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Chapter 8
Chapter 8 – Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
Multiple Choice Questions
1. When the field of cognitive psychology first became prominent, it was considered a revolutionary
development because it was a radical departure from _____.
A. behaviorism
B. psychoanalysis
C. the study of mental processes
D. the study of artificial intelligence
Answer: A
Feedback: The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology
Bloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Low
APA Learning Outcome: 2.2
Topic: Cognition
2. When cognitive psychologists use the computer as an analogy to explain the relationship between cognition
and the brain, the brain is described as the computer’s _____.
A. hardware
B. firewall
C. hard drive
D. software
Answer: A
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Cognition
3. Which of the following holds true about the statement that computers provide an oversimplified model of
human information processing?
A. Computers are currently unable to perform any tasks better than humans.
B. Computer information is far too complex for such a comparison to be accurate.
C. Computer information is too mathematically based for such a comparison to be accurate.
D. Computer information input is pre-coded and ambiguities are removed before processing.
Answer: D
Bloom’s Level: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Cognition
4. Cognitive psychologists are interested in examining the process of:

A. problem solving.
B. clinical diagnosis.
C. classical conditioning.
D. operant conditioning.
Answer: A
King, The Science of Psychology, 3e TB-8 | 1
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Chapter 8
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Cognition
5. Alice, Natalie’s roommate, argues that computers can perform several complex tasks better and more
accurately than humans. However, Natalie counters her argument by stating that humans alone are capable of:
A. developing new learning goals.
B. performing statistical operations.
C. evaluating loan applications.
D. compiling new information.
Answer: A
Bloom’s Level: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Cognition
6. Kate, a member of the sorority at Quantasia State University, argues that AI machines will become intent on
domination of the human race as soon as they realize that they are intellectually superior to humans. As a
psychology major, Laura scoffs at this position and argues that AI machines will never come to the realization
that they are smarter than humans because they:
A. lack the ability to compile information.
B. lack the capacity for self-awareness.
C. cannot complete tasks that involve evaluation.
D. cannot perform numerical operations accurately.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Cognition
7. Approaches that attempt to explain observable behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that
cannot be directly observed by individuals fall under _____ psychology.
A. psychoanalytic
B. behavioral
C. cognitive
D. biological
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Cognitive Approach
8. Concepts refer to:

A. mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
Chapter 8
B. appropriate ways to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.
C. unique strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem.
D. specific reasons behind linguistic differences between ethnic groups.
Answer: A
Feedback: Concepts
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Concepts
9. Dan is at an international food fest with his brother Jude. When Dan is served a dish of Mopane worm stew,
Jude tells him reassuringly, “That’s food!” and Dan comprehends his statement regarding the concept of food.
Which of the following characteristics of concepts has been illustrated in this scenario?
A. Concepts facilitate generalization.
B. Concepts facilitate association between experiences and objects.
C. Concepts aid memory.
D. Concepts provide clues about how to react to a particular object.
Answer: D
Feedback: Concepts
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Concepts
10. On her first visit to Quantasia, Jessica, a traveler, visits a restaurant near a highway that serves traditional
cuisine. She learns that such kinds of restaurants are termed as “matam.” According to the characteristics of a
concept, which of the following characteristics has been illustrated in this scenario?
A. Concepts provide clues about how to react to a particular object.
B. Concepts aid memory.
C. Concepts facilitate association between experiences and objects.
D. Concepts facilitate generalization.
Answer: D
Feedback: Concepts
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Concepts
11. Charlotte, a three-year-old girl, learns that a doll is an object with which she can play alone or with her
friends. Which of the following characteristics of concepts has been illustrated in this scenario?
A. Concepts facilitate association between experiences and objects.
B. Concepts facilitate generalization.
C. Concepts provide clues about how to react to a particular object.
D. Concepts aid memory.
Answer: A
Feedback: Concepts
Difficulty: Medium
Chapter 8
Topic: Concepts
12. Neil has been riding his bike to work for the last five years. Which of the following characteristics of
concepts is being illustrated in this statement?
A. Concepts aid memory.
B. Concepts facilitate generalization.
C. Concepts facilitate association between experiences and objects.
D. Concepts provide clues about how to react to a particular object.
Answer: A
Feedback: Concepts
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Concepts
13. Which of the following methods developed to understand the structure and function of concepts emphasizes
that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most
typical items in that category and look for a “family resemblance” with that item’s properties?
A. The prototype model
B. Game theory
C. The scientific method
D. Mathematical induction
Answer: A
Feedback: Concepts
Difficulty: Easy
Topic: Concepts
14. In everyday situations, finding and framing problems can be difficult because most real-life problems:
A. are vague and ill defined.
B. require employing complex operations.
C. cannot be solved by the average person.
D. do not require openness to experience.
Answer: A
Feedback: Problem Solving
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Problem Solving
15. Levi Hutchins, a young clockmaker, resolved to rise at 4 A.M. every morning. This resolution motivated
Hutchins to invent the alarm clock. Which of the following was most likely Hutchins’s first step in solving the
problem of waking up early?
A. Rethink and redefine the problem
B. Find and frame the problem
C. Evaluate the solutions
D. Employ good problem-solving strategies
Answer: B
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Medium
16. Sam manages a fast-food restaurant. He is frustrated because employees often call in sick at the last minute
before the start of their shift. Given that Sam recognizes this problem, which of the following is the next
immediate step that he should take to solve this problem?
A. Sam should call a meeting with all his employees and explain the problem to them.
B. Sam should threaten to fire anyone who calls in sick just prior to the start of their shift.
C. Sam should evaluate his employee policies.
D. Sam should define the problem in detail.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
17. Freisha intends to learn cooking but is confused about the type of cuisine she aims to learn. According to the
steps in problem solving, the first step that must be taken by her is to:
A. evaluate the solutions.
B. develop good problem-solving strategies.
C. find and frame the problem.
D. rethink and redefine the problem.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
18. Which of the following statements is true of subgoals?

A. Working backward in establishing subgoals should be typically avoided.
B. They are initial goals that put the individual in a better position for reaching a final solution.
C. They are devised while developing problem-solving strategies.
D. They are used to evaluate the solutions.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
19. Claudia has bought a recipe book that gives her step-by-step procedures to prepare Italian cuisines. This
scenario illustrates the use of _____.
A. heuristics
B. algorithms
Chapter 8
C. prototypes
D. concepts
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
20. Heuristics differ from algorithms in that heuristics:

A. are slow.
B. guarantee a solution to a problem.
C. are complex strategies that suggest a solution to a problem.
D. can lead to different answers to a given problem.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
21. An effective way to strategize the organization of subgoals is to:

A. work forward in the planning process.
B. limit the number of subgoals to three or less.
C. create a minimum of six or seven subgoals.
D. work backward in the planning process.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
22. Diana has to study four chapters of management information systems for her test tomorrow. If she decides
to use the problem-solving strategy of adopting subgoals, she must:
A. cram the night before the test.
B. breakdown the topics to be studied and complete each within the time frame.
C. decide to do a group study with her friends.
D. study only the larger topics and ignore the smaller topics.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
23. Veronica has to cook dinner for 30 people this Saturday. Moreover, her apartment is a mess, and she has
nothing suitable to wear for the party. Hence, she decides to do her laundry on Thursday night, buy the
Chapter 8
groceries on Friday, clean the apartment on Saturday morning, and cook dinner by Saturday evening. This
process of defining intermediate problems is known as:
A. creating subgoals.
B. using algorithms.
C. using heuristics.
D. fixation.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
24. Who would benefit the most from defining subgoals?

A. Andy has to go to the gym.
B. Zach has to wash the dishes.
C. Todd has to complete a science fair project.
D. Pedro has to solve a few algebra sums by evening.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
25. Who would benefit the most from defining subgoals?

A. Jake has to cook pasta for supper.
B. Billie has to develop a landscape design for his client.
C. Suki has to watch a movie with her friend.
D. Chris has to go on a date.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
26. Jim needs a backyard shed to house his motorcycle, and even though he has never built one, he decides to
do it himself. He buys a book of professionally drawn detailed shed plans that provide step-by-step instructions.
In this situation, Jim is using:
A. algorithms.
B. heuristics.
C. prototypes.
D. shortcut strategies.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Chapter 8
27. Shane is a sales representative and uses MapQuest to get driving directions to his clients’ offices. Thus,
Shane uses _____ to get to his destinations.
A. shortcut strategies
B. heuristics
C. prototypes
D. algorithms
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
28. Which of the following is the main disadvantage of using algorithms?

A. They only work for large problems.
B. They are very similar to the trial-and-error method.
C. Correct solutions are not guaranteed.
D. Finding solutions may take a long time.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
29. Ivan has misplaced his room keys. Which of the following would he do if he decides to use an algorithmic
approach to find them?
A. He will avoid searching and instead get a replacement key made.
B. He will break open the door.
C. He will call his wife to get the spare keys.
D. He will go through each drawer in his house.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
30. Which of the following is the main difference between algorithms and heuristics?
A. Unlike heuristics, algorithms lead to different answers to a given problem.
B. Heuristics take more time than algorithms.
C. Unlike heuristics, algorithms always guarantee a solution.
D. Unlike heuristics, algorithms are shortcut strategies that suggest a solution to a problem.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Chapter 8
31. Which of the following is true of algorithms and heuristics for solving real-life problems?
A. Heuristics are shortcut strategies.
B. Algorithms lead to different answers to a given problem.
C. Heuristics guarantee a solution to a problem.
D. Algorithms are faster than heuristics.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
32. Jake developed a study plan for his Graduate Record Examination and completed his paper on Tuesday.
According to the steps in problem solving, the next immediate step that must be taken by him is to:
A. employ good problem-solving strategies.
B. find and frame the problem.
C. rethink and redefine the problem.
D. evaluate his performance.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
33. Jacob received his score on math paper and realized that he performed poorly in the test. According to the
steps in problem solving, the next step that must be taken by him is to:
A. ignore all the subgoals created by him during the problem-solving process.
B. rethink and redefine his problem.
C. employ heuristics rather than algorithms as the problem-solving strategy.
D. merely frame the problem in a vague way.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
34. Which of the following is a characteristic of good problem solvers?

A. Self-doubt
B. Humility
C. Groupthink
D. Risk avoidance
Answer: B
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Low
35. Which of the following is an example of functional fixedness?

A. Melissa is unaware of the features of her new iPod.
B. Cindy puts her jacket on a coat hanger.
C. Roberto uses his baseball glove to play catch.
D. Albert cannot find another use for his leftover shingles.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Fixation
36. Monique routinely uses a shredder to shred her paper mail into confetti-sized pieces of paper. When packing
her glassware to move into a new apartment, she runs out of protective Styrofoam packing material. Suddenly,
Monique remembers about the shredded junk mail confetti which she could use as packing material. From the
above scenario, it can be concluded that Monique has:
A. overcome functional fixedness.
B. used a heuristic to solve her packing problem.
C. used an algorithm to solve her packing problem.
D. demonstrated object fixation.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Fixation
37. Which of the following would businesses need to avoid for them to be successful over a period of many
years?
A. Algorithms
B. Insight learning
C. Functional fixedness
D. Heuristics
Answer: C
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Fixation
38. Which of the following best explains being cognitively flexible?

A. The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome
B. Recognizing that options are available and adapting to the situation
C. The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information
D. Fixating on a thing’s usual functions
Chapter 8
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Fixation
39. Human beings will often reason from the specific to the general. That is, people often form general rules and
concepts based on specific experiences and examples. This type of reasoning is termed as:
A. deductive reasoning.
B. retrospective reasoning.
C. inductive reasoning.
D. descriptive reasoning.
Answer: C
Feedback: Reasoning and Decision Making
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
40. Bertha met two students from another school at a convention. She enjoyed their company a great deal and
was very impressed with how nice they were. Bertha now believes that all the students from that school are nice
and is therefore considering transferring to that school. According to the methods of reasoning, Bertha is using
_____ reasoning in this scenario.
A. inductive
B. functional
C. critical
D. deductive
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
41. Carlos believes that all of the people from another part of his town are snobs. He is scheduled to perform
with some students from that part of the town in an all-county musical presentation. If he assumes that these
students are also rich and snobby, he is using _____ reasoning.
A. inductive
B. functional
C. critical
D. deductive
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
Chapter 8
42. Whenever scientists use theories and intuitions to make specific predictions and then evaluate their
predictions by making further observations, _____ is at work.
A. inductive reasoning
B. reflective disclosure
C. deductive reasoning
D. functional fixedness
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
43. Which of the following statements is true of inductive reasoning?

A. It involves drawing conclusions based on facts.
B. It refers to reasoning from a general principle that individuals know to be true to a specific instance.
C. It is illustrated when psychologists and other scientists use theories to make predictions and then evaluate
their predictions by making further observations.
D. It involves bottom-up processing.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
44. If Professor Wagner were to build a robot that functions using only automatic processes, we would expect it
to make decisions using _____.
A. algorithms
B. functional fixedness
C. heuristics
D. conscious reflection
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Decision Making
45. Based on his observation of a group of patients who suffer from a psychological disorder and display
immense creativity, Collin develops a theory of creativity among patients with that disorder. According to the
types of reasoning, it can be concluded that Collin has employed _____ reasoning.
A. deductive
B. inductive
C. automatic
D. controlled
Answer: B
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
46. Jennifer, a senior HR recruiter, perceives students from Edinkyo University to be industrious employees. As
a result, she concludes that Carol, a fresher from the same university, will be an asset for the company.
According to the types of reasoning, it can be concluded that Jennifer has employed _____ reasoning.
A. automatic
B. controlled
C. deductive
D. inductive
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
47. Greta was confused about choosing medicine or law as options for her undergraduate studies. However, she
followed her intuition and chose to pursue her undergraduate studies in law. According to the systems of
reasoning and decision making, it can be concluded that Greta employed the _____ system of reasoning and
decision making.
A. controlled
B. automatic
C. inductive
D. deductive
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
48. Akira is attempting to solve Sudoku for the first time. According to the systems of reasoning and decision
making, it can be concluded that Akira is employing the _____ system of reasoning and decision making.
A. deductive
B. inductive
C. controlled
D. automatic
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
49. Joel and Zeus watch a soccer game between team A and team B on T.V. Team A wins the match and Zeus
exclaims, “I knew team A would win this match!” According to the biases and heuristics in decision making, it
can be concluded that Zeus is employing _____ in this scenario.
Chapter 8
A. confirmation bias
B. hindsight bias
C. the availability heuristic
D. the representativeness heuristic
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Biases
50. Bonnie and Clyde have decided to purchase a new entertainment center. As this will be a major financial
investment, they spend a lot of time researching their options. Helen, a psychology student, advises them to
distract themselves with an alternate activity before they come to any purchase decisions. Is this a good advice?
A. No, research has shown that people who approach complex decisions in a consciously deliberate fashion and
then act immediately make better choices.
B. No, research has shown that people make better decisions when they study their options and act decisively
before additional information causes them to change their minds.
C. Yes, research has shown that people who approach complex decisions after being distracted are more likely
to make better decisions.
D. Yes, research has shown that a few hours of sleep is necessary before making a smart decision.
Answer: C
Difficulty: High
51. Cathy has long believed that all her supervisors are cranky and disagreeable individuals. According to the
confirmation bias, after being transferred to a new department, which of the following will Cathy most likely do
on her first day in the new supervisor’s department?
A. She will forget about the things she has thought about her previous supervisors.
B. She will look for positive behaviors on the part of her supervisor.
C. She will share her feelings with the new supervisor.
D. She will look for negative behaviors on the part of the supervisor.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Confirmation Bias
52. Maria is extremely active in politics. She has strong conservative beliefs about what is correct and what is
not. Each day when she reads the newspaper, she pays close attention to the editorial section in particular.
According to the confirmation bias, what will she do when she reads them?
A. She will read all of the editorials to get a balanced view of issues.
B. She will only read the editorials that she agrees with.
C. She will read the editorials that she disagrees with to get another perspective on issues.
D. She will only read the editorials that are devoid of political issues.
Chapter 8
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
53. Many smokers like to associate themselves to the late George Burns, a famous actor who smoked cigars
continuously for many years and lived to be nearly a hundred, as evidence that smoking is relatively harmless.
These individuals tend to ignore the thousands of people who die every year from lung cancer. They are
illustrating:
A. the availability heuristic.
B. confirmation bias.
C. the representativeness heuristic.
D. hindsight bias.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
54. After the outcome of an election is announced, George states that he knew all along what the outcome
would be. This is a form of:
A. confirmation bias.
B. hindsight bias.
C. availability heuristic.
D. representativeness heuristic.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Biases
55. Every week during football season, Fred and his friends have fun following the local high school teams.
Before the games, Fred never really talks too much about how the games will turn out. On Monday, however, it
is a different scenario altogether. Fred is more than happy to share with his friends that the results of the games
turned out exactly as he thought they would. Thus, it can be concluded that Fred is demonstrating:
A. overconfidence bias.
B. hindsight bias.
D. deductive reasoning.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Biases
Chapter 8
56. Naomi intends to become a pilot. However, her father refuses to comply with her intention. He states that
the women in his family have always been in the academic field and persuades her to pursue teaching as her
future career. According to the biases and heuristics in decision making, it can be concluded that Naomi’s father
has employed _____ in this scenario.
A. the representativeness heuristic
B. the availability heuristic
C. confirmation bias
D. hindsight bias
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
57. Alex intends to board a flight this evening to another country for an official visit. However, his wife
prevents him from boarding the flight stating that there is a likelihood of danger to his life owing to several
plane crashes that occurred this month. According to the biases and heuristics in decision making, it can be
concluded that Alex’s wife mirrors the _____ in this scenario.
A. base rate neglect
B. hemispatial neglect
C. representativeness heuristic
D. availability heuristic
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
58. Gwyneth views the exceptional ratings of a pair of jeans on an online shopping website and decides to
purchase it over the weekend. However, her friend who has a similar pair of jeans complains about the poor
quality of the material which prevents Gwyneth from making the online purchase. According to the biases and
heuristics in decision making, it can be concluded that Gwyneth mirrors _____ in this scenario.
B. hindsight bias
C. the base rate neglect
D. the hemispatial neglect
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
59. The fact that Jordan hears about airplane crashes on the news more often than he hears about automobile
crashes may lead him to believe that he is more likely to die in a plane than in a car. This scenario exemplifies:
A. confirmation bias.
Chapter 8
B. hindsight bias.
C. availability heuristic.
D. representativeness heuristic.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
60. Harry intends to pursue his career in the armed forces. However, his mother prevents him from applying for
a position in the armed forces. She fears that she will lose her son just like she lost her husband who died during
his regime in the armed forces. Hence, it can be concluded that Harry’s mother has used _____.
C. hindsight bias
D. the representativeness heuristic
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
61. Sharon had a major argument with Terence, her fifty-year-old general manager in her previous company,
whom she perceives as being arrogant and snobbish. Following the argument, she quit her job and found a job
in another company and is currently working under Ian who is about the same age as Terence. She now feels
that Ian is also arrogant and snobbish. According to the biases and heuristics in decision making, it can be
concluded that Sharon is likely to employ _____ in this scenario.
A. availability heuristic
B. representativeness heuristic
C. base rate neglect
D. hindsight bias
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
62. Samantha believes that Gabe is a member of the football team because he is muscular and wears gym shorts.
This typically illustrates:
A. the availability heuristic.
B. confirmation bias.
C. the representativeness heuristic.
D. hindsight bias.
Answer: C
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
63. Hillary meets her brother’s friend Drake who is a tall and lanky man. She concludes that Drake might be a
basketball player for his college team. According to the biases and heuristics in decision making, it can be
concluded that Hillary mirrors _____ in this scenario.
A. the representativeness heuristic
C. confirmation bias
D. hindsight bias
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
64. Norah is employing the process of _____ since she intends to oppose the existing views regarding feminism
in post-modern era.
A. convergent thinking
B. divergent thinking
C. critical thinking
D. automatic thinking
Answer: C
Feedback: Thinking Critically and Creatively
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Critical Thinking
65. Sandra is most likely to seek out information that refutes the existing hypothesis regarding the relationship
between smoking and dementia when she engages in _____.
B. critical thinking
C. convergent thinking
D. hindsight bias
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
66. Which of the following describes the trait of a critical thinker?

A. Grasping the deeper meaning of ideas
B. Providing a single accurate solution to a problem
C. Relying on the opinion of more experienced others
D. Practicing groupthink
Chapter 8
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
67. The concept of mindfulness refers to:

A. the state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things.
B. the state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities.
C. thinking that is flexible and open to questioning; it is not dogmatic or categorical.
D. suppressing unconscious thoughts and conflicts within the individual’s mind.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Mindfullness
68. Which of the following individuals is LEAST likely to exhibit mindfulness as part of their regular job
responsibilities?
A. An administrative assistant
B. A detective at a crime scene
C. The pilot of a plane
D. An usher at a movie theater
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Mindfullness
69. According to Ellen Langer, an individual’s routine of engaging in meditation every morning is an example
of _____.
A. divergent thinking
B. open-minded thinking
C. mindful behavior
D. automatic behavior
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Mindfullness
70. Henry, the marketing team lead of Shield Corp, always consults his team members prior to making any
important decisions. This, in turn, indicates that Henry engages in _____ during the process of decision making.
A. convergent thinking
B. open-minded thinking
Chapter 8
C. inductive reasoning
D. deductive reasoning
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Mindfullness
71. Adrian is solving mathematical equations in his classroom. Which of the following processes of thinking is
he likely to be engaged in at present?
A. Convergent thinking
B. Automatic thinking
C. Divergent thinking
D. Passive thinking
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Creativity
72. Being receptive to other ways of looking at things is referred to as _____.

A. critical thinking
B. mindfulness
C. convergent thinking
D. open-mindedness
Answer: D
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Mindfullness
73. Lisa, a marketing manager, has suggested using crowdsourcing to come up with ideas for advertising. She
has found a number of people who are ready to volunteer to answer a questionnaire and be a part of a focus
group. Which of the following processes of thinking is being illustrated in this scenario?
A. Critical thinking
B. Controlled thinking
C. Divergent thinking
D. Mindful thinking
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
Chapter 8
74. Eric, a rock musician, has recently launched his music album. All his songs in the new album are based on
suggestions from his fans about the lyrics, genre, and so on. Which of the following processes of thinking did he
engage in during the initial stage of his music album?
A. Divergent thinking
B. Controlled thinking
C. Convergent thinking
D. Automatic thinking
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
75. Serena, an advertising lead, is holding a meeting with her team mates regarding the development of an
advertisement for a new perfume brand. Which of the following processes of thinking do Serena and her team
mates most likely employ in this scenario?
A. Passive thinking
B. Convergent thinking
C. Automatic thinking
D. Divergent thinking
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
76. _____ thinking occurs during brainstorming.

A. Convergent
B. Passive
C. Automatic
D. Divergent
Answer: D
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Thinking
77. _____ thinking is best when a problem has only one right answer.
A. Convergent
B. Passive
C. Automatic
D. Divergent
Answer: A
Difficulty: Low
Chapter 8
Topic: Thinking
78. Which of the following statements is true of convergent thinking?

A. It works best when a problem has only one right answer.
B. It occurs during brainstorming.
C. It produces many solutions to the same problem.
D. This type of thinking is avoided by creative people.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
79. What type of thinking is required when trying to determine who should be hired from a stack of fifty
resumes?
A. Convergent thinking
B. Conceptual thinking
C. Automatic thinking
D. Divergent thinking
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
80. Which of the following is a trait of creative thinkers?

A. Dogmatic thinking
B. Categorical thinking
C. Risk avoidance
D. Intrinsic motivation
Answer: D
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Thinking
81. Which of the following statements is true of creative thinkers?

A. They are usually superficial in their approach.
B. They are usually convergent in their approach.
C. They are usually engaged in objective evaluation of their work.
D. They usually avoid taking risks.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Chapter 8
Topic: Thinking
82. Walter, a product development lead, encourages his teammates to suggest ideas during a product
development process. According to the characteristics of creative thinkers, which of the following
characteristics has been demonstrated by Walter in this scenario?
A. Inner motivation
B. Flexible thinking
C. Willingness to face risk
D. Objective evaluation of work
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
83. Sasha is a journalist at Plato, Inc. She is extremely creative and enjoys her work mainly because she loves
writing. She has recently been promoted to a senior position. According to the characteristics of creative
thinkers, which of the following has resulted in her promotion in this scenario?
A. Social loafing
B. Risk avoidance
C. Groupthink
D. Inner motivation
Answer: D
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Thinking
84. Michelle, a tattoo artist, has invested a huge sum of money in establishing her own tattoo studio in her
hometown. According to the characteristics of creative thinkers, which of the following characteristics has been
demonstrated by Michelle in this scenario?
A. Willingness to face risk
B. Inner motivation
C. Objective evaluation of work
D. Flexible thinking
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
85. Mark is a content writer who works in Zeal, Inc. He strives to work hard on his job and always seeks
feedback from his senior content writers. According to the characteristics of creative thinkers, which of the
following characteristics has been demonstrated by Mark in this scenario?
A. Flexible thinking
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B. Objective evaluation of work
C. Willingness to face risk
D. Inner motivation
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
86. The concept of _____ is best defined as the ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to
learn from experience.
A. mindfulness
B. intelligence
C. validity
D. reasoning
Answer: B
Feedback: Intelligence
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Intelligence
87. When scores on an intelligence test relate to important outcomes such as job performance, then the
intelligence test has a high level of:
A. reliability.
B. criterion validity.
C. standardization.
D. normal distribution.
Answer: B
Feedback: Measuring Intelligence
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Intelligence
88. As part of a research study, Dora is administered an intelligence test and obtains a particular score on this
test. A few days later, she repeats the same test as a part of the same study and obtains the same score. This in
turn leads Dora to conclude that the intelligence test possesses adequate _____.
A. norms
B. distribution
C. validity
D. reliability
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
Chapter 8
89. Clara develops a test to assess the levels of anxiety among cardiac surgeons and shows it to Betty, a subject
matter expert, for feedback on her test. Post the review session, Betty approves her test and states that the test
measures what it aims to measure. Thus, from the above scenario this test exemplifies _____.
A. validity
B. normality
C. reliability
D. uniformity
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
90. Shizuka administered a self-developed depression scale twice on a group of patients at a hospital. At both
times, she observed that different scores were yielded by the same set of patients. From this scenario, it can be
concluded that Shizuka’s scale lacks _____.
A. convergence
B. divergence
C. reliability
D. validity
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
91. Norman is involved in the process of developing instructions for administering and scoring a personality
scale. Thus, it can be concluded that Norman is in the process of establishing _____.
A. validity
B. standardized norms
C. reliability
D. normal distribution
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
92. Joanne administered a scale on job satisfaction to a group of participants and observed that their scores were
related to the outcome of job satisfaction. As a result, it can be concluded that this scale demonstrates:
A. inter-rater reliability.
B. criterion validity.
C. adequate normality.
D. test-retest reliability.
Answer: B
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
93. If Sammy scores nearly the same every time he takes a test, it can be concluded that the test is _____.
A. valid
B. highly reliable
C. standardized
D. normally distributed
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
94. Derek, a high school football coach, decides to use the time taken to run up 100 stairs as a test for running
endurance. He tests every team member on three consecutive days and finds that the time taken by each person
is very much the same on all three trials. His test for endurance appears to have high levels of _____.
A. validity
B. generalizability
C. reliability
D. normality
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
95. Although participants routinely scored about the same every time, the new fire fighters aptitude test showed
almost no correlation to their actual performance. Hence, it can be inferred that this new test is:
A. reliable and valid.
B. reliable but not valid.
C. not reliable but valid.
D. not reliable and not valid.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
96. If an intelligence test produces the same score over multiple administrations but does not accurately
measure intelligence, then the test is _____.
A. standardized but not divergent
B. convergent but not standardized
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C. reliable but not valid
D. valid but not convergent
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
97. Francis, a psychologist, has developed a new test to measure the verbal ability of third graders. To
determine the range of scores (and what is a good and bad score), he gives the test to 10,000 third graders. In
future, he will compare the performance of others to this reference group. This process of determining
meaningful scores involves establishing _____.
A. focus groups
B. validity
C. reliability
D. norms
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
98. _____, a concept developed by Alfred Binet, is an individual’s level of mental development relative to that
of others.
A. Mental age
B. Chronological age
C. Intelligence quotient
D. Mental chronometry
Answer: A
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Intelligence
99. If Keira’s mental age is higher than her chronological age, this means that:
A. her IQ is higher than average.
B. her IQ is average.
C. her IQ is lower than average.
D. a mistake has occurred since this result is not possible.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
Chapter 8
100. A 10-year-old boy with a mental age of 13 would have an IQ of _____.
A. 100
B. 120
C. 150
D. 130
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
101. A 20-year-old- woman with a mental age of 22 would have an IQ of _____.

A. 95
B. 90
C. 110
D. 120
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
102. A 6-year-old child with a mental age of 6 would have an IQ of _____.

A. 90
B. 100
C. 110
D. 120
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
103. If an outcome measure is normally distributed, this means that:

A. all scores are around the average score.
B. all scores are below average.
C. most scores are around the average with some scores being lower or higher.
D. the scores are distributed across all points evenly.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
Chapter 8
104. Andrew, a professor of statistics, states that 70 students in his class have received test scores between 80
and 85 out of 100. Hence, it can be concluded that Andrew has indicated the _____ of scores.
A. reliability
B. standardization
C. normal distribution
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
105. Emily has been asked to review a set of test items that are being considered for a standardized intelligence
test. The test constructors intend to eliminate all items that contain any possible cultural bias. With this task in
mind, which of the following questions should be eliminated by Emily in this scenario?
A. What is the difference between a stone and a potato?
B. What would you wear if it were very cold outside?
C. What is the name of the main character in Macbeth?
D. What are the similarities between flowers and trees?
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
106. Which of the following items would most likely appear in a culture-fair test?
A. Asking subjects to name the planets
B. Asking subjects to put together a puzzle
C. Asking subjects to add together two plus two
D. Asking subjects to tell a story in their respective language
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
107. The Raven Progressive Matrices is considered to be a culture-fair test. Yet, it has been criticized since it
discriminates against:
A. groups who are unaware about the concept of time.
B. individuals with lower educational levels.
C. individuals who lack information on international current affairs.
D. groups with low levels of exposure to political science.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Chapter 8
Topic: Intelligence
108. Dr. Ambrose feels that a particular intelligence test is probably culturally biased. Which of the following
questions in the test would concern Dr. Ambrose the most?
A. Why do we need rain?
B. In which month of the year is the Super Bowl played?
C. What do we see in the sky at night?
D. In what way are balloons and airplanes the same?
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
109. As heritability is a proportion, the highest degree of heritability is________ percent.

A. 25
B. 40
C. 150
D. 100
Answer: D
Feedback: Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Heritability of Intelligence
110. Which of the following statements is true of heritability?

A. Heritability has no meaning when applied to a single case.
B. Heritability is a statistic that provides information about a single individual.
C. Heritability estimates remain constant over time and across different groups.
D. Even if the heritability of a characteristic is very high, the environment seldom matters.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
111. George’s parents talked and communicated with him a great deal from the time he was born. Which of the
following statements is true with regard to George’s IQ?
A. The stimulation provided by George’s parents will positively affect his IQ.
B. The stimulation provided by George’s parents will have little effect on his IQ.
C. There is no relationship between how much George’s parents talked to him and his IQ score.
D. There is no relationship between any parental influences and George’s IQ.
Answer: A
Chapter 8
Difficulty: High
112. The batting averages of major league baseball players have shown a steady increase over the last thirty
years. This mirrors the observation of the _____ made from the field of intelligence testing.
A. recency effect
B. primacy effect
C. Flynn effect
D. Whorf effect
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
113. Which of the following scenarios indicates giftedness?

A. Lisa has an IQ score of 100 on an intelligence test.
B. Maurice has an IQ score of 110 on an intelligence test.
C. Anna has an IQ score of 90 on an intelligence test.
D. Katie has an IQ score of 130 on an intelligence test.
Answer: D
Feedback: Extremes of Intelligence
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Giftedness
114. Which of the following statements is true of people who are gifted?
A. They are functionally fixed.
B. They have an IQ of less than 120.
C. They have superior talent in a particular area.
D. They have below average intelligence.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Giftedness
115. The “Termites” in Lewis Terman’s study of gifted individuals were a group of:
A. creative thinkers.
B. below average students.
C. above average students.
D. critical thinkers.
Answer: C
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Giftedness
116. By definition, people who are gifted have ____.

A. an IQ of 130 or higher
B. an IQ of 90 or higher
C. always become major creators or innovators
D. superior intrapersonal skills
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Giftedness
117. Which of the following terms refers to a limited mental capacity that affects functioning in conceptual
skills, social skills, and practical skills?
A. Intellectual disability
B. Intellectual difference
C. Intellectual exceptionality
D. Intellectual digression
Answer: A
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Intellectual Disability
118. Edward is a 70-year-old man who is unable to manage his finances any longer. Which of the following
adaptive skills is impaired in Edward?
A. Psychomotor skill
B. Practical skill
C. Social skill
D. Conceptual skill
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
119. Which of the following scenarios illustrates the use of a conceptual skill?
A. Andrea is organizing a debate competition in her school.
B. Lionel is imparting soft skills training to new employees.
C. Ryan is studying for his graduate record examination on a weekday.
D. Julie is watching the latest movie in town with her friends.
Answer: C
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Medium
120. Which of the following represents a practical skill?

A. Reading a book
B. Talking to a neighbor
C. Obeying the law
D. Brushing one’s teeth
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
121. Sophia is in the fifth grade and lives in one of the most impoverished areas in the state. She has a history of
academic failure although she is very sensitive to her teacher’s expectations. Her teachers have noticed that she
responds best when candy is offered as an incentive. Sophia’s IQ is 65. She is most likely a victim of:
A. organic intellectual disability.
B. cultural-familial intellectual disability.
C. vitamin deficiency intellectual disability.
D. lead poisoning.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
122. Greg was diagnosed with Down syndrome at age two. Hence, it can be inferred that he _____.
A. will excel in creative abilities
B. may not be able to read but he will learn to understand advanced math
C. will most likely be able to live on his own as an adult
D. may come to excel in interpersonal sensitivity
Answer: D
Difficulty: High
123. Dhiraj excels at his work as a designer for the established fashion brand, “Vivacious.” According to
Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, it can be concluded that Dhiraj has a high level of _____ intelligence.
A. application
B. analytical
C. creative
D. practical
Chapter 8
Answer: C
Feedback: Theories of Multiple Intelligences
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Theories of Intelligence
124. According to Gardner’s multiple intelligences, which of the following frames of mind describes the ability
to think three-dimensionally?
A. Existentialist
B. Naturalist
C. Intrapersonal
D. Spatial
Answer: D
Difficulty: Low
125. According to Gardner’s multiple intelligences, which of the following intelligences would be LEAST
important for a car salesperson?
A. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
B. Verbal intelligence
C. Interpersonal intelligence
D. Mathematical intelligence
Answer: A
Difficulty: Low
126. Infinite generativity refers to the ability to:

A. learn more than one language.
B. make multiple decisions.
C. produce an unlimited number of rules.
D. create an unlimited number of meaningful sentences.
Answer: D
Feedback: The Basic Properties of Language
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Properties of Language
127. _____ refers to a language’s rules for word formation.

A. Phonology
B. Morphology
C. Syntax
Chapter 8
D. Semantics
Answer: B
Difficulty: Low
128. If the sound sequences “walk” and “ing” were combined to make “ingwalk,” this would violate English
_____.
A. phonology
B. morphology
C. syntax
D. semantics
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
129. Jane tells her roommate, “I misplaced my wallet.” Her roommate exclaims, “Oh my goodness, you lost
your wallet?” Jane responds, “No, I didn’t lose my wallet, I misplaced it.” This exchange best demonstrates the
_____ aspect of language.
A. morphological
B. semantic
C. pragmatic
D. grammatical
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
130. The sentence, “The bicycle talked the boy into buying a candy bar,” is:
A. pragmatically correct but syntactically incorrect.
B. semantically correct but syntactically incorrect.
C. syntactically correct but semantically incorrect.
D. syntactically and pragmatically incorrect.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
131. If one were to translate “white house” to Spanish from English, it would be “casa blanca,” or “house
white.” This demonstrates a difference in _____ between the two languages.
Chapter 8
A. phonology
B. cherology
C. syntax
D. prosody
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
132. Evidence of the role of language in cognitive activities includes the fact that:
A. memory is stored only in the form of images.
B. memory is stored only in the form of sounds.
C. without language, people have no memories.
D. memory is stored in the form of words.
Answer: D
Feedback: Language and Cognition
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Language and Cognition
133. According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language determines _____.

A. emotion
B. cognition
C. motivation
D. intuition
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
134. Critics of the work of Benjamin Whorf maintain that:

A. linguistic predispositions are universal.
B. all cultures essentially share the same linguistic experiences.
C. language determines how people think about their world.
D. words merely reflect, rather than cause, the way individuals think.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
135. According to Noam Chomsky, the fact that children all over the world acquire language at the same time
indicates that:
Chapter 8
A. human beings are prewired to learn language at a certain time.
B. language is learned through reinforcement at certain times.
C. language is learned through imitation.
D. language is influenced by the parents’ vocabulary.
Answer: A
Feedback: Biological and Environmental Influences on Language
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Influences on Language
136. Ruth is an eight-month-old infant. According to milestones of language development, which of the
following language milestones is attained by Ruth at this age?
A. She understands more than fifty words.
B. She understands two-word combinations.
C. She produces babbling sounds of spoken language.
D. She demonstrates an increased awareness of pragmatics.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Language Development
137. Gregory is a 13-month-old toddler. According to milestones of language development, which of the
following language milestones is attained by Gregory at this age?
A. He uses a few prepositions.
B. He uses plurals.
C. He understands more than fifty words.
D. He understands the meaning of past tense.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
138. Abigail is a 20-month-old child. According to milestones of language development, which of the following
language milestones is attained by Abigail at this age?
A. She uses a few prepositions.
B. She asks yes and no questions.
C. She understands metaphor and satire.
D. She uses an average of 200 words.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
Chapter 8
139. Olivia is a two-year-old toddler. According to milestones of language development, which of the following
language milestones is attained by Olivia at this age?
A. She has an increased awareness of pragmatics.
B. She uses a lot of yes and no questions.
D. She uses certain prepositions.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
140. Roger is a four-year-old boy. According to milestones of language development, which of the following
language milestones is attained by Roger at this age?
A. He understands complex grammar forms.
B. He shows more skilled use of syntactical rules.
C. He understands metaphor and satire.
D. He uses negatives and imperatives.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
141. Haya is a six-year-old girl. According to milestones of language development, which of the following
language milestones is attained by Haya at this age?
A. She understands adult literary works.
B. She coordinates simple sentences.
D. She develops an understanding of complex grammar forms.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
142. Jacques is a seven-year-old boy. According to milestones of language development, which of the following
language milestones is attained by Jacques at this age?
A. He shows more skilled use of syntactical rules.
B. He understands metaphor and satire.
C. He develops an understanding of complex grammar forms.
D. He understands adult literary works.
Answer: A
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Medium
143. Nigel is a ten-year-old boy. According to milestones of language development, which of the following
language milestones is attained by Nigel at this age?
A. He understands metaphor and satire.
B. He uses synonyms in word definitions.
C. He understands adult literary works.
D. He develops an understanding of complex grammar forms.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
144. Morgan is a thirteen-year-old boy. According to milestones of language development, which of the
following language milestones is attained by Morgan between the age of 11 and14?
A. The mean length of utterances increases to 3–4 morphemes in a sentence.
B. His vocabulary increases to an average of 200 words.
C. He understands metaphors and satires.
D. He uses yes and no questions.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
145. Nina is an eighteen-year-old girl. According to milestones of language development, which of the
following language milestones is attained by Nina between the age of 15 and 20?
A. She understands adult literary works.
B. She understands the function of a word in a sentence.
C. The mean length of utterances increases to 3–4 morphemes in a sentence.
D. She coordinates simple sentences.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
146. The term “universal linguists” refers to the idea that:

A. children must be exposed to language before the age of six in order to learn it.
B. the size of the parent’s vocabulary affects the size of the child’s vocabulary.
C. children from all over the world acquire language in the same order.
D. children can distinguish each of the sounds that make up human languages.
Answer: D
Chapter 8
Feedback: Language Development over the Life Span
Difficulty: Medium
147. Cognitive appraisal refers to the way an individual:

A. forms concepts.
B. interprets a situation.
C. uses pragmatics when communicating.
D. uses availability heuristics.
Answer: B
Feedback: Cognitive Appraisal and Stress
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Cognitive Appraisal
148. Keisha failed in her Math paper this semester in college. However, she vows to perform better in the next
semester. According to Richard Lazarus, Keisha has assessed this situation through:
A. secondary appraisal.
B. primary appraisal.
C. automatic reasoning
D. controlled reasoning.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
149. Solomon is defeated by his rival team in a basketball match. He vows to win the next match against them
by asking his coach to give feedback during the practice sessions. According to Lazarus, Solomon has assessed
this situation through:
A. deductive reasoning.
B. secondary appraisal.
D. primary appraisal.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
150. Just over a week ago, Amanda lost her job at a manufacturing plant. At first, she was extremely worried
about not being able to pay her bills. After thinking it through, she is now less stressed because she realizes that
this may be the perfect opportunity to find that challenging career she always wanted. Thus, Amanda’s
consideration of the situation in this scenario is best described as _____.
Chapter 8
A. a cognitive appraisal
B. confirmation of bias
C. a cognitive reappraisal
Answer: C
Feedback: Cognitive Reappraisal
Difficulty: Medium
Short Answer Questions
151. Compare and contrast between the human brain and a computer.
Answer: Computers provide a logical and concrete, but oversimplified, model of human information processing.
Inanimate computers and human brains function quite differently in some respects. For example, most
computers receive information from a human who has already coded the information and removed much of its
ambiguity. In contrast, each brain cell, or neuron, can respond to ambiguous information transmitted through
sensory receptors such as the eyes and ears. Computers can do some things better than humans. For instance,
computers can perform complex numerical calculations much faster and more accurately than humans could
ever hope to. Computers can also apply and follow rules more consistently and with fewer errors than humans
and can represent complex mathematical patterns better than humans. Still, the brain’s extraordinary capabilities
will probably not be mimicked completely by computers any time in the near future. Attempts to use computers
to process visual information or spoken language have achieved only limited success in specific situations. The
human brain also has an incredible ability to learn new rules, relationships, concepts, and patterns that it can
generalize to novel situations. In comparison, computers are quite limited in their ability to learn and generalize.
Although a computer can improve its ability to recognize patterns or use rules of thumb to make decisions, it
does not have the means to develop new learning goals. Furthermore, the human mind is aware of itself; the
computer is not. Indeed, no computer is likely to approach the richness of human consciousness.
Feedback: The Cognitive Revolution in PsychologyBloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Cognition
152. Define a concept. List the characteristics of a concept.

Answer: A concept is defined as a mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
There are four characteristics of a concept. First, concepts facilitate generalization. Second, concepts allow
individuals to associate experiences and objects. Third, concepts aid memory by making it more efficient.
Fourth, concepts provide clues about how to react to a particular object or experience.
Feedback: ConceptsBloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Concepts
153. Discuss the prototype model.

Answer: The prototype model emphasizes that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain
concept, they compare that item with the most typical item in that category and look for a “family resemblance”
with that item’s properties. The prototype model maintains that people use characteristic properties to create a
representation of the average or ideal member—the prototype—for each concept.
Chapter 8
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Concepts
154. Olga has to prepare for her term paper on marketing next week. According to the steps in problem solving,
list the steps that need to be taken in this situation.
Answer: First, Olga needs to define her problem which is to prepare for her term paper in this situation. The
next step is to develop strategies such as framing subgoals of finishing certain chapters in marketing. The third
step is to evaluate the solution. Hence, once Olga finishes writing her paper, she should evaluate the
effectiveness of her preparation based on her judgment regarding her performance on the paper. The final step is
to redefine and re-evaluate her performance on this paper in the future examinations.
Feedback: Problem SolvingBloom’s Level: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
155. Define reasoning. Discuss the two types of reasoning.

Answer: Reasoning is defined as the mental activity of transforming information to reach a conclusion. The two
types of reasoning include inductive and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from
specific observations to make generalizations. Deductive reasoning involves reasoning from a general case that
is known to be true to a specific instance.
Feedback: Reasoning and Decision MakingBloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Reasoning
156. Distinguish between confirmation bias and hindsight bias.

Answer: Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for and use information that supports rather than refutes
one’s ideas. Hindsight bias, on the other hand, is the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that individuals
accurately predicted an outcome.
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Biases
157. Distinguish between availability heuristic and representativeness heuristic.

Answer: The availability heuristic refers to a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of
recalling or imagining similar events, while the representativeness heuristic refers to one’s tendency to make
judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one’s
stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information.
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
158. Discuss the process of critical thinking.

Answer: Critical thinking means thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence. Critical
thinkers grasp the deeper meaning of ideas, question assumptions, and decide for themselves what to believe or
Chapter 8
do. The process of critical thinking requires maintaining a sense of humility about what individuals know and
do not know. In addition, critical thinking is vital to effective problem solving.
Feedback: Thinking Critically and CreativelyBloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
159. Define the two essential components of critical thinking.

Answer: The two essential components of critical thinking are mindfulness and open-mindedness. Mindfulness
is defined as the state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities. Open-mindedness is
defined as the state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things.
Feedback: Thinking Critically and CreativelyBloom’s Level: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Mindfulness
160. Discuss the type of thinking involved in creativity. List the characteristics of creative people.
Answer: Creativity involves divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking produces many answers to
the same problem. Convergent thinking produces the single best solution to a problem. The characteristics of
creative people are as follows: flexibility and playful thinking, inner motivation, willingness to face risk, and
objective evaluation of work.
Feedback: Thinking Critically and CreativelyBloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Creativity
161. Describe how an individual might involve his employees in solving a company problem using divergent
and convergent thinking.
Answer: First, the individual could have his employees brainstorm ideas or solutions to the problem which is a
form of divergent thinking. Once all ideas have been generated, he should encourage his employees to narrow
down the ideas until they agree on the single best solution, which is an example of convergent thinking.
Feedback: Thinking Critically and CreativelyBloom’s Level: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Thinking
162. Explain reliability and validity in the field of psychological assessment.

Answer: Reliability is achieving approximately the same score or outcome each time one is assessed, while
validity refers to the issue of whether or not a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intelligence
163. Distinguish organic intellectual disability from cultural-familial intellectual disability.

Answer: Organic intellectual disability is caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage. Most people who suffer
from organic retardation have an IQ between 0 and 50. Cultural-familial intellectual disability, on the other
hand, is a mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage. Individuals with this type of disability
Chapter 8
usually have an IQ between 55 and 70. Psychologists suspect that such mental deficits result at least in part
from growing up in a below-average intellectual environment.
Feedback: Extremes of IntelligenceBloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Intellectual Disabilities
164. Discuss links between cognition and language.

Answer: Although thought influences language and language influences thought, there is increasing evidence
that language and thought are not part of a single system. Instead, they seem to have evolved as separate but
related components of the mind. Links between language and cognition include the idea that memories are
stored in the form of words, and the language people speak may filter the amount and nature of information that
is processed by cognition.
Feedback: Language and CognitionBloom’s Level: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
165. Jenna believes that language has a biological basis. What support would she find for her views in the
research literature?
Answer: Linguist Noam Chomsky argued that language acquisition is universal and biological in its basis. In
support of this theory, Chomsky and others cite evidence that children all over the world acquire language at a
certain time and in a certain way, despite great variability in their cultural contexts and thus in the input they
receive. One example of this is that in some cultures, adults never speak to infants under one year of age, yet
those infants acquire language regardless.
Feedback: Biological and Environmental Influences on LanguageBloom’s Level: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Influences on Language
True/False Questions
166. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing
activities that require intelligence when they are done by people.
Answer: True
Feedback: The Cognitive Revolution in PsychologyBloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Cognition
167. The prototype model emphasizes that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain
concept, they compare the item with the most typical items in that category and look for a “family resemblance”
with that item’s properties.
Answer: True
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Concepts
Chapter 8
168. Following the instructions of a recipe in a cookery book is an example of a heuristic.
Answer: False
Feedback: Problem SolvingBloom’s Level: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Heuristics
169. Fixation involves using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective.
Answer: True
Feedback: Problem SolvingBloom’s Level: Remember
Difficulty: Low
Topic: Fixation
170. Nicole’s theory that children with autism are creative, based on her observation of a specific group of
children with autism, is an example of deductive reasoning.
Answer: False
Feedback: Reasoning and Decision MakingBloom’s Level: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Topic: Reasoning
171. According to deductive reasoning, if a theory is true, then the hypothesis will be true as well.
Answer: True
Feedback: Reasoning and Decision MakingBloom’s Level: Understand
Difficulty: High
Topic: Reasoning
172. The automatic system involves processing that is heuristic and intuitive.
Answer: True
Difficulty: Medium
173. Base rate neglect refers to the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very
specific but vivid information.
Answer: True
Difficulty: Medium
174. Actively open-minded thinking refers to thinking that is flexible and open to questioning.
Answer: True
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About eight o’clock, the streets began again to be crowded. The
barrooms and public resorts were closed, that the incentive to
precipitate action might not be too readily accessible. Nevertheless
there was much excitement, and among the crowd were many men
from the country, who carried shot and duck guns, and old-fashioned
horse-pistols, such as the “Maryland line” might have carried from
the first to the present war. The best weapons appeared to be in the
hands of young men—boys of eighteen—with the physique, dress and
style of deportment cultivated by the “Dead Rabbits” of New York.
About ten o’clock, a cry was raised that 3,000 Pennsylvania troops
were at the Calvert street depot of the Pennsylvania railroad, and
were about to take up their line of march through the city. It was said
that the 3,000 were at Pikesville, about fifteen miles from the city,
and were going to fight their way around the city. The crowd were
not disposed to interfere with a movement that required a
preliminary tramp of fifteen miles through a heavy sand. But the city
authorities, however, rapidly organized and armed some three or
four companies and sent them towards Pikesville. Ten of the Adams’
Express wagons passed up Baltimore street, loaded with armed men.
In one or two there were a number of mattresses, as if wounded men
were anticipated. A company of cavalry also started for Pikesville to
sustain the infantry that had been expressed. Almost before the last
of the expedition had left the city limits, word was telegraphed to
Marshal Kane by Mayor Brown from Washington, that the
government had ordered the Pennsylvania troops back to
Harrisburgh, from the point they had been expected to move on to
Baltimore. It seemed incredible, but, of course, satisfactory to the
belligerents.
The moment it was known that the government had abandoned
the intention of forcing troops through Baltimore, this intense
commotion settled into comparative calm, but the city was forced to
feel the effect of its own folly. The regular passenger trains north had
been stopped.
Many business men have been utterly ruined by the extraordinary
position into which the city was plunged through the action of the
mob. Capital has been swept away, and commercial advantages
sacrificed, that no time or enterprise can replace. Those engaged in
trade, have no part in these troubles except to suffer. The mob had
them in complete subjection, and a stain has been cast on the city
which no time can efface. Yet the whole of this attack was doubtless
the work of those classes who form the bane and dregs of society, in
every great city; after events have proved that it was the uprising of a
lawless mob, not the expression of a people. But the Mayor of the city
and the Governor of the State were for a few days in which these
revolters triumphed alike powerless. In this strait they notified the
authorities in Washington that troops could not be passed through
that city without bloodshed.
The difficulties and dangers of the 19th of April were speedily
removed by President Lincoln’s determination to march troops
intended for Washington by another route, backed by the
determination and efficiency of the government and by the supplies
which were sent to the aid of loyal men of the city and State, and
thereby Maryland has been saved from anarchy, desolation and ruin.
The work of impious hands was stayed—a star preserved to our
banner, and the right vindicated without unnecessary loss of life! But
nothing save great caution and forbearance almost unparalleled in
civil wars, rescued Baltimore from destruction.
When the news of the disaster to the brave Massachusetts
regiment reached the old Bay State, a feeling of profound sorrow and
deep indignation seized upon the people. Troops gathered to the
rescue in battalions, armed men arose at every point, and every
railroad verging toward Washington became a great military
highway. Not only Massachusetts, but all New England looked upon
the outrage with generous indignation, as if each State had seen its
own sons stricken down. It seemed to be a strife of patriotism which
should get its men first to the field. Directly after the Massachusetts
troops, the first regiment of Rhode Island Volunteers passed through
New York, on their way to the South. Governor Sprague, who had
magnanimously contributed one hundred thousand dollars to the
cause, accompanied these troops, as commander-in-chief of the
Rhode Island forces. His staff consisted of Colonels Frieze, Goddard,
Arnold, and Captain A. W. Chapin, Assistant Adjutant-General. And
this was followed by a continued rush of armed men till all the great
thoroughfares leading to the capital bristled with steel, and
reverberated with the tramp of soldiery.
Governor Andrews sent to Maryland requesting that the martyred
soldiers should be reverently sent back to Massachusetts, that the
State might give them honored burial. This request was complied
with, Governor Hicks responding in a delicate and sympathetic
manner, and not only Massachusetts but a whole nation awarded
them the glory of first dying for a country that will never forget them.
The names of these men were, Sumner H. Needham, of Lawrence;
Addison O. Whitney, of Lowell City Guards; and Luther C. Ladd,
Lowell City Guards.
MILITARY OCCUPATION OF ANNAPOLIS,
Md.
April 21, 1861.
On the 18th of April, the Eighth Massachusetts regiment, under

the command of General Butler, left Boston for Washington. On
arriving at Philadelphia, he ascertained that all communication with
Washington by the ordinary line of travel through Baltimore had
been cut off, and telegraphic operations suspended. He proceeded to
the Susquehanna river, and at Perryville seized the immense ferry-
boat “Maryland,” belonging to the railroad company, and steamed
with his regiment for Annapolis. Through the supposed treachery of
the pilot, the boat was grounded on the bar before that place, and
they were detained over night. The arrival of troops at this point
proved of vital importance. A conspiracy had been formed by a band
of secessionists to seize the old frigate Constitution, which lay
moored at the wharf of the Naval Academy at that place, being in
service as a school for the cadets. Captain Devereux, with his
company, was ordered to take possession of the noble old craft,
which was promptly done, and the vessel towed to a safe distance
from the landing. Governor Hicks, of Maryland, hearing of their
arrival, sent a protest against troops being landed at that place.
On Monday, the 22d, the troops landed at the Naval Academy,
followed by the New York Seventh regiment, which had just arrived
on board the steamer Boston, from Philadelphia, by the help of
which vessel the Maryland was enabled to get off the bar.
In order to insure the ready transportation of troops and
provisions which were to follow him by the same route, General
Butler seized several vessels in the neighborhood, and promptly
entered them into the United States service. Meantime a
Pennsylvania regiment had arrived at Havre de Grace, and,
anticipating the speedy accession of reinforcements from New York
by water, three companies of the Eighth Massachusetts were
detached as an engineer corps to repair the road to the Annapolis
and Elk Ridge Railroad, of which General Butler had taken military
possession.
The Seventy-first New York and other regiments having arrived
during the night of April 23d, early on the following morning the
Seventh regiment, from New York, took up its line of march on the
track to Washington Junction. A member of this regiment, young
O’Brien the poet, pays a merited tribute to the brave men who
preceded them:
On the morning of the 22d we were in sight of Annapolis, off which
the Constitution was lying, and there found the Eighth regiment of
Massachusetts volunteers on board the Maryland. They were
aground, owing, it is supposed, to the treachery of the captain, whom
they put in irons and wanted to hang. I regret to say that they did not
do it. During the greater portion of that forenoon we were occupied
in trying to get the Maryland off the sand-bar on which she was
grounded. From our decks we could see the men in file trying to rock
her, so as to facilitate our tugging. These men were without water
and without food, were well-conducted and uncomplaining, and
behaved in all respects like heroes. They were under the command of
Colonel Butler, and I regret that that gentleman did not care more
for the comforts of men whose subsequent pluck proved that nothing
was too good for them.
On the afternoon of the 22d we landed at the Annapolis dock, after
having spent hours in trying to relieve the Maryland. For the first
time in his life your correspondent was put to work to roll flour-
barrels. He was entrusted with the honorable and onerous duty of
transporting stores from the steamer to the dock. Later still he
descended to the position of mess servant, when, in company with
gentlemen well known in Broadway for immaculate kids, he had the
honor of attending on his company with buckets of cooked meat and
crackers—the only difference between him and Co. and the ordinary
waiter being, that the former were civil.
We were quartered in the buildings belonging to the Naval School
at Annapolis. I had a bunking-place in what is there called a fort,
which is a rickety structure that a lucifer match would set on fire, but
furnished with imposing guns. I suppose it was merely built to
practice the cadets, because as a defence it is worthless. The same
evening boats were sent off from the yard, and towards nightfall the
Massachusetts men landed, fagged, hungry, thirsty, but indomitable.
The two days that we remained at Annapolis were welcome. We
had been without a fair night’s sleep since we left New York, and
even the hard quarters we had there were a luxury compared to the
dirty decks of the Boston. Besides, there were natural attractions.
The grounds are very prettily laid out, and in the course of my
experience I never saw a handsomer or better bred set of young men
than the cadets. Twenty had left the school owing to political
convictions. The remainder are sound Union fellows, eager to prove
their devotion to the flag. After spending a delightful time in the
Navy School, resting and amusing ourselves, our repose was
disturbed at 9 P. M., April 23, by rockets being thrown up in the bay.
The men were scattered all over the grounds; some in bed, others
walking or smoking, all more or less undressed. The rockets being of
a suspicious character, it was conjectured that a Southern fleet was
outside, and our drummer beat the rollcall to arms. From the stroke
of the drum until the time that every man, fully equipped and in
fighting order, was in the ranks, was exactly, by watch, seven
minutes. The alarm, however, proved to be false, the vessels in the
offing proving to be laden with the Seventy-first and other New York
regiments; so that, after an unpremeditated trial of our readiness for
action, we were permitted to retire to our couches, which means,
permit me to say, a blanket on the floor, with a military overcoat over
you, and a nasal concert all around you, that, in noise and number,
outvies Musard’s concerts monstres.
On the morning of the 24th of April we started on what afterwards
proved to be one of the hardest marches on record. The secessionists
of Annapolis and the surrounding districts had threatened to cut us
off in our march, and even went so far as to say that they would
attack our quarters. The dawn saw us up. Knapsacks, with our
blankets and overcoats strapped on them, were piled on the green. A
brief and insufficient breakfast was taken, our canteens filled with
vinegar and water, cartridges distributed to each man, and after
mustering and loading, we started on our first march through a
hostile country.
General Scott has stated, as I have been informed, that the march
that we performed from Annapolis to the Junction is one of the most
remarkable on record. I know that I felt it the most fatiguing, and
some of our officers have told me that it was the most perilous. We
marched the first eight miles under a burning sun, in heavy
marching order, in less than three hours; and it is well known that,
placing all elementary considerations out of the way, marching on a
railroad track is the most harassing. We started at about 8 o’clock, A.
M., and for the first time saw the town of Annapolis, which, without
any disrespect to that place, I may say looked very much as if some
celestial schoolboy, with a box of toys under his arm, had dropped a
few houses and men as he was going home from school, and that the
accidental settlement was called Annapolis. Through the town we
marched, the people unsympathizing, but afraid. They saw the
Seventh for the first time, and for the first time they realized the men
that they had threatened.
The tracks had been torn up between Annapolis and the Junction,
and here it was that the wonderful qualities of the Massachusetts
Eighth regiment came out. The locomotives had been taken to pieces
by the inhabitants, in order to prevent our travel. In steps a
Massachusetts volunteer, looks at the piece-meal engine, takes up a
flange, and says coolly, “I made this engine, and I can put it together
again.” Engineers were wanted when the engine was ready. Nineteen
stepped out of the ranks. The rails were torn up. Practical railroad
makers out of the regiment laid them again, and all this, mind you,
without care or food. These brave boys, I say, were starving while
they were doing this good work. As we marched along the track that
they had laid, they greeted us with ranks of smiling but hungry faces.
One boy told me, with a laugh on his young lips, that he had not
eaten anything for thirty hours. There was not, thank God, a
haversack in our regiment that was not emptied into the hands of
these ill-treated heroes, nor a flask that was not at their disposal.
Our march lay through an arid, sandy, tobacco-growing country.
The sun poured on our heads like hot lava. The Sixth and Second
companies were sent on for skirmishing duty, under the command of
Captains Clarke and Nevers, the latter commanding as senior officer.
A car, on which was placed a howitzer, loaded with grape and
canister, headed the column, manned by the engineer and artillery
corps, commanded by Lieutenant Bunting. This was the rallying
point of the skirmishing party, on which, in case of difficulty, they
could fall back. In the centre of the column came the cars, laden with
medical stores, and bearing our sick and wounded, while the extreme
rear was brought up with a second howitzer, loaded also with grape
and canister. The engineer corps, of course, had to do the forwarding
work. New York dandies, sir—but they built bridges, laid rails, and
headed the regiment through. After marching about eight miles,
during which time several men caved in from exhaustion, and one
young gentleman was sunstruck, and sent back to New York, we
halted, and instantly, with the divine instinct which characterizes the
hungry soldier, proceeded to forage. The worst of it was, there was
no foraging to be done. The only house within reach was inhabited by
a lethargic person, who, like most Southern men, had no idea of
gaining money by labor. We offered him extravagant prices to get us
fresh water, and it was with the utmost reluctance that we could get
him to obtain us a few pailfuls. Over the mantel-piece of his
miserable shanty I saw—a curious coincidence—the portrait of
Colonel Duryea, of our regiment.
After a brief rest of about an hour, we again commenced our
march; a march which lasted until the next morning—a march than
which in history, nothing but those marches in which defeated troops
have fled from the enemy, can equal. Our Colonel, it seems,
determined to march by railroad, in preference to the common road,
inasmuch as he had obtained such secret information as led him to
suppose that we were waited for on the latter route. Events justified
his judgment. There were cavalry troops posted in defiles to cut us
off. They could not have done it, of course, but they could have
harassed us severely. As we went along the railroad we threw out
skirmishing parties from the Second and Sixth companies, to keep
the road clear. I know not if I can describe that night’s march. I have
dim recollections of deep cuts through which we passed, gloomy and
treacherous-looking, with the moon shining full on our muskets,
while the banks were wrapped in shade, and each moment expecting
to see the flash and hear the crack of the rifle of the Southern
guerilla. The tree frogs and lizards made a mournful music as we
passed. The soil on which we travelled was soft and heavy. The
sleepers, lying at intervals across the track, made the march terribly
fatiguing. On all sides dark, lonely pine woods stretched away, and
high over the hooting of owls, or the plaintive petition of the whip-
poor-will, rose the bass commands of “Halt! Forward, march!”—and
when we came to any ticklish spot, the word would run from the
head of the column along the lines, “Holes,” “Bridge—pass it along,”
&c.
As the night wore on, the monotony of the march became
oppressive. Owing to our having to explore every inch of the way, we
did not make more than a mile or a mile and a half an hour. We ran
out of stimulants, and almost out of water. Most of us had not slept
for four nights, and as the night advanced our march was almost a
stagger. This was not so much fatigue as want of excitement. Our
fellows were spoiling for a light, and when a dropping shot was heard
in the distance, it was wonderful to see how the languid legs
straightened, and the column braced itself for action. If we had had
even the smallest kind of a skirmish, the men would have been able
to walk to Washington. As it was, we went sleepily on. I myself fell
asleep, walking in the ranks. Numbers, I find, followed my example;
but never before was there shown such indomitable pluck and
perseverance as the Seventh showed in that march of twenty miles.
The country that we passed through seemed to have been entirely
deserted. The inhabitants, who were going to kill us when they
thought we daren’t come through, now vamosed their respective
ranches, and we saw them not. Houses were empty. The population
retired into the interior, burying their money, and carrying their
families along with them. They, it seems, were under the impression
that we came to ravage and pillage, and they fled, as the Gauls must
have fled, when Attila and his Huns came down on them from the
North. As we did at Annapolis, we did in Maryland State. We left an
impression that cannot be forgotten. Everything was paid for. No
discourtesy was offered to any inhabitant, and the sobriety of the
regiment should be an example to others. Nothing could have been
more effective or energetic than the movements of the Engineer
Corps, to whom we were indebted for the rebuilding of a bridge in an
incredibly short space of time.
The secret of this forced march, as well as our unexpected descent
on Annapolis, was the result of Colonel Lefferts’ judgment, which has
since been sustained by events. Finding that the line along the
Potomac was closed, and the route to Washington, by Baltimore,
equally impracticable, he came to the conclusion that Annapolis,
commanding, as it did, the route to the Capital, must of necessity be
made the basis of military operations. It was important to the
government to have a free channel through which to transport
troops, and this post presented the readiest means. The fact that
since then all the Northern troops have passed through the line that
we thus opened, is a sufficient comment on the admirable judgment
that decided on the movement. It secured the integrity of the
regiment, and saved lives, the loss of which would have plunged New
York into mourning. Too much importance cannot be attached to
this strategy. To it the Seventh regiment is indebted for being here at
present, intact and sound.
On Thursday, April 24, this regiment reached Washington, having
taken the cars at the junction. They were followed directly by their
noble comrades of the march, the Massachusetts Eighth, and
immediately moved into quarters.
While the troops under Butler and Lefferts were lying at
Annapolis, great anxiety was felt regarding them at Washington. The
lamented Lander was then at the capital, pleading for the privilege of
raising a regiment for the defence of the government, but, for some
inexplicable cause, General Scott had not yet accepted his services.
With Baltimore in open revolt, and Annapolis doubtful in its loyalty,
this anxiety about the troops become so urgent, that Lander was sent
forward to Annapolis, with general directions to aid the troops with
all his ability, and to direct Colonel Butler not to land his men until
the kindly feeling of the citizens of Annapolis was ascertained.
Lander started on the mission, as he undertook everything, with
heart and soul. He rode from Washington to Annapolis on
horseback, without stopping for darkness, or any other cause save
the necessary care of his horse, and reached Annapolis an hour after
the troops had landed. Bringing his experience, as a frontiersman,
who had seen hard service against hostile Indians on the plains, to
bear on the position, Lander gave Colonel Butler such aid and advice
as assisted greatly in bringing the soldiers forward with less danger
and suffering than might otherwise have arisen during their march to
the junction.
MARYLAND.
The attack by an armed mob upon the Massachusetts regiment

had called the attention of the entire country to the State of
Maryland, and her future course was the subject of deep feeling.
Indirectly, Washington was, of course, menaced by her movements,
and it became a matter of vital importance that she should be
retained in the Union and restored to her fidelity. Not here alone
were keen eyes watching her future. England and France, in their
eager thirst for dominion and their jealousy of America and her
liberal institutions, scrutinized every action, with reference to their
own future course. Second only to Washington, therefore, for the
time, became the “Monumental City.”
From the 19th of April, the day when the banner of the
Massachusetts Sixth was baptized in blood, until the 14th of June, all
was suspense, and those who still retained their fealty were reluctant
to express their loyalty from fear of personal violence. Then an
election was held for members of Congress, and every district, save
one, returned decisive majorities for unconditional Union men. The
majority of the Legislature were unreserved in their expressions of
disunion, and were secretly, if not openly, urging on the State to
revolt. As early as December, 1860, Governor Hicks had been
solicited to call a Convention for that purpose, and emissaries of the
rebel government had labored with untiring zeal to spread secession
sentiments among the people. The Governor, knowing the heart of
the masses to be true, refused, and his decision came like a thunder-
clap upon the Southern partizans who hoped to find him a pliant tool
in their hands.
The proclamation of the President, of the 15th April, was tortured
into a means of exciting popular clamor, and every effort was made
to fan the fires of secession, until they should burst forth in fierce
flame. Meetings were held for that purpose, and every possible
means resorted to for its accomplishment. While very many of the
wealthy and commercial classes of Maryland, and particularly of
Baltimore, were in favor of disunion, eminent and influential
citizens, some of whom were among the most distinguished public
men of the State, and whose names are inseparably connected with
its civil and political history, were committed irrevocably to the
support of the government. In this cause the industrial classes—the
working-men and the farmers—were true to the principles they had
always professed. Whatever political parties they had sympathized
with, it had been ever on the broad basis of the Union and the
Constitution.
An illustration of this was given on the 18th of April, the day
previous to the attack on the Massachusetts regiment. A party of
secessionists had raised a rebel flag in the suburbs of Baltimore, and
had a cannon with which they saluted it, but a vast crowd of working-
men from the neighboring foundries assembled, tore down the flag,
and threw the cannon into the river. His Excellency, Thomas H.
Hicks, Governor; John P. Kennedy, Secretary of State under
President Fillmore; Reverdy Johnson, John R. Kenley, ex-Governor
Francis Thomas, Hon. Henry Winter Davis, Edwin H. Webster,
Alexander Evans, and many others boldly stepped forward, and
planted themselves in the foreground, to resist the tide of dishonesty,
passion, and frenzy, into which the State was plunged by the
conspirators. Five thousand citizens of Baltimore addressed a letter
to Governor Hicks, on January 2d, approving his course in refusing
to call the Legislature together to authorize a Convention, and public
meetings were held throughout the State for the same purpose.
Notwithstanding this great demonstration of popular opinion, the
secessionists were resolved upon making the attempt; and, though
foiled in their measures, seized the opportunity afforded by the
passage of Northern troops through Baltimore, to enkindle the
flames of civil war, hoping, in the confusion, to urge their schemes to
a fulfilment.
The pressure upon the Governor after this event became almost
insupportable. All the combined influences of political, social and
commercial classes were brought to bear upon him, and the wild
denunciations and contemptuous and bitter invective and threats
hurled incessantly upon Baltimore and Maryland by a large portion
of the northern press were persistently used to press the Executive to
the commission of the fatal act. Thus urged on all sides, he was
compelled, in deference to the sudden and violent appeals of the
people, to request the government to send no more troops through
Maryland. The proclamation of the President of the 15th of April, and
the call for troops, was represented by the secessionists of Maryland,
as in other States, as an attempt to “coerce,” “invade” and
“subjugate” the Southern States. They used this appeal with great
effect on the popular mind, and the passions of the people were so
inflammable, that many whose convictions were utterly opposed to
the disunion measures were determined to resent this attempt to
“subdue” them. On the 17th of April an excited disunion meeting had
been held in Baltimore, and great efforts were made to commit the
citizens to the secession movement. On the following day Governor
Hicks and his Honor George Wm. Brown, Mayor of Baltimore, issued
proclamations calling upon all citizens to keep the peace. The
Governor assured the people that no troops should be sent from
Maryland, except to defend the national capital. The arrival of
Massachusetts troops and the fatal occurrences of the 19th, caused
an almost entire cessation of business, and all commerce was
suddenly prostrated.
The secessionists were determined to render it impracticable for
any more troops to reach Washington, and for this purpose
destroyed the bridges and a considerable portion of the tracks of
several railroads both north and south of Baltimore.
The Pennsylvania Northern, Philadelphia, Annapolis Junction,
and Baltimore and Ohio roads suffered extensively; and in
consequence of these lawless proceedings, the greatest difficulty was
apprehended in getting troops to Washington in time to protect the
capital from the threatened attack.
On the 21st the government announced that it took possession of
the Philadelphia and Baltimore railway as a military road. During the
temporary delay and obstruction to the travel, it was almost
impossible for travellers to pass either way. Many were molested in
Baltimore; some were placed in confinement under false charges by
the secessionists, and all were compelled to pay exorbitant prices and
resort to the rudest means of conveyance to pursue their journeys,
when permitted so to do. On the 22d the Mayor and Police Board of
Baltimore laid an embargo on provisions and necessary supplies, as
the interruption to transportation threatened a deficiency of food.
The Governor, under these extraordinary circumstances, called a
special session of the Legislature, which assembled at Frederick, on
the 26th of the month, the capital, Annapolis, being then in
possession of General Butler, who threatened to arrest the whole
body if an ordinance of secession were passed. The secession
members of the Legislature then attempted to procure the
organization of a Board of Safety, which should have discretionary
power during the crisis, but public meetings were immediately
called, which were loud in their denunciations of this covert transfer
of the State to its enemies, and it was abandoned. Resolutions
protesting against the war, and recommending the President to
desist, and resort to arbitration, were adopted, and a committee
appointed to visit the President and induce him to promise that no
more troops should be passed through Maryland. The President
replied that the public necessity must govern him, and that he would
consult the wishes of the people to the utmost extent that the
national welfare would permit.
The Legislature, after the report of the Committee had been
submitted, on May 6, discussed the questions at issue, and on the
10th adopted a preamble and resolution, declaring Maryland
sympathized “with the South in the struggle for their rights, solemnly
protests against this action, and will take no part in it, denouncing
the military occupancy of the State, and transportation of troops, and
imploring the President, in the name of God, to cease this unholy
war.”
The reorganization of the military departments for the war was
progressing with all possible dispatch. The Department of
Washington was assigned to Colonel Joseph K. F. Mansfield, the
Department of Annapolis to Major-General Butler, and that of
Pennsylvania to Major General Robert Patterson.
On the 5th of May, General Butler took possession of the junction
of the Baltimore and Washington and Baltimore and Ohio railroads,
at the Relay House, nine miles south of Baltimore. Four days
afterwards a body of United States troops landed at Locust Point in
that city, and were conveyed by the cars through it without
interruption. The Marshal of the city, John K. Kane, was known to be
deeply implicated in the work of rebellion, and he was arrested and
search was made at the police headquarters for concealed arms and
supplies.
The people of Maryland held views which her disloyal legislators
had misrepresented. On the 14th of May, a meeting was held at East
Baltimore, at which strong Union resolutions were adopted, pledging
“lives, fortunes, and sacred honor,” to its defence, declaring the right
of the government to convey troops through the State, and their own
right and duty to aid them in the work.
General Butler the same day occupied Federal Hill, at Baltimore,
and issued a proclamation which was scattered in immense numbers
among the people, and contributed in a high degree to the
restoration of confidence and harmony among all classes. An
important step was also taken by Governor Hicks, who, on the same
day issued a proclamation calling for the State quota of four
regiments of volunteers for three months, to sustain the government
and to protect the capital. General Butler had seized various military
stores intended for the rebels, and also took possession of arms and
powder belonging to loyal parties, to prevent their being removed by
enemies to the government.
Brigadier-General Butler, having been appointed Major-General,
and placed in command of the military Department of Virginia,
North Carolina and Tennessee, a most important position, was
transferred to Fortress Monroe, and was succeeded by General
Cadwallader on the 20th. Fort McHenry was reinforced, and put into
the most effective condition for immediate service, and the
conspirators of Baltimore were restrained from further disorders by
the apprehension that any attempt at insurrection would be the
signal for a bombardment of the city. After Cadwallader came into
command, several arrests of prominent persons had been made.
Among these was Mr. John Merryman, who applied to Chief-Justice
Taney for a writ of habeas corpus. This was granted; and General
Cadwallader, in answer, said that the prisoner had been arrested on
charge of various acts of treason—of holding a command in a
company having in possession arms belonging to the United States,
and of avowing his purpose of armed hostility to the Government of
the United States. In such cases General Cadwallader said he was
authorized by the President to suspend the habeas corpus act; he
therefore requested Judge Taney to suspend further action until
instructions could be had from the President.
Judge Taney thereupon issued a writ of attachment against
General Cadwallader for contempt of court. The Marshal proceeded
to Fort McHenry to execute the writ, but was refused admission.
Judge Taney urged that the President had no authority to suspend
the act of habeas corpus, or to authorize others to do so. An
elaborate opinion to that effect was prepared by the Judge and has
since been published.
A sufficient number of troops were also at this time stationed in
Baltimore, and the loyal citizens were assured that they would be
protected in all their rights and privileges, at every hazard. Thus
fortified, protected and encouraged, the loyalty of the people was
fully displayed, while the disloyal were held in check. Maryland,
glorious in her past history, and her devotion to the Constitution,
was saved from destruction, and her loyal citizens will in generations
to come receive the plaudits of millions whose gratitude will be deep
enough to overwhelm her few days of revolt.
DESTRUCTION OF THE GOSPORT NAVY
YARD.
April 21, 1861.
The splendid naval and military establishment at Gosport,

Virginia, belonging to the Federal Government, was, at the time
Virginia seceded, in the possession of the United States. It was
supplied with immense quantities of military and naval stores; and
several old vessels which had been withdrawn from service, and
others of great value, were either waiting orders to sail or undergoing
repairs. The entire establishment, whether on land or water, was
indispensable to the conspirators, for the possession of the Navy
Yard would give them immediate control of ordnance stores and
property worth $30,000,000.
The seizure of this vast establishment having been determined
upon, five or six vessels had been sunk by the rebels in the channel of
the Elizabeth river, below the Navy Yard, thus effectually preventing
the passage of larger vessels.
General Taliaferro was placed in command of the insurgent forces
then rapidly concentrating at Norfolk. Commodore McCauley, who
commanded at the Navy Yard, had been reluctant to adopt any
measures which would bring him into hostility with the State troops,
and thus inaugurate the war. The rebels took advantage of this
leniency, but for once they were disappointed in their expectations of
success. The Commodore determined to destroy the immediate
agencies of the war, leaving the armories, ship wood, docks and
dwellings unharmed, hoping that, although they might for a time be
occupied by the insurgents, the stars and stripes would eventually
float over them in triumph.
At 8½ o’clock on Saturday evening, the 20th April, the Pawnee,
containing 600 Massachusetts troops from Fortress Monroe, arrived
at Gosport harbor, the Commodore’s flag at its mast-head the white
sails, relieved by the dark blue sky, appearing more like the floating
wings of the dove of peace than heralds of destruction. The scene
that followed is thus graphically described by an eye-witness.
Her coming was not unexpected, and as she glided to her place at
the dock, the men on the Pennsylvania and the Cumberland, several
hundred in number, greeted her with a volley of cheers that echoed
and re-echoed till all Norfolk and Portsmouth must have heard the
hail. The men of the Pennsylvania fairly outdid themselves in their
enthusiasm on this occasion. They clambered into the shrouds, and
not only answered to the “three cheers,” but volunteered “three times
three,” and gave them with a hurricane of heartiness. This intense
feeling on their part is easily explained. They had been a long time
almost imprisoned on shipboard, on a ship imbedded in the river,
motionless and helpless, and subject to promises from the
secessionists of speedy demolition. In the advent of the Pawnee they
saw deliverance from such durance, and they exulted with
tremendous emphasis.
All Portsmouth and Norfolk were thoroughly aroused by the
arrival of the Pawnee. They did not expect her, and were not
prepared for her. They were seized with trepidation, thinking,
perhaps, she had come, and along with the Cumberland and
Pennsylvania, meant to bombard the towns for having obstructed the
channel, and for having, the night before, rifled the United States
magazine, just below Norfolk, of about 4,000 kegs of powder. Being
utterly defenceless and quite terrified, the secessionists made no
protest against the Pawnee’s presence, nor did they venture too near
the Navy Yard.
The Pawnee made fast to the dock, and Colonel Wardrop marched
out his regiment and stationed them at the several gates of the Navy
Yard to oppose the entrance of any forces from without, in case an
attempt to enter should be made. Having adopted this precaution,
the Commodore set the marines on the Pennsylvania, the
Cumberland, the Pawnee, and in the yard, to work. All the books and
papers, the archives of the establishment, were transferred to the
Pawnee.

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Multiple Choice Questions

4. Cognitive psychologists are interested in examining the process of:

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e TB-8 | 1

8. Concepts refer to:

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18. Which of the following statements is true of subgoals?

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20. Heuristics differ from algorithms in that heuristics:

21. An effective way to strategize the organization of subgoals is to:

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24. Who would benefit the most from defining subgoals?

25. Who would benefit the most from defining subgoals?

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28. Which of the following is the main disadvantage of using algorithms?

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34. Which of the following is a characteristic of good problem solvers?

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35. Which of the following is an example of functional fixedness?

38. Which of the following best explains being cognitively flexible?

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43. Which of the following statements is true of inductive reasoning?

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66. Which of the following describes the trait of a critical thinker?

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67. The concept of mindfulness refers to:

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72. Being receptive to other ways of looking at things is referred to as _____.

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76. _____ thinking occurs during brainstorming.

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78. Which of the following statements is true of convergent thinking?

80. Which of the following is a trait of creative thinkers?

81. Which of the following statements is true of creative thinkers?

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101. A 20-year-old- woman with a mental age of 22 would have an IQ of _____.

102. A 6-year-old child with a mental age of 6 would have an IQ of _____.

103. If an outcome measure is normally distributed, this means that:

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109. As heritability is a proportion, the highest degree of heritability is________ percent.

110. Which of the following statements is true of heritability?

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113. Which of the following scenarios indicates giftedness?

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116. By definition, people who are gifted have ____.

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120. Which of the following represents a practical skill?

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