SURFACE FINISH

B N TARANATH
CONSULTING METROLOGIST,
TEL: 80-23224502 CELL: 98801 06760
E-MAIL: taranathbn@gmail.com

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ADVANCE INFORMATION
THE CONTENTS OF THE FOLLOWING LECTURE ON

“SURFACE FINISH & ITS EVALUATION”

IS THE PROPERTY OF Mr. B.N.TARANATH AND ANY

REPRODUCTION , PUBLICATION, DISTRIBUTION

OR USE OF THIS AS LECTURE MATERIAL IS

PROHIBITED. ANY VIOLATION WILL BE TREATED

AS BREACH OF RIGHTS.

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SURFACE ROUGHNESS IS IMPORTANT TO THE FUNCTION OF MANY KINDS OF

PRODUCTS RANGING FROM OPTICS TO HIGHWAYS.

THERE IS A BEWILDERING VARIETY OF PARAMETERS FOR DEFINING

ROUGHNESS

THERE IS ALSO A BEWILDERING VARIETY OF TECHNIQUES FOR DEFINING

AND ASSESSING SURFACE ROUGHNESS.

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THE WORDS ‘SURFACE ROUGHNESS’ , ‘SURFACE TEXTURE’, ‘SURFACE

TOPOGRAPHY’ ‘SURFACE FINISH’ ARE MANY TIMES USED INTERCHANGEABLY.

THE TERM ‘SURFACE ROUGHNESS’ GENERALLY REFERS TO OVERALL

DESCRIPTION OF THE SURFACE INCLUDING ITS TEXTURE, FLAWS,

ANY COATINGS APPLIED, OR/AND THE MATERIAL.

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SURFACE ROUGHNES IS A RELATIVELY NEW DISCIPLINE , WHICH CAME INTO

SERIOUS EXISTANCE SINCE THE LATE THIRTIES, A RESULT OF THE DEMANDS

IN WORLD WARS.

THE DEMANDS WERE, FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE, INCREASED LIFE AND

EASY INTERCHANGEABILITY ON THE WARFIELD.

IT WAS REALISED THAT THE BOUNDARY SURFACE PROPERTIES HELD THE

KEY AND THE SUBJECT OF SURFACE PROPERTIES AND ITS STUDY WAS BORN.

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WHAT IS SURFACE ROUGHNESS ?

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

SURFACE ROUGHNESS HOW DOES IT OCCUR?

HOW IS IT DEFINED?

HOW IS IT ASSESSED?

WHAT INSTRUMENTATION IS AVAILABLE FOR MEASUREMENT ?

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WHAT IS SURFACE ROUGHNESS ?

IT IS THE DEVIATION OF THE IDEAL SMOOTH SURFACE ENVISAGED

BY THE DESIGNER.

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‘ LAY ’ INDICATES THE DIRECTION OF THE DOMINANT PATTERN OF THE TEXTURE OF THE SURFACE
MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE FINISH IS ACROSS THE LAY

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HOW DID THE REALISATION COME ABOUT ?

 TECHNICAL ADVANCEMENT DURING THE WORLD WARS

 EASY NTERCHANGEABILITY NEEDS

 RELIABILITY OF PERFORMANCE

 DURABILITY OR COMPONENT LIFE

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DOES IT MATTER ?

YES, IT DOES. IT AFFECTS VARIOUS PARAMETERS AND FUNCTIONS OF A COMPONENT.

 FRICTION

 WEAR RESISTANCE

 LUBRICATION

 VIBRATION

 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY

 POWER CONSUMPTION

 RESISTANCE TO WEAR AND CORROSION

 APPEARANCE ETC. ETC.

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LAPPING, HONING

COST OF PRODUCTION

SUPERFINISHING

GRINDING

V= 200 M / min

V= 100 M/min V= 50 M / min

V= 200 M/min

SOFT METAL TURNING

SURFACE FINISH -- Ra

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THE GENERAL ASSUMPTION THAT DESIRED FIT BETWEEN MATING PARTS IS

OBTAINED BY LIMITING DIMENSIONS ONLY IS NOT ENTIRELY CORRECT.

IT IS BECAUSE A LIMIT GAUGE WHICH CHECKS THE LIMITING DIMENSIONS

DOES NOT TAKE INTO A CCOUNT THE SURFACE ASPECTS.

SURFACE FINISH IS VERY LIKELY TO AFFECT THE OVERALL PERFORMANCE

PARTICULARLY WHEN TOLERANCES ARE CLOSE.

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ANY MACHINED SURFACE WHEN VIEWED UNDER HIGH MAGNIFICATION

SHOWS A NUMBER OF PEAKS AND VALLEYS

TYPICAL RECORDING OF A SURFACE FROM A ELECTRONIC SURFACE FINISH TESTER

(HORIZONTAL MAGNIFICATION 20 X & VERTICAL MAGNIFICATION 5000 X

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TWO QUANTITIES ARE OF PRIMARY IMPORTANCE --------

--- A MEASURE OF SURFACE HEIGHT. INDICATED BY ROUGHNESS AVERAGES, Ra.

--- A MEASURE OF SPACINGS OF PEAKS AND VALLEYS, INDICATED BY WAVE

LENGTH, D.

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ANY MACHINING OR FORMING PROCESS RESULTS IN THE BOUNDARY SURFACE

BEING NOT SMOOTH -- BE IT A ROUGH MACHINING PROCESS LIKE SHAPING,

ROUGH TURNING OR A VERY HIGH LEVEL OF MACHINING LIKE LAPPING,

SUPERFINISHING ETC.

THESE PEAK – VALLEY IRREGULARITIES MAKE THE SURFACE DIGRESS FROM

THE IDEAL ONE ENVISAGED BY THE DESIGNER.

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ANY CHIP REMOVAL PROCESS GIVES RISE TO IRREGULARITIES

DEFORMATION OF WORK
DUE TO CUTTING FORCES
OR ITS OWN WE IGHT CUTTING TOOL ACTION

INHERENT INACCURACY
IMPROPER CLAMPING
IN THE MACHINE TOOL
IRREGULARITIES

CHARACTRISTICS OF METHOD OF MACHINING

CAUSES OF IRREGULARITIES

THESE IRREGULARITIES ARE BROADLY CLASSIFIED INTO FOUR ORDERS.

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FIRST ORDER
MACHINE TOOL INACCURACIES, NON-STRAIGHT GUIDEWAYS, DEFORMATION
OF WORK DUE TO CUTTING FORCES & ITS OWN WEIGHT ETC

SECOND ORDER
MACHINE TOOL AND CUTTING TOOL VIBRATIONS -- NORMALLY OCCUR
SURFACE AS CHATTER MARKS
IRREGULARITIES
ARE OF FOUR
ORDERS AND THIRD ORDER
ARE DUE TO
…… OCCUR DURING AND DUE TO CHARACTRISTICS OF MACHINING
(PRESENT EVEN IF MACHINE TOOL IS PERFECT & VIBRATION-FREE

FOURTH ORDER

DUE TO RUPTURE OF MATERIAL AT THE TIME OF CHIP REMOVAL

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EACH MACHINING PROCESS HAS ITS OWN CHARACTRISTICS OF SURFACE

GENERATION
AIR

PLANED/SHAPED SURFACE
VM 500 / HM 5
METAL

AIR GROUND SURFACE

HM 12000/VM 150
METAL

AIR
DIAMOND TURNED SURFACE

METAL VM 15000/HM 150

AIR
LAPPED SURFACE
VM 50000/HM 150
METAL

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FIRST AND SECOND ORDER IRREGULARITIES

MACRO-GEOMETRICAL IRREGULARITIES -- SECONDARY TEXTURE
CONSIDERABLE WAVE LENGTH & PERIODIC IN CHARACTER –
-- PITCH > 0.25 mm

THIRD AND FOURTH ORDER IRREGULARITIES

IRREGULARITIES MICRO-GEOMETRICAL IRREGULARITIES – PRIMARY TEXTURE -- -
SMALL WAVE LENGTHS -- RESULT OF DIRECT ACTION OF
CUTTING TOOL

SURFACE FLAWS
CRACKS, DENTS, BLEMISHES, SCRATCHES, BLOWHOLES ETC. –
-- INFREQUENT & WIDELY VARYING IN NATURE

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MACROGEOMETRICAL IRREGULARITIES
FORM ERRORS--CONSIDERABLE WAVE LENGTH & PERIODIC
IN CHARACTER-- WAVE LENGTHS > 0.25 MICRONS--
DEFORMATION OF WORK--M/C TOOL VIBRATIONS

MICROGEOMETRICAL IRREGULARITIES
SURFACE FINISH (SMALL WAVE LENGTH)-DUE TO
CUTTING TOOL ACTION-- WEAR---FRICTION--
IRREGULARITIES MATERIAL RUPTURE—OCCUR EVEN IF THE M/C
TOOL IS PERFECT AND VIBRATION-FREE

SURFACE FLAWS
CRACKS. BLEMISHES , SCRATCHES,BLOW-
HOLES--- INFREQUENT AND WIDELY VARYING
IN NATURE

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UNITS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT

SURFACE FINISH IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF LINEAR UNITS

IN SI SYSTEM IT IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF “MICRONS”

IN FPS SYSTEM IT IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF “MICROINCHES”

1 MICROINCH = 0.0254 MICRON

OR 40 MICROINCHES = 1 MICRON, APPROXIMATELY

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SYSTEMS OF ASSESSMENT

THERE ARE BASICALLY TWO SYSTEMS OF ASSESSMENT

‘M’ SYSTEM OR MEAN LINE SYSTEM

AND ‘E’ SYSTEM OR ENVELOPING LINE SYSTEM

‘ M’ SYSTEM OR THE MEAN LINE SYSTEM IS MORE POPULAR AND IS

ADOPTED BY MOST OF THE COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD.

‘E’ SYSTEM WAS QUITE POPULAR FOR SOMETIME IN GERMANY.

BUT OF LATE, IS REPLACED BY THE ‘M’ SYSTEM

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MEAN LINE SYSTEM

A4 A6 A8
A2

MEAN LINE A7
A1 A3 A5
SAMPLING LENGTH

MEAN LINE IS DRAWN, SUCH THAT, OVER SAMPLING LENGTH,

SUM OF AREAS (A1+A3+A5+A7) = SUM OF AREAS (A2+A4+A6+A8)

IT SHOULD ALSO FOLLOW THE GENERAL GEOMETRIC SHAPE OF THE PROFILE.

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PARAMATERS OF ASSESSMENT

FOR MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE FINISH, SEVERAL PARAMETERS HAVE BEEN

DEVELOPED.

EXXPERIENCE HAS SHOWN THAT, FOR ASSESSMENT OF FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES,

IT IS NOT ENOUGH TO HAVE ONE SINGLE PARAMATER AND FOR THIS REASON

SEVERAL PARAMETERS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED

PARAMETERS HAVE GENERALLY BEEN CLASSIFIED INTO THREE GROUPS

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AMPLITUDE PARAMETERS

BASED ON VERTICAL CHARACTATERISTICS OR ORDINATE

HEIGHTS OF THE IRREGULARITIES FROM THE MEAN LINE
– MORE POPULAR, GENERALLY SATISFACTORY AND USED
COMMONLY ALL OVER

SURFACE FINISH SPACING PARAMETERS

PARAMETERS BASED ON THE HORIZONTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
SURFACE IRREGULARITIES - USED IN SPECIAL CASES

HYBRID PARAMETERS

COMBINATION OF BOTH VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL

CHARACTERISTICS (BOTH AMPLITUDE AND SPACING)
OF THE IRREGULARITIES -- USED IN VERY SPECIAL
CASES AND VERY RARELY TOO

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AMPLITUDE PARAMETERS

THE IMPORTANT PARAMETERS OF ASSSESSMENT ARE …

1. CENTER LINE AVERAGE VALUE, Ra

2. ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE, R rms OR Rq

3. TEN POINT AVERAGE VALUE, Rz

4. MAXIMUM PEAK TO VALLEY VALUE R max IN ONE SAMPLING LENGTH

5. MAXIMUM PEAK TO VALLEY VALUE Rt IN ASSESSMENT LENGTH

6. AVERAGE PEAK TO VALLEY VALUE Rtm OVER SEVERAL SAMPLING LENGTHS

7. LEVELLING DEPTH Rp

8. AVERAGE LEVELLING DEPTH Rtp

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R a - CENTER LINE AVERAGE VALUE

Y3
Y1
A1 A3 A5 A7
MEAN LINE
Y2
A2 A4 A6
---Yn

L
ORDINATES ARE TAKEN AT EQUAL INTERVALS

 Y 1  Y 2  ..............  Y n n
  Y .dx
R a
n 1

ORDINATES TO BE ADDED WITHOUT TAKING THE SIGNS INTO CONSIDERATION

THIS IS ALSO THE ARITHMETIC AVERAGE VALUE OR AA - VALUE

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Ra IS THE MOST WIDELY USED PARAMETER

Ra IS NORMALLY TAKEN OVER SEVERAL CONSECUTIVE SAMPLING LENGTHS AND

ARE AVERAGED.

Ra IS THE ARITHMETIC MEAN OF THE DEPARTURES OF THE POINTS ON THE

PROFILE FROM THE MEAN LINE.

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A1 A3 A5 A7
MEAN LINE

A2 A4 A6

Ra VALUE CAN ALSO BE CALCULATED FROM THE AREAS BETWEEN THE PROFILE

AND THE MEAN LINE.


 A
1
 A  A  A    A  A  A  1000
3 5 7 2 4 6
R a
L
X
M
WHERE, A1,A2.--- ARE AREAS IN SQUARE MILLIMETERS
L IS THE SAMPLING LENGTH IN MILLIMETERS
AND M IS THE VERTICAL MGNIFICATION OF THE RECORDED PROFILE

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ADVANTAGES OF Ra

• EASY AND RELIABLE INSTRUMENTATION

• SMALL SCATTER OF MEASURED VALUES

• GOOD DISCRIMINATING AND SORTING POWER

DISADVANTAGES OF Ra

 AN AVERAGE VALUE –DOES NOT REVEAL ACTUAL IRREGULARITIES.

 SURFACES WITH SAME Ra VALUE CAN HAVE DIFFERENT CHARATERISTICS

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R rms OR (Rq) : ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE

Y3
Y1

Y2
---Yn
L
ORDINATES ARE TAKEN AT EQUAL INTERVALS
ORDINATES TO BE SQUARED AND ADDED

Y 1  Y 2  ...............  Y n
2 2 2 n

Rrms   Y
2
.dx
n 1

THIS IS THE ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OR Rrms OR Rq VALUE

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Rrms IS THE AVERAGE ROOT MEAN SQUARE DEVIATION OF THE PROFILE FROM

THE MEAN LINE OVER THE SAMPLING LENGTH.

IN MATHEMATICAL TERMS,

L
1 1 n 2

L 0 Y
 
2
R rms
.dx
n 1Y 1

WHERE ‘n’ IS THE NUMBER OF ORDINATES IN THE SAMPLING LENGTH ‘L’

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RZ : 10 -POINT HEIGHT OF IRREGULARITIES OR

10 -POINT PEAK TO VALLEY AVERAGE HEIGHT

AIR

METAL
Y2 Y3 Y10
Y4 Y6
Y7 Y8 Y9
Y1
Y5 DATUM LINE

L - SAMPLING LENGTH

Y  Y  Y  Y  Y   Y  Y  Y  Y  Y 
R
z
2 4 6
5
9 10 1 3 5 7 8

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RZ WAS PROPOSED FOR EASIER DETRRMINATION OF Ra

R Z
 K. Ra

WHERE ‘K’ IS A CONSTANT, ITS VALUE DEPENDING ON THE MACHINING

PROCESS ADOPTED.

VALUE OF ‘K’ VARIES FROM 3.5 FOR ROUGH SURFACES TO 13 FOR FINELY

FINISHED SURFACES

R z IS MORE SENSITIVE THAN R a TO CHANGES IN SURFACE ROUGHNESS

FINISH AS MAXIMUM PROFILE HEIGHTS AND NOT AVERAGES ARE BEING

CONSIDERED.

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R max : MAXIMUM P-TO-V HEIGHT IN ONE SAMPLING LENGTH

AIR
R max
METAL

SAMPLING LENGTH

SURFACES WHICH HAVE SAME ‘ R max ‘ VALUE MAY BE ENTIRELY DIFFERENT

USED WHEN THERE ARE SOME TECHNOLOGICAL OR FUNCTIONAL REASONS

LIKE TO KNOW THE DEPTH OF MACHINING IN SUBSEQUENT OPERATION.

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R max IS USEFUL FOR SURFACES WHERE EVEN A SINGLE DEFECT IS NOT PERMISSIBLE,

FOR EXAMPLE, A SEAL WITH A SINGLE SCRATCH.

Rz AND Rmax ARE USED TOGETHER TO MONITOR THE VARIATIONS OF

SURFACE FINISH IN A PRODUCTION PROCESS. SIMILAR VALUES OF Rz AND Rmax

INDICATE A CONSISTENT SURFACE FINISH, WHILE A SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE

INDICATES A SURFACE DEFECT IN AN OTHERWISE CONSISTENT SURFACE.

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DIFFERENT SURFACES HAVING THE SAME R a AND R max

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Rt : PEAK-TO-VALLEY HEIGHT IN ASSESSMENT LENGTH

R max6
R max7
R max3

Rt
R max1 R max2 R max5
R max4
AIR

METAL

L L L L L L L
L: SAMPLING LENGTH
ASSESSMENT LENGTH

Rmax1 Rmax2 ….…..MAX P-TO-V HEIGHTS WITHIN SAMPLING LENGTHS

Rt …… MAX P-TO-V HEIGHT WITHIN THE ASSESSMENT LENGTH ….. THE PEAK

POINT AND THE VALLEY POINT CAN BE ANYWHERE WITHIN THE LENGTH.

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R tm …AVERAGE P-TO-V HEIGHTS OVER ANY ‘5’ CONSECUTIVE SAMPLING LENGTHS


R max 1
 Rmax 2  Rmax 3  Rmax 4  Rmax 5  1 5
  Rmax
R tm
5 5 1

SURFACES WITH FLAWS LIKE BLOWHOLES, CRACKS, BLEMISHES ETC MAY SHOW

EXCESSIVE VALUE OF R max OR Rt OR Rtm.

THIS IS A DISADVANTAGE WITH OF ‘R max ‘ OR ‘Rt’ OR ‘Rtm’. ‘

THIS MEASURE IS ALSO IMPORTANT SINCE IT HAS INFLUENCE ON SOME

SURFACE PROPERTIES LIKE FATIGUE RESISTANCE.

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R p : LEVELLING DEPTH

R p (M)
MEAN LINE

‘L’ IS THE SAMPLING LENGTH, AND, Rp (M) IS THE LEVLLING DEPTH EQUAL TO THE

MAXIMUM PROFILE HEIGHT FROM THE MEAN LINE

1
R p (M )  L  Y .dL
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Rp (M) IS THE PARAMETER WHICH DESCRIBES THE FUNCTIONAL QUALITY OF

THE SURFACE MORE CLOSELY THAN A NY OTHER PARAMETER.

IT GIVES INFORMATION ABOUT THE MINIMUM INITIAL VOLUME OF LUBRICANT

THAT COULD BE CONTAINED BETWEEN TWO SLIDING SURFACES.

QUITE FREQUENTLY USED IN LUBRICATION CHARACTERISATION APPLICATIONS

ADOPTED BY MANY COUNTRIES

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R pm: AVERAGE LEVELLING DEPTH

MEAN LINE

L L L L L

L IS THE SAMPLING LENGTH

R p IS THE MAXIMUM PROFILE HEIGHT FROM MEAN LINE WITHIN SAMPLING LENGTH

R pm IS THE MEAN VALUE OF Rp DETERMINED OVER ‘5’ SAMPLING LENGTHS

R  R pm2  R pm3  R pm4  R pm5 1

5
   R pi.dr
pm1
R pm
5 5 i 1

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SPACING PARAMETERS

THE SPACING PARAMETERS GIVE AN INDICATION OF THE NATURE OF THE

SURFACE IN THE HORIZONTAL DIRECTION

THERE ARE QUITE A FEW PARAMETERS, ANY OF WHICH ARE CHOSEN

DEPENDING ON THE FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE SURFACE.

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THESE PARAMETERS ARE NOT NORMALLY USED ON THE WORKSHOP FLOOR,

EXCEPT FOR THE PARAMETER OF BEARING RATIO (t p %).

SOME OF THE SPACING PARAMETERS ARE.

∆ a & ∆q : AVERAGE SLOPE, BASED ON Ra & Rrms RESPECTIVELY

λa & λq : AVERAGE WAVE LENGTH, BASED ON Ra & Rrms RESPECTIVELY

Sm : MEAN SPACING OF PROFILE IRREGULARITIES

HSC : HIGH SPOT COUNT AT THE MEAN LINE, WITHIN ASSESSMENT LENGTH

(t p %): BEARING RATIO AT A SELECTED DEPTH BELOW 0% LEVEL OF PROFILE

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HEIGHT ABOVE THE LOWEST VALLEY

(t p %) : BEARING RATIO
0%
BEARING AREA CURVE
METAL OR
ABBOT-FIRESTONE CURVE
‘h’

AIR

L 100%

BEARING RATIO ‘tp‘ IS THE LENGTH OF THE BEARING SURFACE, EXPRESSED

AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE SAMPLING LENGTH ‘L’ AT A HEIGHT ‘h’ ABOVE

LOWEST VALLEY ON THE SURFACE OR AT A DEPTH OF ‘p’ BELOW THE HIGHEST

POINT .
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BEARING RATIO PARAMETER IS USEFUL IN APPLICATIONS WHERE THE LOAD

BEARING PROPERTIES OR BEARING PROPERTIES OR WEAR RESISTANCE OR

DURABILITY OR USEFUL LIFE OF A COMPONENT OR SURFACE IS IMPORTANT.

BEARING RATIO PARAMETER IS PARTICULARLY USEFUL IN STUDIES RELATED

TO RUNNING- IN CHARACTERISTICS OF PISTON-CYLINDER ASSEMBLIES

AND SIMILAR APPLICATIONS.

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PREFERRED VALUES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS

TO STANDARDISE ON THE VALUES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS THAT

ARE SPECIFIED ON DRAWINGS AND OTHER PLACES (WHEREVER THEY ARE

REQUIRED), THE PREFERRED NUMERICAL VALUES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS

HAVE BEEN CHOSEN AND RECOMMENDED.

THE PREFERRED VALUES ARE DERIVED FROM A SERIES COMPRISING OF EVERY

THIRD TERM OF R10 SERIES. THE SERIES FORMS A SIMPLE GEOMETRIC SERIES,

WHEREIN EACH VALUE IS NEARLY TWICE THAT OF THE PREVIOUS VALUE.

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PREFERRED VALUES FOR R a in microns (IS 3073)

0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4
0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5
25 50 * 100*

PREFERRED VALUES FOR R z in microns (IS 3073)

0.05 0.10 0.2 0.4 0.8

1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25
50 * 100*

PREFERRED VALUES FOR R p in microns (DIN 4763)

0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4

0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5
25 50 100

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PREFERRED VALUES FOR R max , R t , (DIN 4763)

--- --- ---- 0.04 0.06
0.1 0.16 0.25 0.4 0.63
1 1.6 2.5 4 6.3
10 16 25 40 63
100 160 250 400 630
1000 1600 2500 -- --

PREFERRED VALUES FOR tp %, (DIN 4763)

10 15 20 25 30
40 50 60 70 80
90 100
LEVEL ‘p’ IS SELECTED AS FOLLOWS: p = 0.1 µ FOR R max UPTO 1 µ

p = 0.25 µ FOR R max FROM 1 UPTO 2.5 µ

p = 0.6 µ FOR R max FROM 2.5 UPTO 6 µ

p = 1.6 µ FOR R max FROM 2.5 µ UPTO 1 µ

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIOUS SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS

• THERE ARE FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS

• THERE IS NO DIRECT MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIP

• SURFACE CHARACTRISTICS DIFFER FOR DIFFERENT MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

• NEVERTHELESS, THERE ARE SOME EMPERICAL RELATIOSHIPS

• SERVE FOR APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS

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R a-μm - 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25 50

R a- μinch 1 2 4 8 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000 2000

R t -C 0,25 0,5 1 2 4 8 16 32

N-Grade N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10 N11 N12

Triangular
Indication
Lapping Smooth Medium Rough
Finish Ground Finishes
and Super finishing Turned Turned Machined

ISO 1302: 2002 ALSO SPECIFIES ROUGHNESS GRADE NUMBERS FROM N 0 TO N12

GRADE ‘N 0’ IS NOT IN THE ABOVE TABLE AND IS EQUIVALENT TO 0.0125 μm

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Ra AND OTHER PARAMETERS FOR DIFFERENT

PROCESSES

R R 
rms q R z R t R p

MACHINING PROCESS
R a R a R a R a

TURNING 1.1 TO 1.15 4.0 TO 5.3 4.0 TO 5.0 2.5 TO 3.0

GRINDING 1.18. TO 1.3 5.0 TO 7.0 7.0 TO 14.0 2 TO 4

LAPPING 1.3 TO 1.5 ------ 7.0 TO 14.0 ------

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIOUS ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS

R z = 4 TO 13 TIMES Ra

R p = 2 Ra

R rms (OR R q) = 1.1 Ra

R t = 1.1.,TO 1.3 TIMES Ra

Rt = 2 Rp

R t = 4 TO 13 TIMES Ra

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SAMPLING LENGTH (METER CUT-OFF VALUES)

• LENGTH OF PROFILE SELECTED FOR OBTAINING THE VALUE OF SURFACE

ROUGHNESS

• PURPOSE IS TO ELIMINATE THE EFFECT OF WAVINESS IN COMPUTATION

• ALSO KNOWN AS INSTRUMENT CUT- OFF OR METER CUT-OFF

• PROPER SELECTION IS IMPORTANT

• DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF MACHINING

• FOR FINER TYPES OF MACHINING IT IS LESS AND FOR COARSER IT IS MORE

• THE LENGTHS HAVE BEEN STANDARDISED

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INFLUENCE OF SAMPLING LENGTH ON ROUGHNESS HEIGHTS

L1 L3
L2 L4

H 1 AND H 3 ARE WHEN WAVEFORM IS FILTERED; SAMPLING LENGTHS L 1 & L 3

H 2 AND H 4 ARE WHEN WAVEFORM IS NOT FILTERED; SAMPLING LENGTHS L 2 & L 4

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RECOMMENDED SAMPLING LENGTHS FOR DIFFERENT MACHINING PROCESSES

MACHINING V JKJKJ SAMPLING LENGTHS (METER CUT-OFF)

SUITABLE
PROCESS 0.25 mm 0.8 mm 2.5 mm 8 mm 25 mm
PLANING X X X
SHAPING /MILLING X X X
TURNING / REAMING X X
BROACHING X
GRINDING X X X
DIAMOND TURNING /
HONING/LAPPING/ X X
SUPERFIINISHING
BUFFING / POLISHING X X
SPARK MACHINING X
BURNISHING /
DRAWING/
EXTRUSION/MOULDING/ X X
ELECTRO POLISHING

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TOLERANCE GRADES AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS

 THERE IS NO DEFINITE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE

AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS.

 ACCURATE DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENT OF CLOSELY TOLERANCED PARTS

WITH COARSE SURFACE FINISH CANNOT BE MADE.

 WHEREVER DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES ARE CLOSE., IT IS NECESSARY TO

SPECIFY FINER SURFACE FINISHES.

 AN APPROXIMATE GUIDELINE IS GIVEN IN THE FOLLOWING TABLE

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VALUES OF SURFACE FINISH FOR DIFFERENT CLASS OF FITS

DIAMETER CLASS OF FIT

RANGE
IT 5 IT 6 IT 7 IT 8 IT 9 IT 10 IT 11 IT 12
( mm)
SURFACE FINISH Ra IN MICRONS
1 TO 3 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.8 6.3
3 TO 6 0.2 1.6
6 TO 10 0.4 0.8 3.2 6.3
10 TO 18 0.4 1.6 12.5
18 TO 30 0.8 3.2
30 TO 50 1.6 6.3
50 TO 80 0.8 3.2 3.2 12.5
80 TO 120 1.6
120 TO 180 3.2 6.3 25
180 TO 250 1.6 1.6 3.2 12.5
250 TO 315
315 TO 400 1.6 6.3 25
400 TO 500 3.2 3.2 12.5 50

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SURFACE FINISHES OBTAINED BY VARIOUS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

THE INFO ABOVE IS ONLY A GUIDE

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INDICATION ON DRAWINGS

 AT ONE TIME, THE TERMS “ ROUGH MACHINE”, “MEDIUM MACHINE” AND

“FINE MACHINE” WERE BEING USED.

 THEN CAME THE INVERTED TRIANGULAR SYMBOL REPRESENTATION

 MORE THE NUMBER OF TRIANGLES, BETTER IS THE SURFACE FINISH

 TRIANGULAR SYMBOLS ARE FOUND EVEN TO THIS DAY

 PRESENT AND A BETTER PRACTICE IS TO INDICATE IT IN NUMERICAL VALUES

 THE NUMERICAL VALUES ARE SELECTED FROM THE PREFERRED SERIES

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TRIANGULAR SYMBOLS AND THEIR EQUIVALANTS IN R a

---- 0. 012 ; 0. 025 ; 0. 05 ; 0.1 ; 0.2

---- 0. 4 & 0 . 8

---- 1.6 ; 3. 2 & 6, 3

--- 12. 5 & 25

(ALL VALUES IN MICRONS)

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SURFACE FINISH AND PRODUCTION COSTS

 SURFACE FINISH AND PRODUCTION COSTS ARE CLOSELY LINKED

 THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION OF FINER SURFACES EXPONENTIALLY INCREASES

 GENERALLY, THE COST OF IMPROVING A SURFACE TO TWO TIMES BETTER

INCREASES THE COSTS 4 TIMES

 SPECIFICATION OF SURFACE FINISH SHOULD BE JUST WHAT IS REQUIRED FOR

SATISFACTORY FUNCTIONING

 COARSER SPECIFICATION , THOUGH REDUCES COSTS, HAMPERS FUNCTIONALITY

 FINER SPECIFICATION INCREASES THE COST OF THE PRODUCT ENORMOUSLY

 OPTIMISED SPECIFICATION NOT ONLY MEETS THE FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS,

ALSO KEEPS THE COSTS UNDER CONTROL

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MEASUREMENT

OF

SURFACE ROUGHNESS

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BY SIGHT OR FEEL
WHEN HIGH ACCURACIES
ARE NOT REQUIRED

QUALITATIVE

EVALUATION

QUANTITATIVE
WHEN GOOD ACCURACIES ARE
REQUIRED -- DIRECT METER
READING & PROFILE RECORDS

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VISUAL or TACTILE COMPARISON

COMPARI SON MICROSCOPES

QUALITATIVE
INSPECTION
COMPARI SON SPECIMENS

PILOT SPECIMENS

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COMPARISON MICROSCOPE

 FOR ANALYSING SPECIMENS VIEWED SIDE-BY-SIDE

 TWO MICROSCPES WITH OPTICAL PATHS CONNECTED BY AN OPTICAL BRIDGE

 SURFACES SEEN SIDE BY SIDE

 SURFACES WITH DIFFERENT PROFILES

BUT SAME AVERAGE HEIGHT APPEAR
SIMILAR

 ONLY TO SEE IF SURFACES ARE

COARSER OR FINER

 NO INFO ABOUT SHA[E OR SIZE

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ROUGHNESS COMPARI SON SPECIMENS

 WORKPIECE SURFACE COMPARED WITH A STANDARD SAMPLE

 COMPARING DONE BY SENSING THE SURFACE WITH A FINGERNAIL

 ROUGHNESS COMPARISON SPECIMEN PREPARED AFTER A THOROUGH STUDY

 SPECIMENS MADE FOR DIFFERENT MACHINING PROCESSES & DIFFERENT TOOLS

 OPERATORS PROVIDED WITH STANDARD SPECIMEN FOR USE

 REFERENCE SPECIMEN ALSO HELP THE DESIGNERS FOR REALISTIC SPECIFICATIONS

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PILOT SPECIMENS

 FOR COMPARISON IDEAL IS TO HAVE REFERENCE MADE OUT OF SAME

MATERIAL, SAME PROCESS, SAME TOOL & SAME CONDITIONS

 USE ALMOST SIMILAR TO COMPARISON SPECIMEN

 ACTUAL WORK PIECE FROM THE PRODUCTION

 REQUIRED FINISH OBTAINED ON THE FIRST PIECE

 SAME MACHINING PARAMETERS USED FOR SUBSEQUENT WORKPIECES

 USED WHERE MASTERS ARE NOT AVAILABLE

 WHERE PRODUCTION OF WORKPIECES IS IN LARGE QUANTITIES

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QUANTITATIVE INSPECTION

 QUALITATIVE INSPECTION IS SUBJECTIVE

 QUANTITATIVE VALUES IN NUMERICAL FIGURES

 FOR CHECKING SURFACE FINISH , RELIABLY AND UNAMBIGUOUSLY

 INSTRUMENTS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED BASED ON MECHANICAL, OPTICAL

AND ELECTRICAL / ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES

 ELECTRICAL / ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS ARE VERY POPULAR

 COMPUTERISATION HELPS IN OBTAINING VALUES AS PER VARIOUS PARAMETERS

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INSTRUMENTS BASED ON MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

 IN THE PRESENT DAY, THESE ARE ONLY OF ACADEMIC INTEREST

 THESE WERE FAIRLY POPULAR DURING THE EARLY DAYS WHEN ELECRICAL
INSTRUMENTS WERE NOT WELL DEVELOPED

 ONLY TWO INSTRUMENTS WERE SOMEWHAT POPULAR :

(A) SURFACE FINISH INDICATOR MADE BY CE JOHANSSON OF SWEDEN

(B) ‘MECRIN’ ROUGHNESS INDICATOR MADE BY RUBERT & CO OF U.K.

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SURFACE FINISH INDICATOR (CE JOHANSSON )

 AN INSTRUMENT ALMOST LIKE A MYKATOR (MICRON DIAL INDICATOR).

 IT HAD THREE CARBIDE SKIDS

 ONE OF THE SKIDS HAD A HOLE THROUGH WHICH A DIAMOND STYLUS PASSED

 WHEN THE INSTRUMENT WAS DRAGGED ON A SURFACE ON ITS SKIDS,

THE DIAMOND STYLUS REGISTERED P –TO – V VALUE ON A DIAL.

 BY DRAGGING THE STYLUS AT A NUMBER OF PLACES AND TAKING INDICATOR

READINGS. R z COULD BE EVALUATED

 FROM R z AND THE RELATION BETWEEN R z & Ra , Ra COULD BE EVALUATED

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‘MECRIN’ SURFACE ROUGHNESS INDICATOR (RUBERT & CO, UK)

 A THIN METALLIC BLADE WAS PUSHED AGAINST THE SURFACE

 BLADE IS PUSHED AT AN ANGLE

 AT SMALL ANGLES THE BLADE SLIDES AGAINST THE SURFACE , AND AT LARGER
ANGLES OF ATTACK THE BLADE BUCKLES

 THE ANGLE AT WHICH THE BLADE JUST BEGINS TO BUCKLE ( CRTICAL ANGLE)
DEPENDS ON THE SLOPE OF IRREGULARITIES WHICH IN TURN DEPENDS ON
THE ROUGHNESS OF SURFACE

 THE CRITICAL ANGLE IS MEASURED , IN TERMS OF R a USING A PENDULUM- GEAR

MECHANISM

 INSTRUMENT IS CALIBRATED AGAINST MASTER SPECIMENS

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DIAL INDICATOR
FOR SURFACE FINISH
BASIC FORM OF MECRIN

.
N11

BLADE

COVER

OPERATING TRIGGER

ANGLE OF ATTACK

ANGLE OF ATTACK

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INSTRUMENTS BASED ON OPTICAL PRINCIPLES

OUT OF THE MANY OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS DEVELOPED FOR SURFACE FINISH,

ONLY TWO INSTRUMENTS ARE SOMEWHAT POPULAR. THESE ARE ALSO KNOWN

AS OPTICAL PROFILERS.

THEY ARE , (A) LIGHT SECTION MICROSCOPE AND

(B) INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE

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LIGHT SECTION MICROSCOPE

 OPERATES ON DR.SCHMALTZ’S PRINCIPLE OF A ‘KNIFE’ OF INCIDENT LIGHT ON A SURFACE

 THE ‘KNIFE’ GIVES RISE TO A BAND OF LIGHT FOLLOWING CLOSELY THE PROFILE LINE

 THE CUT SECTION IS VIEWED IN A MICROSCOPE

 FROM THE PROFILE VIEWED, Ra, Rt , Rz , CAN BE EVALUATED

 VERY SUITABLE FOR ROUGH SURFACES WHERE STYLUS METHODS ARE IMPRACTICAL

 BEING NON-CONTACT, USEFUL FOR SOFT MATERIALS

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eyepiece

roughness

90 0
45 0

LIGHT SECTION MICROSCOPE

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INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE

light source

eyepiece
OPTICAL SYSTEM OF AN
INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE

REFERENCE SURFACE
SURFACE UNDER
EXAMINATION

 USEFUL FOR VERY SMOOTH , FLAT , REFLECTIVE SURFACES, LIKE, FINE GROUND
LAPPED , SUPERFINISHED SURFACES

 SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS APPEAR AS DICONTINUITIES IN THE FRINGES

 DEPTHS OF DISCONTINUITIES CAN BE EXAMINED W.R.T. WAVE LENGTH OF LIGHT

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COMBINED
WAVEFORM

WAVE 2

WAVE 1

TWO WAVES IN PHASE TWO WAVES 180 0 OUT OF PHASE

PRINCIPLE OF INTERFERENCE

INTERFERENCE FRINGES

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MODERN DAY OPTICAL PROFILERS

IN THESE DAYS OF NANOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS WHEREIN VERY SMOOTH

SURFACES NEED TO BE EXAMINED FOR SURFACE FINISHES, NON CONTACT METHODS

NEED TO BE EMPLOYED.

 HIGH LATERAL AND ACCURATE HIGH RESOLUTIONS ARE AVAILABLE IN MODERN DAY

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPES (AFMs), SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPES (SEMs),

SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPES(STMs).

 THESE ARE EMPLOYED IN DETERMINING THE HEIGHTS OF ASPERITIES.

 THE DISADVANTAGE IS THAT THESE HAVE VERY SMALL FIELD OF VIEW AND MANY

TIMES MAY MISS THE LARGER VARIATIONS.

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MEASUREMENT USING ELECTRICAL / ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

 ALMOST ALL INSTRUMENTS OPERATING ON ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES HAVE A STYLUS.

 NORMALLY, THE TIP OF THE STYLUS IS A DIAMOND POINTED ONE.

 TIP RADIUS IS NOT STANDARDISED, AS YET.

 TOO SHARP A STYLUS HAS A SHORT LIFE AND TOO BLUNT A STYLUS FAILS TO GET
INTO ALL THE VALLEYS.

 A COMPROMISE IS 2.5 TO 5 MICRONS, MOSTLY 2.5 MICRONS.

 PRESSURE ON THE STYLUS IS OF THE ORDER OF 0.1 GRAM.

 DATUM FOR MEASUREMENT IS PROVIDED BY THE SURFACE ITSELF.

CONTINUED ……..

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……… CONTINUED

 A GUIDE (ALSO CALLED A SKID) IS PROVIDED IN FRONT OF THE STYLUS .

 THE SKID HAS A RELATIVELY LARGE RADIUS (OF THE ORDER OF 25 mm).

 THE SKID SMOOTHENS OUT THE EFFECT OF UNDULATIONS.

 PATH OF SKID IS DATUM FOR ALL MEASUREMENTS

 SKIDLESS PICK-UPS ARE ALSO USED, WHERE A STRAIGHT LINE DATUM IS MAINTAINED
IN THE TRAVERSING MECHANISM.

 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC BASED INSTRUMENTS ARE ALSO KNOWN AS PROFILOMETERS

SPRING
STYLUS
ARM

SKID

SURFACE UNDER
STYLUS
EXAAMINATION

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

 WORK ON THE PRINCIPLE SIMILAR TO THAT OF A GRAMOPHONE PICK-UP

 SKID AND PICK-UP ARE TRAVERSED ACROSS THE SURFACE BY MOTORISED DRIVE

 UNDULATORY MOVEMENTS OF THE STYLUS ARE TRANSFERRED TO A TRANSDUCER

 THE TRANSDUCER IN TURN GENERATES A SIGNAL -- VOLTAGE OR CURRENT

 SIGNALS ARE AMPLIFIED AND FED TO AN INTEGRATING CIRCUIT

 THE DISPLAY OF THE ROUGHNESS VALUE CAN BE ON A METER

 SIGNALS CAN ALSO BE FED TO A RECTILINEAR RECORDER TO GET A PROFILE GRAPH

 WIDE RANGE OF MAGNIFICATIONS ARE AVAILABLE – TYPICALLY 500X TO 100,000 X

 TYPICAL RECORDING IS AS FOLLOWS

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SPRING
STYLUS ARM

TRANSDUCER SIGNALS FILTER

SKID

SURFACE UNDER AMPLIFIER

STYLUS
EXAAMINATION

PROCESSOR
(INTEGRATING
CIRCUIT)
ANALOGUE METER READING

DIGITAL DISPLAY

RECTILINEAR RECORDER
(STRIP CHART)

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTRICAL SURFACE FINISH TESTER

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Q : Displacement sensitive device H : Hinge

T : Stylus

S: Skid

Z : Specimen

ARRANGEMENT OF STYLUS AND SKID IN A STYLUS TYPE SURFACE FINISH TESTER

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STYLUS - SKID ARRANGEMENTS

STYLUS PICK-UP
STYLUS AND SKID ON THE SAME AXIS
SKID

PICK-UP
SWIVELLING
STYLUS AND SKID OFFSET SKID OR SHOE
STYLUS

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GENERATED DATUM

SKID

STYLUS

SKID RADIUS IS OF THE ORDER OF 6 TO 50 mm

STYLUS TIP RADIUS IS OF THE ORDER OF 2.5 TO 5 MICRONS

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TYPICAL RECORDING OF A SURFACE FROM AN ELECTRONIC SURFACE FINISH TESTER

(HORIZONTAL MAGNIFICATION 20 X & VERTICAL MAGNIFICATION 5000 X)

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A TYPICAL PORTABLE SURFACE FINISH TESTER

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MEASUREMENT OF SURFACES INACCESSIBLE TO INSTRUMENTS

 SOMETIMES SURFACES MAY NOT BE DIRECTLY ACCESSIBLE

 SOMETIMES DIRECT MEASUREMENT MAY BE UNECONOMICAL ALSO

 REPLICATION OF SURFACE NEEDS TO BE RESORTED TO

 THE REPLICATED SURFACE IS CHECKED ON ANY REGULAR INSTRUMENT FOR S.F.

 SURFACE COPYING CAN BE DONE IN TWO WAYS

(a) PLASTIC FILM METHOD

(b) POLYMERISING PLASTIC METHOD

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(a) PLASTIC FILM METHOD

 CELLULOSE ACETATE PAPER OF ABOUT 0.5 mm THICK

 SOLVENT MIXTURE OF ACETONE + 10% CELLULOSE ACETATE

 FEW DROPS ARE PUT ON THE SURFACE AND C.A. PAPER PRESSED AGAINST IT

 KEEP PRESSED FOR ABOUT 15 TO 20 MINUTES

 MOUNT THE PAPER ON A LAPPED SURFACE AND CHECK

 CAN BE USED FOR BOTH QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE CHECKING

 DISADVANTAGES -- CANNOT BE STORED FOR LONG PERIODS -- LATERAL

MOVEMENT WHILE COPYING RESULTS IN IMPROPER REPLICATION

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(b) POLYMERISING PLASTIC METHOD

 MAKES USE OF A SPECIAL POLYESTER RESIN AND AN ACCELERATING MEDIUM

 RESIN AND MEDIUM ARE MIXED JUST BEFORE USING & CAST ON THE SURFACE

 A DAM OF PLASICINE ACTS AS A RETAINER

 POLYMERISATION TAKES PLACE AND THE MIXTURE HARDENS

 TAKES ABOUT AN HOUR TO SET

 AFTER COMPLETE SETTING CAST IS TAKEN OUT AND CHECKED

 ADVANTAGES -- CASTINGS ARE STABLE AND CAN BE STORED FOR A LONG TIME
CAN BE REPEATEDLY EXAMINED AND STORED

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WHERE DO WE GO WRONG IN SURFACE FINISH GAGING?

 INCLUDING FLAWS AND DEFECTS INTO THE MEASUREMENTS

 INATTENTION TO LEVELING

 NOT TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

 NOT UNDERSTANDING CALIBRATION PROCEDURES AND LIMITATIONS

 IGNORING ADVANCED GAGE FUNCTIONS

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A SURFACE IS A THREE DIMENSIONAL OBJECT WITH A TOPOGRAPHICAL

STRUCTURE LIKE THE COUNTRYSIDE WITH HILLS , VALLEYS, RAVINES, AND

MOUNTAIN RANGES , ETC. IT SHOULD BE CLEAR THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO

DEFINE GEOMETRICALLY THE CHARACTRISTICS OF COMPLICATED THREE

DIMENSIONAL OBJECTS USING LENGTHS ALONE .

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SURFACE TEXTURE IS NOT A LENGTH , BUT, A PROPERTY OF THE WORKPIECE

( LIKE HARDNESS ) . SURFACE TEXTURE ,THEREFORE, IS BEST MEASURED BY ITS

EFFECTS , LIKE, FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE , LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY, OIL

FILM RETENTION CAPACITY, ETC. FOR INSTANCE

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RECENT ADVANCES

 NEW PARAMETERS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED, BASED ON FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

 REQUIREMENTS MAY BE FRICTION, LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY, WEAR, CORROSION,

FATIGUE STRENGTH, DYNAMIC RESPONSE, LUBRICATION ETC. ETC.

 NEW PARAMETERS ARE VERY SOPHISTICATED

 NEED COMPUTERS AND DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATION & ANALYSIS

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AMPLITUDE PARAMETERS : MEASURES OF VERTICAL CHARACTRISTICS

OF THE SURFACE DEVIATIONS .

Ra , Rq , Rv , Rp , Rpm , Rt , Rti , Ry , Rtm ( Rz DIN ) , R3y , R3z .

W a , W q , W v, W p , W t
SPACING PARAMETERS: MEASURE OF HORI ZONTAL CHARACTRISTICS

OF THE SURFACE DEVIATIONS .

S , Sm , HSC , Pc

HYBRID PARAMETERS: COMBINATION OF AMPLITUDE AND SPACING

 ,  q , Bearing Ratio ( t p)

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IN ADDITION, QUITE A GOOD NUMBER OF COMPLEX PARAMETERS HAVE ALSO

BEEN DEVELOPED , WITH AN ATTEMPT TO DEFINE THE SURFACE IN AMPLITUDE

AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS.

AMPLITUDE DENSITY CURVE, POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY CURVE, AUTO-CORRELATION

FUNCTION ETC ARE SOME OF THE COMPLEX PARAMETERS

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THE RESEARCH FOR NEWER PARAMETERS

AND TO UNIQUELY CHARACTERISE A

SURFACE IS GOING ……….

……. ON AND ON AND ON AND ON ……..

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