Define material properties: ie.

Young’s modulus, poisson’s
ratio

Define real constants: ie. area,

thickness, moment of inertia

Mesh: Divide the geometry

into elements

Define loading: ie. apply

forces, moments, displacements

Solve the system of equations

by assembling the global
stiffness matrix and solving for
the unknown variables

Post process to plot stresses,

strains…

Figure 1-2: Steps in a structural finite element analysis

6
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Finite Element
Method

Advantages

- can easily handle very complex geometry

- can handle a wide variety of engineering problems (solid mechanics,
fluids, thermo…)
- can handle complex restraints (contact…)
- can handle complex loading (pressure, varying loads…)
- identify and fix problem areas before performing costly
experimentation
- determine effects of changes in design or operating conditions
- minimize time to market

Disadvantages

7
Remember

There will always be that must be

made in a finite element analysis. The model will never be exact because
finite element analysis is an . The goal is to
approximate the exact solution as closely as possible or to the degree that is
necessary for the design process.

As the number of elements and degrees of freedom in the model increases,

the solution will tend to approach the exact solution. The error associated
with the finite number of degrees of freedom is called the

References Used in These Notes

Cook, R., Finite Element Modeling for Stress Analysis, John Wiley & Sons,
1995.

Hutton, D., Fundamentals of Finite Element Analysis, McGraw Hill, 2004.

Kim N., Sankar B. V., Introduction to Finite Element Analysis and Design.
Wiley, 2009.

Liu, G. R., Quek, S. S., The Finite Element Method, Butterworth

Heinemann, 2003.

Logan, D., A First Course in the Finite Element Method. PWS Publishing,
1993.

Moaveni, S., Finite Element Analysis, Pearson Education, New Jersey, 2003.

8
Chapter 2: Direct Formulation, Spring
Elements
2.1 Introduction

In order to demonstrate how the finite element method works, we use

a simple example of how springs deform under applied load. We will follow
the steps from Figure 1-2 (in a slightly different order) and use
to generate the stiffness matrices.

2.2 Linear Spring as a Finite Element

9
Remember

- The spring itself is a type of

- Each spring must be represented
- are located at the ends of the spring
- Elements can only be connected to each other at
- Springs attached to walls must have
- Spring elements can only
- Spring elements can only
- Spring elements can only be
- of the nodes are the primary values of interest

Example 2.1

Determine the displacement of the rigid bar, the reactions at the walls, and
the force in the 1000kN/m spring using the finite element method (not using
equilibrium equations). Assume that the rigid bar does not rotate.

500kN/m

1kN

1000kN/m
1kN
500kN/m

10
11
 u22 u32
 0  0 0 0 0  0 
 2  − k2 0  u22  f22 f32
 f 2  0 k2
Element 2:  2 =   2 3
 f 3  0 − k2 0  u32 
k2 k2
 0  0 0 0

0   0 
Element 2

 0  0 0 0 0  0  u33 u43
 0  0 0   0  f33
   0 0 f43
Element 3:  3 =  
 f3  0 −k3  u33 
0 k3 3 k3 4
 f 43  0 0 − k3

k3  u43 
Element 3

12
13
2.3 Steps for Solving Systems of Springs Using Direct
Formulation

Mesh:

- Place nodes at the ends of each element. Springs attached to rigid

bars can a node. Springs attached to rigid walls need
nodes to enable calculation of the reaction forces.

- Number the nodes in an order so that the bandwidth is as small as

possible. (See section 2.4)

Element Stiffness Matrices:

- Determine { f } =  k e  {u} for each element showing all nodal

degrees of freedom.

From Example 2.1, element 1 (connects nodes 1 and 3)

u11 u31  f11   k1 0 −k1 0  u11 

    
f11 0  0 0 0 0   0 
f31  1 =  
1 3  f3   −k1 0 k1 0  u31 
 0   0 
k1
0 0 0   0 
Element 1
4 nodes in the problem

Assemble Global Stiffness Matrix:

- Determine {F } = [ K ]{U } by using superposition of the element

stiffness matrices.

14
From Example 2.1

 k1 0 −k1 0 
 0 k2 − k2 0 
[ K ] =  −k − k2 k1 + k2 + k3 − k3 
1
 
 0 0 − k3 k3 

- The overall stiffness relationship between external loads and

displacement is {F } = [ K ]{U } .

- [ K ] is and has values on the diagonal.

Apply Boundary Conditions and Loads:

- If the node can’t move

- If there is an unknown external reaction label the unknown force

- If there is no external reaction or applied load

Solve:

- Solve for the first, then solve for the

- Internal loads are not solved for yet.

Solve for Additional Information:

- Internal loads can be found by subbing the known displacements

into the relationships.

{ f } = [ ke ]{u}
Note: Equilibrium equations cannot be used to solve for reactions or
internal forces as this is not the finite element method! (but it can be used as
a check)

15
2.4 Bandwidth

As we have seen, the global stiffness matrix has coefficients that are
typically positioned . The width of this band is
called the . A larger bandwidth will result in more
therefore it is desirable to have the
bandwidth .

This is achieved by intelligent node numbering where connected nodes are

numbered in order to

1 2 3 4 5

 k1 −k1 0 0 0 
 −k k1 + k2 − k2 0 0 
 1
 0 − k2 k 2 + k3 − k3 0 
 
 0 0 − k3 k3 + k 4 −k4 
 0 0 0 − k4 k4 

1 5 2 3 4

 k1 0 0 0 −k1 
 0 k 2 + k3 − k3 0 −k2 

 0 − k3 k3 + k 4 − k4 0 
 
 0 0 − k4 k4 0 
 −k1 − k2 0 0 k1 + k2 

16
2.5 Loads, Boundary Conditions and Singularity

- The model must be constrained sufficiently so that the system of

equations can be solved.

- If det |A| = 0, the matrix is , there is no inverse, and the

system cannot be solved.

- Element and global stiffness matrices by themselves are singular.

- By applying sufficient loads and boundary conditions, the system

of equations required to solve for the displacements can be
simplified to become non-singular.

- When det |A| = 0, it physically represents an

17
Discussion: For the systems shown below, solve for the unknowns and
draw what this system physically represents. Do you think these models
could be solved using a linear, static finite element solver?

 0   2 −2  U1  −10   2 −2  U1 

 =    =  
10   −2 2  U 2   10   −2 2  U 2 

18
Chapter 3: Direct Formulation, Bar
Elements
3.1 Introduction

We now progress from spring elements to bar elements, which

essentially behave in the same manner. We will again use the
method to generate the stiffness matrices. The
transformation matrix will be used to enable us to analyse

3.2 2D Bar Elements

2D bar elements have the same characteristics as spring elements

(resist axial load) except that:

- External loads can be applied at nodes

- The coordinate system (x axial) may not
match the coordinate system (X horizontal).
- can be calculated for bar elements.
- Bar elements cannot resist

- In compression, each member must be represented by

19
A typical planar truss structure would be modeled using 2D bar elements as
the connections between members (ie. truss plates) are not designed to
transfer moment, and are therefore considered to be pinned.

The system must be designed to resist the applied loading.

20
Discussion: By drawing free body diagrams of the loading point, discuss
whether these axial structures are stable and whether or not they could be
solved using a linear finite element model of bar elements.

1
P

1 2

1 2

The force-deformation (∆) relationship of a bar is given by:

3.2.1
This can be written in terms of an element stiffness relationship in the
element coordinate system as:

3.2.2

21
 This relationship defines the deformation of the bar in the
coordinate system and must be transformed into the coordinate
system before assembling the global stiffness matrix, or applying external
loads.

3.3 Element Transformation

In order to transform the element stiffness relationship from the local

coordinate system into the global coordinate system, we must determine the
global components of the local forces and displacements.
U2Y, F2Ye
u2
f2 U2X, F2Xe
u1 2 2
f1
θ
1 1

The local displacements are written in terms of global displacements as:

3.3.1

3.3.2

Similarly, the local element forces are transformed into the global coordinate
system using the same transformation matrix [ R ] .

22
 3.3.3

Sub 3.3.2 into 3.2.2 and apply [ R ] to both sides,

T

3.3.4

 cos θ f1   F1 X e 
 sin θ f   e
 1 F 
The left side becomes   which equals  1Y e 
cos θ f 2   F2 X 
 sin θ f 2   F2Y e 

3.3.5

Performing the matrix operations on the element stiffness matrix,

The element stiffness matrix in the global coordinate system becomes:

3.3.6

23
Tip

Determine the origin of the element coordinate system based on keeping θ

between .

3.4 Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix

The global stiffness matrix is assembled as demonstrated for spring

elements (Section 2.3) by transforming each element stiffness matrix into the
global coordinate system, and using the method of superposition.

Example 3.1

Determine the horizontal displacement at node 3, the displacement along the

incline at node 2, and the reaction perpendicular to the incline at node 2 for
the following plane truss structure. Let E = 210GPa, A = 6.00x10-4m2 for
elements 1 and 2, and A = 6√2x10-4m2 for element 3.

1m 2
1000kN
3 2 Y
1m 1
3
1 45˚
X

24
25
26
27
3.5 Element Strain and Stress

For bar elements, we need to be able to determine the

When determining the strain within an element, we need to introduce

the concept of a which we will look at in more
detail in Chapter 4.

3.5.1 Element Shape Function

Definition

Shape function (trial function, interpolation function): Functions (ie. N1(x),

N2(x)) that define the expression for the field variable in terms of the nodal
variables.

3.5.1
where: φ = field variable
M = number of element degrees of freedom
Ni = shape function

In other words

Shape function (trial function, interpolation function): For a structural

analysis, the shape function (Ni) helps define

For a bar element:

28
For a bar element with two degrees of freedom (x direction at each node),

3.5.2

The simplest form of the shape functions is a polynomial. A bar element

produces a linear displacement response by defining:

3.5.3

Substituting the shape functions into 3.5.2.

3.5.4

The coefficients are determined by applying nodal boundary conditions.

u1 u2
x
1 2
x u(x)

We know that

3.5.5

We know that

29
The displacement along the length of a bar is given by:

u1 u2
3.5.6
x
Where the shape functions are: 1 2
x u(x)

In matrix form:

3.5.7

Remember: The order of the node numbering of the bar matters.

30
3.5.2 Element Strains

The axial strain in a bar is given by:

3.5.8

Since the output from solving the {F } = [ K ]{U } for the entire structure will be
displacements in the coordinate system, equation 3.5.7
needs to be rewritten in terms of

{u} = [ R ]{U } 3.5.9

The axial strain in a bar is given by the following equation:

3.5.10

3.5.3 Element Stresses

For the case of a bar element, we only have stress in the axial direction.
Applying the constitutive equation, we obtain the following relationship
between axial stress and axial strain.

The axial stress in a bar is given by:

3.5.11

31
3.5.4 Element Forces

The element forces are determined using the global displacements (U1X…)
that have already been solved for.

The displacements are transformed back into

element displacements using equation 3.3.2.

U1 X 
 u1  cos θ sin θ 0 0   U1Y 
 =   3.3.2
u2  
0 0 cos θ sin θ  U 2 X 
 
R U 2Y 
Apply the local element stiffness equation 3.2.2 to determine the internal
force at the end nodes.

 f1   k −k   u1 
 =  
 f 2   −k k  u2 

The force in an element is determined by:

3.5.12

Remember

The resulting internal forces on an element must be equal and opposite.

32
Remember

The resulting internal forces are drawn on the element according to the
in order to determine if the
member is in compression or tension.

Example 3.2

For the truss analyzed in Example 3.1, determine the stress in element 2 and
the internal force in element 1. What do the results tell us about the design
of this structure?

33
34
Example 3.3

For the structure in Example 3.1, what load is necessary to displace node 3
by 10mm to the left?

35
36
Chapter 4: Shape Functions and
Common Elements
4.1 Shape Functions

4.1.1 Definition of a Displacement Function

Definition

Displacement Function: Describes the displacement of a certain location, in

a given direction within an element or domain.

For example,

Or written in terms of shape functions,

Where Ni(x) are of the same form as u(x).

37
4.1.2 Definition of a Shape Function

We revisit what we introduced in section 3.5.1.

Definition

Shape function (interpolation function): Functions (ie. N1(x), N2(x)) that

define the expression for the field variable in terms of the nodal variables.
M
φ e ( x, y, z ) = ∑ N i ( x, y, z )φi 3.5.1
i =1

where: φ = field variable

M = number of element degrees of freedom
Ni = shape function

In other words

Shape function (interpolation function): For a structural analysis, the shape

function (Ni) helps define how the displacement varies within the element.

For a bar element:

u(x) = N1(x)u1 + N2(x)u2

The shape function tells us how much of each nodal displacement is needed
to calculate the displacement at any location along the bar.

Where: N1 (x) = (1 - x/L)

N2 (x) = (x/L)

38
Remember

When we talk about what type of function is

necessary to represent the displacement field (constant, linear…), the same
type of function is used for the shape functions.

ie. using shape functions N1(x) = a0 + a1x and N2(x) = b0 + b1x give the
following displacement function:

39
4.1.3 Displacement/Shape Function Criteria

Displacement/shape functions should satisfy the following three criteria:

1. Continuity: The displacement function should be

within the element.

2. Compatibility: The displacement function should provide

for all degrees of freedom at each node for 1D
elements, and along common boundary lines for 2D elements, and
along common surfaces for 3D elements. Compatibility will occur
automatically as long as elements

40
 3. Completeness: The field variable (ie. displacement) must be able to
take on a . This is necessary to enable
to be represented, and is achieved by having a
constant term in the displacement/shape function.

For example, consider the displacement function

 x x
u ( x) =−
1  u1 +   u2 with shape functions of the form a0 + a1x.
 L L

4.1.4 Polynomial Forms

Displacement functions (and shape functions) are typically

as they satisfy the three criteria from section 4.1.3, and they are easily
These functions are written in
terms of the

For 1D elements:

For 2D elements:

For 3D elements :

Remember

The polynomials representing the displacements must have the same total
number of constants as the number of degrees of freedom for the element.
u1 u2

A 1D bar element has degrees of freedom (2 nodes can translate in

the x direction),

41
A 2D triangle has degrees of freedom (3 nodes can translate in the x
and y direction),

In order to satisfy the three criteria from section 4.1.3 in all coordinate
systems, the polynomials must exhibit . That is,
the functional form does not change under a translation or rotation of
coordinates. In order for a polynomial to be geometrically isotropic, it must
be where the variables appear in equal and opposite pairs.

The polynomial can be either (contain all terms for that

particular order) or

a)
b)
a) Pascal triangle for polynomials in two dimensions, b) Pascal pyramid for polynomials
in three dimensions. [Hutton]

42
For example,
P(x, y) = a0 + a1x + a2y + a3x2 + a4xy + a5y2

P(x, y) = a0 + a1x + a2y + a3x2

P(x, y) = a0 + a1x + a2y + a3xy

4.2 Common Structural Elements

4.2.1 Common Lower Order Elements

Line Elements (local coordinate system in x)

Bar Elements: These elements represent a linear distribution of axial

displacement along the element such that:

x
u(x)

Transverse Beam Elements (without axial dof): These elements represent a

cubic distribution of transverse displacement along the element. They are
still considered to be lower order elements because they do not have midside
nodes.

43
Planar Elements (local coordinate system in x-y)

2D Triangular Elements: These elements have 3 nodes, and represent a

linear distribution of displacement such that:

y v
v ( x, y ) =b0 + b1 x + b2 y
x
u

2D Rectangular Elements: These elements have 4 nodes, and represent a

linear distribution of displacement such that:

y
v
x
u

Solid Elements (local coordinate system in x-y-z)

Tetrahedral Elements: These elements have 4 nodes, and represent a linear

distribution of displacement such that:

y
v
u
x
w v ( x, y, z ) =b0 + b1 x + b2 y + b3 z
z
w ( x, y, z ) =c0 + c1 x + c2 y + c3 z

44
 Brick Elements: These elements have 8 nodes, and represent a linear
distribution of displacement such that:

y
v
x u
z w

u ( x, y, z ) =a0 + a1 x + a2 y + a3 z + a4 xy + a5 xz + a6 yz + a7 xyz
v ( x, y, z ) =b0 + b1 x + b2 y + b3 z + b4 xy + b5 xz + b6 yz + b7 xyz
w ( x, y, z ) =c0 + c1 x + c2 y + c3 z + c4 xy + c5 xz + c6 yz + c7 xyz

4.2.2 Higher Order Elements

In finite element analysis, solution accuracy is judged in terms of

convergence as the element mesh is refined. The two major methods of
mesh refinement are h-refinement and p-refinement.

h-refinement:

p-refinement:

Example showing convergence as the element mesh is refined using h-refinement.

[Hutton]

45
Elements with a polynomial of order 2 or higher are typically called
elements. These elements are capable of more
closely representing the deformation of structures as shown in the following
examples.

u u u

1 element 1 element 1 element

x x x

Higher order 2D shell,

ANSYS theory manual

Keeping in mind that the polynomial representing the displacement must

have the same number of constants as the number of nodal degrees of
freedom, extra nodes are needed within the element. These nodes are
equally spaced along the element edges and are called
Elements with midside nodes are typically called

Quadratic bar elements: These elements represent a quadratic distribution of

axial displacement along the element such that:

46
6 node, 2D triangular elements: These elements have 6 nodes, and represent
a quadratic distribution of displacement such that:

x v ( x, y ) =b0 + b1 x + b2 y + b3 x 2 + b4 xy + b5 y 2

10 node tetrahedral elements: These elements have 10 nodes. They

represent a quadratic distribution of displacement such that:

x
z

u ( x, y, z ) =a0 + a1 x + a2 y + a3 z + a4 x 2 + a5 y 2 + a6 z 2 + a7 xy + a8 xz + a9 yz
v ( x, y, z ) =b0 + b1 x + b2 y + b3 z + b4 x 2 + b5 y 2 + b6 z 2 + b7 xy + b8 xz + b9 yz
w ( x, y, z ) =c0 + c1 x + c2 y + c3 z + c4 x 2 + c5 y 2 + c6 z 2 + c7 xy + c8 xz + c9 yz

20 nodes brick elements: These elements have 20 nodes, and represent a

quadratic distribution of displacement.

x
z

47
Elements with higher order functions also exist, such as cubic functions
which have 2 midside nodes along each edge, or quartic functions which
have 3 midside nodes.

Remember

Each of the displacement functions shown above (these were shown in terms
of location) can also be expressed in terms of nodal displacements and shape
functions. The shape function will be of the same form as the displacement
function.

For example

y u ( x, y ) =a0 + a1 x + a2 y
v
v ( x, y ) =b0 + b1 x + b2 y
x
u

48
Discussion: Why would you want the element to be able to represent rigid
body motion, when we saw previously that rigid body motion causes
singular matrices that cannot be solved? Give an example where elements
are undergoing rigid body motion but the structure is still in static
equilibrium.

Discussion: Can you use higher order and lower order elements in the same
model and still obtain accurate results?

49
4.3 Determining Shape Functions

Once the general polynomial for the shape function has been
determined, the constants (an, bn, cn) can be determined using many different
methods. Two methods are presented in this section:

4.3.1 Direct Application of Boundary Conditions

We saw in section 3.5.1 how the shape functions for a 1D linear bar element
were determined using direct application of boundary conditions. We see
that the same method can be used for more complex elements.

For a 2D triangular element

(x3, y3)
y

x
(x2, y2)

(x1, y1)

At node 1 the displacement is φ1

In matrix form

Solve for the coefficient a0, a1, a2 by inverting the matrix.

50
 1
=a0 φ1 ( x2 y3 − x3 y2 ) + φ2 ( x3 y1 − x1 y3 ) + φ3 ( x1 y2 − x2 y1 ) 
2A 
1
=a1 φ1 ( y2 − y3 ) + φ2 ( y3 − y1 ) + φ3 ( y1 − y2 ) 
2A 
1
=a2 φ1 ( x3 − x2 ) + φ2 ( x1 − x3 ) + φ3 ( x2 − x1 ) 
2A 

Where A is the area of the triangle.

Sub into the expression φ(x,y) = a0 + a1x + a2y and factor out φ1, φ2, φ3

Where the shape functions are:

1
N 2 (=
x, y ) ( x3 y1 − x1 y3 ) + ( y3 − y1 ) x + ( x1 − x3 ) y 
2A 
1
N 3 (=
x, y ) ( x1 y2 − x2 y1 ) + ( y1 − y2 ) x + ( x2 − x1 ) y 
2A 

4.3.2 Lagrange Interpolation Polynomials

Another method for determining the shape functions is to use Lagrange

interpolation polynomials.

For a 1D element,

( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) ... ( x − x j −1 )( x − x j +1 ) ...
N j ( x) = 4.3.1
(x j − x1 )( x j − x2 ) ... ( x j − x j −1 )( x j − x j +1 ) ...

xj = nodal position

This method can also be extended to 2D and 3D.

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Example 4.1

Determine the second shape function for a 1D quadratic bar element.

A quadratic element will have the following displacement function:

Since there are constants, nodes are needed within the element

The displacement can be written as:

where u1, u2 … are the displacements of each of the nodes.

Using Lagrange interpolation polynomials

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