Intelligent battery management and charging for electric

vehicles
Introduction

As the green movement increases in popularity, more and

more electric vehicles (EVs) of all kinds—from electric
scooters to cars to buses and cargo trucks—will grace the
roads. Power designers will be challenged to provide
systems that can be adapted to a wide variety of different
types of batteries and vehicles with vastly diverse
performance requirements. EV battery packs are made up
of multiple cell modules arranged in series and in parallel.
Arranged around the battery pack and throughout the
vehicle, the battery management system (BMS) is
comprised of several components, including monitoring
components close to the battery cells themselves, one or
more power-conversion stages dictated by the needs of
the vehicle, and intelligent controllers or embedded
processors placed at strategic locations in the architecture
to manage various aspects of the power subsystem

two frequent catastrophic battery failures made the

Boeing 787 Dreamliners flight to be grounded indefinitely
which tarnished the manufacturer’s reputation causing
tremendous financial losses.
revealed that one of the eight Li-ion cell was damaged
causing a short circuit which triggered a thermal runaway
with fire.

Fast forward 15 years, today we have Electric cars using

the same Li-ion batteries which are packed together in
hundred if not thousands in number. These massive
battery packs with a voltage rating of around 300V sits in
the car and supplies as high as 300A (rough figures)
current during operation. Any mishap here would end up
in a big disaster, which is why the Battery Management
system is always stressed upon in EVs. So in this article
we will learn more about this Battery Management
System (BMS) and break down to understand its design
and functions to understand it much better. Since the
batteries and BMS are closely related it is highly advised
go through our previous articles about Electric Vehicles
and EV’s batteries.
Why do we need a Battery Management System
(BMS)?
The Lithium-ion batteries have proved to be the battery of
interest for Electric Vehicle manufacturers because of its
high charge density and low weight. Even though these
batteries pack in a lot of punch for its size they are highly
unstable in nature. It is very important that these batteries
should never be over charged or under discharge at any
circumstance which brings in the need to monitor its
voltage and current. This process gets a bit tougher since
there are a lot of cells put together to form a battery pack
in EV and every cell should be individually monitored for
its safety and efficient operation which requires a special
dedicated system called the Battery Management
System. Also to get the maximum efficiency from a
battery pack, we should completely charge and discharge
all the cells at the same time at the same voltage which
again calls in for a BMS. Apart from this the BMS is held
responsible for many other functions which will be
discussed below.

A generic Battery Management system is illustrated

below.

Battery Management system (BMS) Design

Considerations
There are lot of factors that are to be considered while
designing a BMS. The complete considerations depend on
the exact end application in which the BMS will be used.
Apart from EV’s BMS are also used wherever a lithium
battery pack is involved such as a solar panel array,
windmills, power walls etc. Irrespective of the application
a BMS design should consider all or many of the
following factors.

Discharging Control: The primary function of a BMS is

to maintain the lithium cells within the safe operating
region. For example a typical Lithium 18650 cell will
have an under voltage rating of around 3V. It is the
responsibility of the BMS to make sure that none of the
cells in the pack get discharged below 3V.

Charging Control: Apart from the discharging the

charging process should also be monitored by the BMS.
Most batteries tend to get damaged or get reduced in
lifespan when charged inappropriately. For lithium
battery charger a 2-stage charger is used. The first stage
is called the Constant Current (CC) during which the
charger outputs a constant current to charge the battery.
When the battery gets nearly full the second stage called
the Constant Voltage (CV) stage is used during which a
constant voltage is supplied to the battery at a very low
current. The BMS should make sure both the voltage and
current during charging does not exceed permeable limits
so as to not over charge or fast charge the batteries. The
maximum permissible charging voltage and charging
current can be found in the datasheet of the battery.

State-of-Charge (SOC) Determination: You can think

of SOC as the fuel indicator of the EV. It actually tells us
the battery capacity of the pack in percentage. Just like
the one in our mobile phone. But it is not as easy as it
sounds. The voltage and charge/discharge current of the
pack should always be monitored to predict the capacity
of the battery. Once the voltage and current is measured
there are a lot of algorithms that can be used to calculate
the SOC of the Battery pack. The most commonly used
method is the coulomb counting method; we will discuss
more on this later in the article. Measuring the values and
calculating the SOC is also the responsibility of a BMS.

State-of-Health (SOC) Determination: The capacity of

the battery not only depends on its voltage and current
profile but also on its age and operating temperature. The
SOH measurement tells us about the age and expected
life cycle of the battery based on its usage history. This
way we can know how much the mileage (distance
covered after full charge) of the EV reduces as the battery
ages and also we can know when the battery pack should
be replaced. The SOH should also be calculated and kept
in track by the BMS.
Cell Balancing: Another vital function of a BMS is to
maintain cell balancing. For example, in a pack of 4 cells
connected in series the voltage of all the four cells should
always have equal. If one cell is less or high voltage
than the other it will affect the entire pack, say if one
cell is at 3.5V while the other three is at 4V. During
charging these three cells will attain 4.2V while the other
one would have just reached 3.7V similarly this cell will
be the first to discharge to 3V before the other three. This
way, because of this single cell all the other cells in the
pack cannot be used to its maximum potential thus
compromising the efficiency.

To deal with this problem the BMS has to implement

something called cell balancing. There are many types of
cell balancing techniques, but the commonly used ones
are the active and passive type cell balancing. In passive
balancing the idea is that the cells with excess voltage will
be forced discharge through a load like resistor to reach
the voltage value of the other cells. While in active
balancing the stronger cells will be used to charge the
weaker cells to equalize their potentials. We will learn
more about cell balancing later in a different article.
Thermal Control: The life and efficiency of a Lithium
battery pack greatly depends on the operating
temperature. The battery tends to discharge faster in
hot climates compared with normal room
temperatures. Adding to this the consumption of high
current would further increase the temperature. This calls
for a Thermal system (mostly oil) in a battery pack. This
thermal system should only be able to decrease the
temperature but should also be able to increase the
temperature in cold climates if needed. The BMS is
responsible for measuring the individual cell temperature
and control the thermal system accordingly to maintain
the overall temperature of the battery pack.

Powered from the Battery itself: The only power source

available in the EV is the battery itself. So a BMS should
be designed to be powered by the same battery which it
is supposed to protect and maintain. This might sound
simple but it does increase the difficulty of the design of
the BMS.

Less Ideal Power: A BMS should be active and running

even if the car is running or charging or in ideal mode.
This makes the BMS circuit to be powered continuously
and hence it is mandatory that the BMS consumes a very
less power so as not to drain the battery much. When a
EV is left uncharged for weeks or months the BMS and
other circuitry tend to drain the battery by themselves and
eventually requires to be cranked or charged before next
use. This problem still remains common with even
popular cars like Tesla.

Galvanic Isolation: The BMS acts as a bridge between

the Battery pack and the ECU of the EV. All the
information collected by the BMS has to be sent to the
ECU to be displayed on the instrument cluster or on the
dashboard. So the BMS and the ECU should be
continuously communicating most through the standard
protocol like CAN communication or LIN bus. The BMS
design should be capable of providing a galvanic isolation
between the battery pack and the ECU.

Data Logging: It is important for the BMS to have a

large memory bank since it has to store a lot of data.
Values like the Sate-of-health SOH can be calculated only
if the charging history of the battery is known. So the
BMS has to track of the charge cycles and charge time
of the battery pack from the date of installation, and
interrupt these data when required. This also aids in
providing after sales service or analyzing a problem with
the EV for the engineers.
Accuracy: When a cell is being charged or discharged the
voltage across it increases or decreases gradually.
Unfortunately the discharge curve (Voltage vs time) of a
lithium battery has flat regions hence the change in
voltage is very less. This change has to be measured
accurately to calculate the value of SOC or to use it for
cell balancing. A well designed BMS could have accuracy
as high as ±0.2mV but it should minimum have an
accuracy of 1mV-2mV. Normally a 16-bit ADC is used in
the process.

Processing Speed: The BMS of an EV has to do a lot of

number crunching to calculate the value of SOC, SOH
etc. There are many algorithms to do this, and some even
uses machine learning to get the task done. This makes
the BMS a processing hungry device. Apart from this it
also has to measure the cell voltage across hundreds of
cells and notice the subtle changes almost immediately.

Building Blocks of a BMS

There are many different types of BMS available in the
market, you can either design one on your own or even
purchase the Integrated IC that is readily available. From
a hardware structure perspective there are only three types
of BMS based on its topology they are Centralized BMS,
distributed BMS and Modular BMS. However the
function of these BMS is all similar. A generic Battery
Management system is illustrated below.

BMS Data Acquisition

Let’s analyze the above function block from its core. The
primary function of the BMS is to monitor the Battery for
which it needs to measure three vital parameters such
as the voltage, current and temperature from every
cell in the battery pack. We know that Battery packs are
formed by connecting many cells in series or parallel
configuration, like the Tesla has 8,256 cells in which 96
cells are connected in series and 86 are connected in
parallel to form a pack. If a set of cells are connected in
series then we have to measure voltage across each cell
but current for the entire set will be same since current
will be same in a series circuit. Similarly when a set of
cells are connected in parallel we have to measure only
the entire voltage since the voltage across each cell will
be same when connected in parallel. The below image
shows a set of cells connected in series, you can notice the
voltage and temperature being measured for individual
cells and pack current is measured as a whole.

“How to measure cell voltage in BMS?”

Since a typical EV has a large number of cells connected
together, it is a bit challenging to measure the individual
cell voltage of a battery pack. But only if we know the
individual cell voltage we can perform cell balancing and
provide cell protection. To read the voltage value of a cell
an ADC is used. But the complexity involved is high
since the batteries are connected in series. Meaning the
terminals across which the voltage is measured has to be
changed every time. There are many ways to do this
involving relays, muxes etc. Apart from this there is also
some battery management IC like MAX14920 which can
be used to measure individual cell voltages of multiple
cells (12-16) connected in series.

“How to measure cell Temperature for BMS?”

Apart from cell temperature, sometimes the BMS also
have to measure the bus temperature and motor
temperature since everything works on a high current.
The most common element used to measure the
temperature is called a NTC, which stands for Negative
temperature Co-efficient (NTC). It is similar to a resistor
but it changes (decreases) its resistance based on the
temperature around it. By measuring the voltage across
this device and by using a simple ohms law we can
calculate the resistance and thus the temperature.

Multiplexed Analog Front End (AFE) for Cell Voltage

and Temperature Measurement
Measuring cell voltage can get complex since it requires
high accuracy and might also inject switching noises from
mux apart from this every cell is connected to a resistor
through a switch for cell balancing. To overcome these
problems an AFE – Analog Front end IC is used. An AFE
has built-in Mux, buffer and ADC module with high
accuracy. It could easily measure the voltage and
temperature with common mode and transfer the
information to the main microcontroller.

“How to measure pack current for BMS?”

EV Battery Pack can source a large value of current upto
250A or even high, apart from this we also have to
measure the current of every module in the pack to make
sure the load is distributed evenly. While designing the
current sensing element we also have to provide isolation
between the measuring and sensing device. The most
commonly used method to sense current are the Shunt
method and the Hall-sensor based method. Both methods
have their pros and cons. Earlier shunt methods were
considered less accurate, but with recent availability of
high-precision shunts designs with isolated amplifiers and
modulators they are more preferred than the hall-sensor
based method.

Battery state Estimation

The major computational power of a BMS is dedicated to
estimate the Battery state. This includes the
measurement of SOC and SOH. SOC can be calculated
using the cell voltage, current, charging profile and
discharging profile. SOH can be calculated by using the
number of charge cycle and performance of the battery.

“How to measure the SOC of a Battery?”

There are many algorithms to measure the SOC of a
battery, each having its own input values. The most
commonly used method for SOC is called the Coulomb
Counting a.k.a book keeping method. We will discuss
more on that later. Apart from that there are many other
advanced and more sophisticated algorithms that are
listed below.
Basic Methods
• Coulomb Counting method
• Ampere-hour (Ah) method
• Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) method
• Impedance / IR Measurement Method
Machine Learning Based Algorithms
• Neural Network Fuzzy Logic
• Support Vector Machine
Advanced Method
• State-Space Model Estimation using Kalman Filter
Coulomb Counting Technique
By far the coulomb counting Technique is the most used
and easy to understand algorithm. It is based on the fact
that the ratio between the Total charge Input and the
Maximum capacity of the battery will give us the SOC
value. The formula for the same is given below.
SOC = Total Charge Input / Maximum Capacity

While the Maximum capacity of the battery will be

mentioned in the datasheet of the battery, calculating the
Total charge Input requires some mathematical
approach. The total charge input is nothing but the
product of the current and time, but the value of current
varies based on time and hence we have to use current
integration method to determine the Total charge Input.
Discrete values of current are taken at regular internal and
the integral of these values will give us the value of Total
Charge Input.
For understanding purpose if we consider that the value of
current is constant say 2A for 4 hours then the value of
Total charge input will be 8Ah and if the maximum
capacity of the battery is 25Ah then the SOC value is
simply ((2*4)/25) 32%. But this method is not very
reliable because the maximum capacity of the battery will
get reduced as the battery ages. Hence many other
algorithms were developed.

Battery Modeling
To use any of the above-discussed algorithms or to verify
if your BMS is working as expected we need to develop a
mathematical model for our battery pack.

“Why do we need Battery Modeling?”

A typical battery pack takes about 6 hours to get charge
and another 6 hours to get discharged. The voltage and
current profile of the cells will be different during
charging and discharging based on the load, age,
temperature and many such conditions. It is not
practically possible to charge and discharge a battery in
all required condition for the entire life cycle of the
Battery pack to check if the BMS is working as expected.
This is why Battery model is developed. This model can
act as a virtual battery (Hardware in loop) during the
developmental stage of the BMS.
The accuracy of the SOC and SOH also depends on the
accuracy of the battery model; hence it should always
provide high fidelity and robustness. A typical usage of
battery model is shown below using the below image
In an ideal Battery model, the input voltage should be
equal to the output voltage and the error value should be
zero. But in practical this scenario is hard to achieve since
there are many parameters like temperature, age etc which
can affect the system. There are many battery models
available they can be broadly classified as Lumped-
Parameter Model, Equivalent Circuit Model and Electro-
chemical model out all three the Electro-chemical model
is the most hard and most accurate model.

BMS – Thermal Management

Apart from measuring the voltage, current and
temperature and calculating SOC, SOH etc the BMS has
another important task of regulating the battery
temperature. A battery pack would drain faster if
operated in higher or lower temperatures. To prevent this
cooling systems are used in the battery. The Tesla for
example uses liquid cooling where a tube is passed
through the battery pack to get in contact with all the
cells. A coolant like water or Glycol is then passed
through the tubes. The temperature of the coolant is
controlled by the BMS based on the cell temperatures.
Apart from this the batteries also use air or chemicals to
maintain the required temperature.
With this let us conclude the article here, there are still
lots to know about BMS and how they work. Today many
silicon companies like Renesas, Texas Instruments etc.
have their own series of BMS IC’s and Tool kits which
could do the hardware pulling for you and you can use it
without diving deep into all this. With every new EV in
the market the BMS evolves to get much smarter and easy
to use.

Contents
Introduction
Most people are aware of the dramatic and fast-paced trend towards electrification within the
automotive industry which has led to the increased use of Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries for energy
storage in electrified vehicles.
There are many ways to model a battery, but the two most commonly-used are electrical-equivalent
behavioral models and electrochemical physical models. Both methods provide value for engineers, and
each one takes a different approach to modeling the behavior of batteries. In this blog, you’ll learn
about the basic operation of Li-ion batteries, how these different approaches model the behavior of a
battery, and the benefits and tradeoffs associated with each.

What’s Important in a Battery Model?

For most applications using battery models, it is generally important to accurately predict the
electrical characteristics of the battery, including the voltage across it and the current flowing
through it. Additionally, an estimation of State of Charge (SOC, a normalized estimation of how
much chemical energy is stored in a cell) is required. If battery models are linked to thermal
management simulations, accurate heat dissipation from the battery must be captured.

As anyone with a cell phone, tablet, or laptop can tell you – Li-ion batteries degrade over time.
There are many electrochemical factors that lead to the degradation of a Li-ion battery. For
instance, the active materials in the cathode and anode tend to crack over time and there are
undesirable side reactions that lead to growth of films on active material particles in both the
cathode and anode. Additionally, under extreme conditions, Li+ may react with electrons to form
Lithium metal in the anode during a process referred to as Lithium plating, which can be very
detrimental to the health of a battery.

Safety simulation and testing is also an important topic. Abuse conditions such as nail
penetration, as well as extremely hot or cold environments could be catastrophic for the battery.
This is where predictive 3D models of cells and the conditions around them are required in order
to capture the electrothermal response of the battery.

Electrical-Equivalent Modeling

Now that we understand more about Li-ion batteries, let’s take a look at the different modeling
methods used, starting with electrical-equivalent modeling. This modeling method is done
primarily to give electrical representations of how batteries react under certain loading
conditions.

Non-Dynamic (Resistive Models)

The simplest test done on a battery or cell is a constant-current discharge/charge test, where cells
are discharged and charged to and from 0% and 100% state of charge at a constant current.
During these tests, the terminal voltage of the battery is observed to be similar to Figure 2.
Figure 2 - Full Discharge/Charge Cycle

Similarly, these discharge/charge tests can be done at multiple currents. Figure 3 shows what a
typical Li-ion cell’s terminal voltage may be for constant-current discharge tests at multiple
currents.

Figure 3 – Li-ion discharge curves at multiple currents

The behavior observed here is that the voltage changes while the battery depletes depending on
the direction of the voltage and the current. Additionally, the terminal voltage drops with
increasing currents.

With electrical-equivalent modeling, this type of behavior is represented in an electrical circuit

using the resistive battery model, pictured in Figure 4. In this model, the open circuit voltage
and internal resistance are often characterized as functions of temperature and state of charge.
Using this model, the behavior observed in constant-current charge and discharge cycles can be
replicated quite accurately.

Figure 4 – resistive battery model on left and GT-SUITE implementation on right

Dynamic (Thevenin Models)

The resistive models are good representations of a battery’s electrical behavior observed in
steady-state conditions; however, if loads on a battery are more dynamic, the resistive model
may not follow observed behavior. For instance, when Li-ion batteries are loaded with pulses of
current, the voltage response can be very non-linear. Figure 5, below, shows how a typical Li-
ion cell reacts to a pulse of discharge current and a pulse of charge current.
Figure 5 -voltage response of cell to current pulsations

With a resistive electrical-equivalent model, the non-linear, exponential-decay portion of the

voltage response would not be captured. In order to be able to capture the exponential decay
behavior in the voltage response, one or multiple resistor-capacitor (RC) branches can be
included in the electrical-equivalent model. See Figure 6 for a circuit diagram of such a battery
model, often referred to as a Thevenin battery model.
Figure 6 – Thevenin battery model

With this type of model, the step changes in the voltage captured are represented with the
internal ohmic resistance (R0) and the exponential decay of the voltage response is captured with
the RC branches.

SOC Estimation and Aging

In each of these electrical-equivalent models, there are a few ways to estimate SOC of a cell or
battery. The simplest and most common way is a process called “Coulomb Counting” where the
model counts the charge (integral of current over time) moving across the battery and very
simply adds or subtracts that charge from the initial charge of the battery.

With these electrical-equivalent models, heat generation of the battery is calculated by the
summation of the power losses across each resistor (I2R losses). Aging phenomena of Li-ion
cells are often characterized as capacity fade and resistance growth over time with non-physics
based empirical models.

Summary

It’s important to note that electrical-equivalent battery modeling is not inherently a physics-based
approach. Both the dynamic and non-dynamic approaches are electrical representations of how
the terminal voltage of a battery may react to different battery loads. The capacitors and resistors
are not meant to represent physical capacitances and resistances but the dynamics of the battery.

The circuit parameters are often characterized at multiple temperatures and states of charge by
matching experimental results. This means that electrical-equivalent models are not predictive
outside of calibrated temperature or SOC range.

Electrochemical Modeling

If this predictive capability outside of calibrated temperatures and states of charge, or if insight
into cell operation is desired, physics-based electrochemical models are available to model Li-
ion batteries. For Li-ion batteries, the widely accepted electrochemical modeling approach is
often referred to as the “Newman Pseudo 2D model,” named after John Newman, the creator of
this model.
In the Newman Pseudo 2D (P2D) model, illustrated below in Figure 7, the cathode, separator,
and anode are discretized in the thickness direction (horizontal direction in Figure 7) using a
finite control volume approach. Additionally, in each sub-volume of the cathode and anode,
there is a spherical representation of an active particle, each of which are discretized using the
finite control volume approach in the radial direction. This combination of horizontal and radial
discretization is where the term “Pseudo 2D” comes from. The governing equations for the
charge transfer and Li+ diffusion are all solved using this finite control volume approach in the
model.

Figure 7 – Pseudo 2D electrochemical battery model

In these electrochemical battery models, the concentration of Li+ in different parts of the cell is
solved, ultimately leading to a physics-based estimation of state of charge. These models are
also able to predict the heat generated from Li-ion batteries, including heat generated ohmic
losses, reaction losses, and entropic heating.

With electrochemical models, physics-based representations of aging mechanisms are used. For
instance, the SEI layer, cathodic film layer, and their growth over time can be modeled.
Additionally, Lithium plating and Li+ isolation due to active material cracking can also be
modeled.

How Do These Methods Compare?

Now that we have an understanding of how each method works, let’s compare the two to
understand the advantages and tradeoffs associated with each.

First up – electrical-equivalent models. With this method of modeling, it is very easy to build and
calibrate a battery model. There are standard curve-fitting methods to calibrate electrical-
equivalent battery models to match a voltage. Because these models have a simple calibration
process, they usually give good results for voltage, current, SOC, and heat rate.

Next – electrochemical models. Unlike electrical-equivalent models, electrochemical models

give insight into what occurs inside the cell and they can be used outside the calibrated
temperature range. Another key difference is the ability to use physics-based (as opposed to
empirical) aging models, which give insight into growth rate of the SEI and cathodic film layers,
material isolation due to cracking, and Lithium plating. These models also give cell designers the
ability to quickly iterate on cell design parameters without having to re-calibrate an electrical-
equivalent model.

I know that’s a lot of information, so some advantages of each modeling approach are
summarized in Figure 8.

Figure 5. Lithium-ion battery cell, module and pack Lithium-ion battery cell Lithium-ion battery module
Lithium-ion battery pack Source:(Hitachi Vehicle Energy, 2008; Magna, 2010)
Figure 8 - advantages of each modeling approach

When Do I Use These Models and How Do I Use Them?

As you can see, both modeling methods offer their own unique set of advantages and tradeoffs,
but it still may not be clear when electrical-equivalent models and electrochemical models
should be used.

For many system-level and thermal engineers, electrical-equivalent models are all that is
required because these models give accurate results for battery voltage, current, SOC, and heat
rates. However, depending on the questions that are trying to be answered with simulation,
electrical-equivalent models may not be sufficient.
Electrochemical models are often used in more advanced applications of battery modeling. For
instance, if a model needs to predict the aging of a Li-ion cell, physics-based aging models offer
a more flexible and predictive solution than the empirical aging models available in electrical-
equivalent models. Additionally, when designing a cell, choosing a charging strategy, or
studying battery behavior in extreme climates, electrical-equivalent models may not provide
enough insight into the behavior of the cell, which is often required for these applications.

Because both the electrical-equivalent and the electrochemical approaches to modeling Li-ion
batteries provide value to simulation engineers, Gamma Technologies offers accurate capabilities
for both methods. When electrical-equivalent models are required, engineers are able to use GT-
SUITE’s flexible solution for a resistive or Thevenin (flexible number of R-C branches) battery
model. When electrochemical models are required, AutoLion provides cell designers and system
simulation engineers accurate and fast-running electrochemical models. These two tools can
also be combined in order to incorporate electrochemical battery models into multi-domain
system-level models.

Figure 9 – Electrochemical battery model integrated into GT-SUITE vehicle model

All-Electric Vehicles

All-electric vehicles (EVs) run on electricity only. They are propelled by one or more electric
motors powered by rechargeable battery packs. EVs have several advantages over conventional
vehicles:

 Energy efficient. EVs convert over 77% of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the
wheels. Conventional gasoline vehicles only convert about 12%–30% of the energy stored in
gasoline to power at the wheels.
 Environmentally friendly. EVs emit no tailpipe pollutants, although the power plant producing
the electricity may emit them. Electricity from nuclear-, hydro-, solar-, or wind-powered plants
causes no air pollutants.
 Performance benefits. Electric motors provide quiet, smooth operation and stronger
acceleration and require less maintenance than internal combustion engines (ICEs).
 Reduced energy dependence. Electricity is a domestic energy source.

5000 2500
 As the green movement increases in popularity,
Slide Global E more and more electric vehicles (EVs) of all kinds
1 Mobility —from electric scooters to cars to buses and
cargo trucks—will grace the roads. Power
designers will be challenged to provide systems
that can be adapted to a wide variety of different
types of batteries and vehicles with vastly diverse
performance requirements.
EVs have several advantages over
Benefits of EV conventional vehicles:

 Energy efficient. EVs convert over 77% of

the electrical energy from the grid to
power at the wheels. Conventional
gasoline vehicles only convert about
12%–30% of the energy stored in
gasoline to power at the wheels.
 Environmentally friendly. EVs emit no
tailpipe pollutants, although the power
plant producing the electricity may emit
them. Electricity from nuclear-, hydro-,
solar-, or wind-powered plants causes no
air pollutants.
 Performance benefits. Electric motors
provide quiet, smooth operation and
stronger acceleration and require less
maintenance than internal combustion
engines (ICEs).
 Reduced energy dependence. Electricity
is a domestic energy source.

State-of-health (SoH)
The three main state-of-health indicators of a
battery are:

1. Capacity, the ability to store energy

2. Internal resistance, the capability to
deliver current, and
3. Self-discharge, reflecting mechanical
integrity and stress-related conditions

SoH is sometimes divided into:

  Absolute state-of-health (ASoH), the
ability to store the specified energy
when the battery is new
 Relative state-of-health (RSoH),
available storage capability when
battery is broken in

Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoH

refers to SoH.

State-of-charge (SoC)
SoC reflects the battery charge level; a
reading battery user is most familiar with. The
SoC fuel gauge can create a false sense of
security as a good and faded battery show 100
percent when fully charged.
SoC is sometimes divided into:

 Absolute state-of-charge (ASoC), the

ability to take the specified charge
when the battery is new
 Relative state-of-health (RSoC),
available charge level taking capacity
fade into account.

How does thermal runaway What is thermal runaway?

of a lithium-ion battery
Thermal runaway of the lithium-ion battery
occur?
initiates an unstoppable chain reaction.
Several factors can lead to The temperature rises rapidly within
thermal runaway of a milliseconds and the energy stored in the
lithium-ion battery: battery is suddenly released.
Temperatures of around 400°C are thus
 Internal short
created, the battery becomes gaseous,
circuit: Due to an
and a fire erupts that can hardly be
accident or similar
extinguished by conventional means. The
mechanical impact,
risk of thermal runaway begins at a
e.g. if a tool falls
temperature of 60°C and becomes
down from a great
extremely critical at 100°C. When the
height, the battery
battery actually catches fire depends on
is deformed,
the specific cause.
material penetrates
the battery cell and
triggers an internal
 short circuit.

 External short
circuit: Deformation
of the battery cell
causes an external
short circuit.

 Overcharging the
battery beyond the
maximum voltage
specified in the data
sheet, e.g. to
increase the range
of an electric car.
Depending on the
degree of
overcharging, the
battery may be
damaged
permanently and the
service life of the
battery decreases.