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Introduction To Psychological Science
Canadian 2nd Edition Krause Solutions

Manual
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6/ LEARNING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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MODULE 6.1: Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association

 Lecture Guide: Classical Conditioning (p. 354)
 Resources Available (p. 362)
MODULE 6.2: Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences

 Lecture Guide: Operant Conditioning (p. 363)
MODULE 6.3: Cognitive and Observational Learning

 Lecture Guide: Cognitive and Observational Learning (p. 368)
WORK THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY MODEL

 MyPsychLab Video Series (p. 373)
 Work the Model Discussion topic and Writing Assignment with rubric
(p. 373)
FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 378)
 Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 362)
 Handout Masters (p. 409)
 APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 421)
 Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 422)
 Web Resources (p. 423)
 Video Resources (p. 425)
 Multimedia Resources (p. 428)
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

354
Chapter 6: Learning
LECTURE GUIDE
I. MODULE 6.1: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION

(Text p. 228)
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Learning Objectives
 Know the key terminology involved in classical conditioning.
o See the bold, italicized terms below.
 Understand how responses learned through classical conditioning can be acquired and lost.
o Acquisition of a conditioned response occurs with repeated pairings of the CS and the
US. Once a response is acquired, it can be extinguished if the CS and US no longer occur
together. However, the CR may be spontaneously recovered when the organism
encounters the CS again.
 Understand the role of biological and evolutionary factors in classical conditioning.
o Not all stimuli have the same potential to become a strong CS. Responses to biologically
relevant stimuli (e.g., snakes) are more easily conditioned than flowers or guns.
Similarly, organisms quickly develop (in one pairing) aversions to harmful foods even
after long intervals of time, as a means of survival.
 Apply the concepts and terms of classical conditioning to new examples.
o Students should be able to read classical conditioning scenarios and identify the
conditioned stimulus (CS), unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioned response (CR), and
unconditioned response (UR).
 Analyze claims that artificially sweetened beverages are a healthier choice.
o Because of classical conditioning, the digestive system responds to the flavor of the
artificially sweetened (CS) beverage as though a high-calorie food source (US) is on the
way. This leads to the gut preparing itself for something high in calories (CR). However,
the diet beverage does not deliver these calories, and so hunger messages continue to be
sent to the brain.
1.) Learning allows us to do many things that we were not born to do.
i) This includes tying your shoe to playing a musical instrument.
Learning (p. 229) is a process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of

experience.
2.) There are different types of learning.

i) Cognitive learning: this includes reading, listening, and taking tests to acquire new knowledge.
ii) Associative learning: this includes how we come to pair certain stimuli
a) For example, we pair certain holidays with certain smells, sights, and sounds.
Pavlov’s Dogs: Classical Conditioning of Salivation
1) Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a Russian physiologist that studied digestion using dogs.
i) As part of his researcher procedure, he collected saliva and other gastric sections from the dogs
when they were given meat powder.
ii) Pavlov and his assistants noticed that the dogs began salivating as they prepared the meat
powder.
iii) To test this assumption, Pavlov first presents a sound from a metronome and then gave the
dogs the meat powder.
a) After many pairings, the dogs came to salivate just to the sound of the metronome
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(Figure 6.1 & Figure 6.2).

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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science
Classical Conditioning (p. 229) (also called Pavlovian conditioning) is learning that occurs
when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus.
b) Classical conditioning influences many responses and occurs in a variety of settings.
2) A stimulus is an external event or cue that elicits a response.

i) Stimuli (e.g., food, pain, water, etc.) elicit different types of responses.
ii) These responses can be reflexive (unconditioned or unlearned) or learned (conditioned).
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) (p. 230) is a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without
learning.
Unconditioned Response (UR) (p. 230) is a reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned

stimulus.
iii) In Pavlov’s experiment, meat powder (external stimulus) elicited unconditioned salivation in
his dogs (top panel of Figure 6.2).
a) Other pairings of US and UR include flinching (UR) in response to a loud noise (US).
iv) The tone was originally a neutral stimulus because it didn’t elicit a response (top panel of Figure
6.2).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (p. 231) is a once neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response
because it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. (middle panel of Figure
6.2).
Conditioned Response (CR) (p. 231) is the learned response that occurs to the conditioned
stimulus.
v) After repeated pairings with the US, the once neutral tone became a conditioned stimulus (CS)
because it elicited the conditioned response (CR) of salivation.
vi) To establish conditioning has taken place, the tone (CS) must elicit salivation on its own
(bottom panel of Figure 6.2).
3) A common area of confusion is the difference between a conditioned response and an unconditioned
response.
i) In Pavlov’s experiment, they are both salivation.
ii) Salivation was a UR when it was paired with food.
a) In other words, dogs naturally drool when given food.
iii) Salivation became a CR when it occurred in response to the tone (CS).
b) Dogs do not naturally drool when they hear a tone; this was a learned response.
Evolutionary Function of the CR

1) The UR and the CR do not have to be identical responses. Often the CR plays a functional role in the
behaviour.
i) One example is the deer freezing in the headlights on a highway.
ii) Many animals instinctually freeze to avoid predators. This CR was recreated in laboratory
settings as well.
iii) The CR and the UR are often quite different responses with conditioning serving an
evolutionary function.
Classical Conditioning and the Brain

357
1) Classical conditioning can occur in simple organisms, like Aplysia, suggesting that classical
conditioning is a basic biological process.
Chapter 6: Learning
i) Connections between specific groups of neurons (axon terminals and receptors) become
strengthened during each instance of classical conditioning.
a) Example given is the eye blink (Figure 6.3) a puff of air to the eye given
simultaneous to a distinct sound. Eventually the sound will evoke the eye blink.
Processes of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

1) Learning involves a change in behaviour due to experience.
2) In classical conditioning, acquisition is the phase in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the
US.
i.) In Pavlov’s experiment, the conditioned salivary response was acquired through numerous tone
food pairings (Figure 6.2).
Acquisition (p. 233) is the initial phase of learning in which a response is established
3) A critical part of acquisition is the predictability with which the CS and US occur together.
ii.) In Pavlov’s experiment, conditioning wouldn’t occur, or was weak, when the tone and food
were paired inconsistently.
4) In the laboratory, as well as the real world, the CS and US do not always occur together, which can
lead to extinction.
Extinction (p. 233) is the loss or weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together.
i) For example, presenting the dogs with only the tone and no food should lead to less and less of
a salivary response (Figure 6.2).
a.) However, even after extinction occurs, it is possible for the CR to return.
5) Spontaneous recovery suggests that extinction does not result in forgetting, but in learning something
new.
i) For example, the dogs learned that the tone no longer meant food was coming.
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

1) The dogs in Pavlov’s experiment salivated in response to tone similar to the one originally used
i) However, Pavlov’s dogs didn’t salivate to every noise they heard.
Spontaneous Recovery (p. 233) is the reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned

response, typically after some time has passed since extinction.
Generalization (p. 234) is a process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific
stimulus also occurs to different, thought similar stimuli.
Discrimination (p. 234) occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but
not to new stimuli that may be similar to the original stimulus.
2) Discrimination would mean that the dogs would only salivate in response to the original tone used in
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the experiment.
i) For example, if the original tone was a 1200 Hz tone, they would not salivate to a 1100 or 1300
Hz tone (Figure 6.4).
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Emotional Responses

1) Early psychologists in the 1920s, such as John Watson, recognized that our emotional responses could
be influenced by classical conditioning.
Conditioned emotional responses (p. 235) consist of emotional and physiological responses that
develop to a specific type of object or situation.
2) Watson and Raynor conducted their first studies with an 11-month-old child known as Little Albert.
i) They presented Albert with a white rat, to which he showed no fear.
ii) When he was in the vicinity of the rat, they hit a bar with a hammer, startling Little Albert.
iii) After repeated pairings, Little Albert came to fear the white rat.
3) Conditioned emotional responses happen outside of the laboratory as well.

i) For example, a little boy who doesn’t have any pets may be very curious about the neighbour’s
cat.
ii) When he goes to pat the cat, it gets defensive and scratches his hand.
iii) The cat may become a CS, which elicits a fear response.
iv) If generalization occurs, he might come to fear all cats.
v) If the reaction develops into an intense fear, he may come to develop a phobia of cats.
4) Classical conditioning has also been used to help understand psychological disorders.
i) Those with psychopathy (similar to antisocial personality disorder) are known for disregarding
the feelings of others.
ii) Those with psychopathy were shown human faces (CS) followed by a painful stimulus (US).
iii) These pairings should have resulted in a negative emotional reaction (CR) to the faces, but
this sample did not respond that way (figure 6.6).
a) They showed very little physiological arousal.
b) Their emotional brain regions remained inactive.
c) They did not seem to mind looking at faces that had been paired with pain.
i) The control group responded exactly opposite.
Evolutionary Role of Fear Conditioning

1) It appears that we are predisposed to acquire fear of objects that are threatening versus those that are
not (Figure 6.7).
i) One studied the pairing of pictures of snakes with an electrical shock.
ii) Palm sweat was measured—known as the skin conductance response.
a) This response occurs when our bodies are aroused by threatening or uncomfortable
stimuli.
iii) Over time, the pictures of the snakes (CS) elicited a strong skin conductance response (CR).
iv) Participants were then shown pictures of flowers, which were also paired with a shock.
a) A much lower conditioned response developed.
b) The same experiment was done with pictures of guns.
c) However, the conditioned response was still less than that in the snake experiment and
comparable to that in the flower experiment.
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d) The CR in the snake experiment was longer lasting and slower to extinguish.

360
Chapter 6: Learning
Preparedness (p. 237) refers to the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a
particular class of stimuli.
2) Preparedness explains the findings that we learn to fear snakes more readily than flowers or guns.
i) From an evolutionary perspective, those who learned to fear animals that were fatal were more
likely to survive.
Conditioned Taste Aversions

1) Another example of how biological factors influence classical conditioning comes from food aversions.
i) For example, there are probably foods (or certain drinks) that you can’t even look at because
they once made you extremely ill.
Conditioned Taste Aversion (p. 238) is the acquired dislike or disgust of a food or drink
because it was paired with illness.
ii) In this case, a taste (CS) is paired with food (US). Getting Sick is the UR. The CR is the
nausea in response to the CS (Figure 6.8).
2) We are biologically prepared to associate food, versus the surrounding stimuli, with illness.
i) For example, if you ate some bad fish and vomited while music played in the background, you
would develop an aversion to the fish, not the music.
3) Conditioned taste aversions are unique in certain ways compared to the previous conditioning
examples.
i) Usually, the CS and US have to be paired very close together.
a.) Food poisoning takes hours.
ii) Conditioning requires multiple pairings.
a.) Food aversion usually takes only one pairing.
4) Conditioned taste aversions usually only develop with new foods.

i) If we eat fish all the time and don’t get sick, we’re much less likely to develop an aversion
after getting ill one time.
ii) This is the same with other forms of conditioning.
a) If you have played with your family cat for years injury free, you’ve much less likely
to develop a fear of cats if it scratches you during an encounter.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Conditioning and Negative Political Advertising
1) What do we know about classical conditioning in negative political advertising?
i) advertisers regularly pair negative statements with unflattering images of opponents
2) How can Science help explain the role of classical conditioning in negative political advertising?
i) Studies show that positive and negative evaluations of stimuli can be conditioned in laboratory
conditions that mimic what people experience in everyday exposure to advertisements.
ii) One study had participants view a slide show of a Brand L toothpaste (CS) paired with
attractive visual scenery (US).
a) The control group did not get the pairing.
iii) Those in the paired group had more positive evaluations of the toothpaste.
3) Can we critically evaluate this information?

361
i. One question is whether creating a negative association for one candidate means you are
making the other candidate seem more appealing
ii) there are cultural differences in responses to negative ads as well as educational and
socioeconomic differences in responses
a) politicians know this and create multiple ads targeted at different groups
iii) do not want to create sympathy for the group they are campaigning against as happened when
one group mocked Jean Chretien`s facial paralysis.
4) Why is this relevant?

i) many people don`t think negative advertising affects them (called the `third person effect`)
ii) could mean they are influenced by it, voting based on it, and not voting based on the outcome
they want
iii) people may be being manipulated without knowing it
Drug Tolerance and Conditioning
1) Classical conditioning accounts for drug-related phenomena, such as cravings and tolerances (see
Module 5.3).
i) Cues that accompany drug use can become conditioned stimuli that elicit cravings.
a.) For example, the sight of a lighter or others smoking can elicit cravings in people who
smoke.
ii) Conditioned drug tolerance, involves physiological responses in preparation for drug
administration.
 For example, if a heroin users always administers the drug in the same room and
with the same paraphernalia, the body eventually pairs these cues with the drug
and begins to react as though the drug is already administered (e.g., processes
that metabolize the drug).
 Users are subject to overdosing if they use in a different situation or use a
different ritual, because their body hasn’t prepared itself for the injection.
iii) Similar results have been found in experiments with rats.

a) When rats received heroin in an environment different from where they were used to
receiving the drug, mortality doubled.

362
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 6.1
Lecture Launchers
 Learning Chapter Classroom Discussion Topics
 Twitmyer, Serendipity, and Self-Promotion
 Consumer Psychology
 Whatever Happened to Little Albert?
Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises

 Classically Conditioned Responses in Class
 Applying Classical Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning in Humans
 Identifying Components of Classical Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning and TV Advertisements
 Classical Conditioning and the Pupil Dilation Response
Web Resources
 Association for Applied Behaviour Analysis: http://www.abainternational.org/
 Operant and Classical Conditioning:
http://www.brembs.net/
 Using Classical vs. Operant Conditioning:
http://www.utexas.edu/
 Classical (Respondent) Conditioning—Valdosta State University:
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/
 Conditioned Emotional Reactions: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/
Video Clips on MyPsychLab

Principles of Classical Conditioning (1:41)

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II. MODULE 6.2: OPERANT CONDITIONING: LEARNING THROUGH CONSEQUENCES

(Text p. 244)
Learning Objectives
 Know key terminology associated with operant conditioning.
 Understand the role that consequences play in increasing or decreasing behaviour.
o Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behaviour, whereas
positive and negative punishment decrease the likelihood of a behaviour. In both cases,
the term positive indicates the addition of a stimulus to the situation, and the term
negative indicates a removal of a stimulus.
 Understand how schedules of reinforcement affect behaviour.
o Schedules of reinforcement can be fixed or variable, and based on intervals (time) or
ratios (the number of responses). Partial reinforcement tends to elicit greater responding.
Superstitions often arise when it is unclear which behaviour brought about the reward.
 Apply your knowledge of operant conditioning to examples.
o Students should be able to read operant conditioning scenarios and determine whether
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative
punishment was used.
 Analyze the effectiveness of punishment on changing behaviour.
o Many psychologists recommend that people rely on reinforcement to teach new and/or
appropriate behaviours. This is because punishment alone is not very effective and can
have a number of negative side effects. For example, punishment may teach individuals
to engage in avoidance or aggression, instead of developing an appropriate alternative
behaviour.
1) We tend to repeat behaviours that bring rewards and avoid those that lead to punishment.
Operant conditioning (p. 245) is a type of learning in which behaviour is determined by

consequences.
2) The term operant is used because the individual operates on the environment before consequences can occur.
3) Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves voluntary actions (e.g., speaking, starting an
activity, etc.) (Table 6.1).
i) Classical conditioning involves reflexive responses.
ii) Classical conditioning also doesn’t require a response for a reward.
a) The dogs got the meat powder regardless of whether they salivated.
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning
1) Contingency refers to a consequence which is dependent upon an action.

i) For example, earning good grades is contingent upon studying.
2) The consequences of a behaviour can be either reinforcing or punishing (Figure 6.10).
Reinforcement and Punishment

364
Reinforcement (p. 245) is a process in which an event or reward that follows a response
increases the likelihood of that response occurring again

362
Chapter 6: Learning
1) The effects of reinforcement were first studied by Edward Thorndike.
i) He measured how long it took cats to learn how to escape from puzzle boxes (Figure 6.11).
ii) After repeated trials, the cats were able to escape more rapidly because they learned which
responses worked (e.g., pressing a lever).
iii) Law of effect: idea proposed by Thorndike that responses followed by satisfaction will occur
again, and those not followed by satisfaction will become less likely.
Law of effect (p. 246) the idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again in the same
situation whereas those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely.
2) Within a few decades, the famous behaviourist, B.F. Skinner, began conducting his own studies on
reinforcement.
i) Similar to Thorndike, he also used animals in a laboratory.
ii) Pigeons or rats were placed into operant chambers (also called Skinner boxes) (Figure 6.12).
a) These were boxes that included a lever or key that the subject could manipulate.
b) Pushing the lever could result in the delivery of a reinforcer (e.g., food).
Reinforcer (p. 246) is a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that increases the
probability of that response occurring again.
3) Learning is measure using the operant chambers

i) Researchers vary when reinforcers become available record the animal’s rate of responding
over time.
ii) Similar processes can be seen in Vegas with slot machines.
4) Decreased responding is also a possible outcome of an encounter with a stimulus.

i) Similar to reinforcers, punishers are defined based on their effects on behaviour.
Punishment (p. 247) is a process that decreases the future probability of a response.
Punisher (p. 247) is a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that results in a decrease
in behaviour.
Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

1) Behaviour can be increased through reward or through the removal of aversive stimuli (Table 6.2).
Positive reinforcement (p. 247) is the strengthening of behaviour after potential reinforcers such
as praise, money, or nourishment follow that behaviour.
2) With positive reinforcement, a stimulus is added to a situation.

i) The term “positive” indicates the addition of a reward.
Negative reinforcement (p. 247) involves the strengthening of a behaviour because it removes or
diminishes a stimulus.
3) With negative reinforcement, “negative” indicates the removal of something.

i) For example, taking aspirin is negatively reinforced because doing so removes a headache and
we are more likely to repeat the behaviour as a result.
ii) This concept is often difficult for students to understand.
a) Reinforcement indicates an increase in behaviour.
b) Positive means something was given to increase the behaviour.
c) Negative means something was removed to increase behaviour.

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4) Negative reinforcement can be further classified into two subcategories.
Avoidance learning (p. 247) is a specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the
possibility of a stimulus occurring.
i) For example, taking a detour to avoid traffic congestion or paying bills to avoid late fees.
Escape learning (p. 247) occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present.
ii) For example, covering your ears upon hearing extremely loud music.
a) You cannot avoid the music, so you escape the aversive stimulus.
iii) The responses of avoiding traffic and covering your ears increase in frequency because they
have effectively removed the aversive stimuli.
iv) Many operant chambers are lined with a grid metal floor that can be used to deliver mild
electric shocks.
a) Responses that remove (escape learning) or prevent (avoidance learning) the shock or
negatively reinforced.
5) Similar to reinforcement, various types of punishment are possible (Table 6.2).
Positive punishment (p. 248) is a process in which a behaviour decreases because it adds or
increases a particular stimulus.
6) Some cat owners use positive punishment in an attempt to train their pet.
i) They might spray their cat with a water bottle when it scratches the furniture.
a) The term positive indicates something was added (water) in this case to decrease a
behaviour.
7) Behaviour may also decrease as a result of the removal of a stimulus.
Negative punishment (p. 248) occurs when a behaviour decreases because it removes or
diminishes a particular stimulus.
i) For example, a parent may withhold driving privileges as a result of an undesirable behaviour
(e.g., rule breaking).
Shaping
1) Rats placed in operant chambers do not automatically go straight for the lever and start pressing it;
they have to learn that behaviour.
i) Teaching a rat to do so is accomplished by reinforcing behaviours that approximate lever
pressing.
a) This includes the rat standing up, facing the lever, placing paws on the lever, etc.
Shaping (p. 248) is a procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing
successive approximations of that response.
Chaining (p. 248) is a similar process involving linking together two or more shaped behaviours
into a more complex action or sequence of actions.
ii) Shaping is done in a step-by-step fashion until the desired response is learned.
iii) Animals acting in movies are almost certainly learned through shaping and chaining.’

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Chapter 6: Learning
Applying Operant Conditioning

1) Operant conditioning is the bases for an educational method called applied behaviour analysis (ABA).
Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) (p. 248) involves using close observation, prompting, and
reinforcement to teach behaviours, often to people who experience difficulties and challenges
owing to a developmental condition such as autism.
2) People with autism are usually nonresponsive to normal social cues from an early age, which can lead to
a deficit in developing many skills.
i) For example, explaining how to clear dishes from the dinner table to a child with autism could
be very difficult.
3) Psychologist who specialize in ABA often shape desired behaviours using prompts (e.g., asking the child
to stand up, gather silverware, etc.) and verbal rewards as each step is completed.
Processes of Operant Conditioning
1) Investigating why some stimuli affect our behaviour while others have no influence whatsoever.
• Biological reasons?
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

1) Reinforcers can come in basic forms (e.g., food, water, shelter, etc.) or in forms that we learn have
value (e.g., money, good grades, etc.).
i) For example, an infant would not care too much about a $1,000 cheque, except maybe to eat it.
Primary reinforcers (p. 249) consist of reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs.
Secondary reinforcers (p. 249) consist of reinforcing stimuli that acquire their value through
learning.
2) Our motivation to satisfy basic needs is related to a brain structure called the nucleus accumbens
(Figure 6.13).
i) This area becomes active when processing rewards, such as eating and having sex, as well as
“artificial” rewards, such as smoking cigarettes.
ii) Variations in people’s nucleus accumbens might explain why some people are prone to high-
risk behaviours (e.g., gambling).
a) They need a greater rush in comparison to people who are stimulated by natural rewards.
3) Token economies demonstrate the power of secondary reinforcers.

i) These are often used in residential treatment settings.
ii) Residents earn tokens through good behaviour, which can be exchanged for something else
they want (e.g., candy).
iii) Misbehaviour results in lost tokens, so these tokens can also play a role in punishment.
Discrimination and Generalization

1) Classical conditioning and operant conditioning share similar phenomena (Table 6.3).
2) When a discriminative stimulus reliably elicits a specific response the behaviour is said to be under
stimulus control.
i) For example, we check the light on the coffee machine before we pour a cup of coffee.
ii) This is a discriminative stimulus that tells us the beverage will be hot.
Discriminative stimulus (p. 250) is a cue or event that indicates that a response, if made, will be
reinforced.

363
Discrimination (p. 250) occurs when an organism learns to respond to the original stimulus
but not to the new stimuli that may be similar to the original.
i) For example, your behaviour of stopping at a red light has been reinforced in the past.
 However, you do not stop at green lights even though they are in the same area and
are the same size, shape, and brightness.
Generalization (p. 250) also occurs when an operant response occurs in response to a
new stimulus that is similar to the stimulus present during original learning.
ii) For example, children who are reinforced by their parents for tying their shoes, are likely to
demonstrate this same behaviour for other adults when asked.
Delayed Reinforcement and Extinction

1) In many situations the reward or punishment is delayed
i) This decreases the effectiveness of the feedback
ii) Drugs with immediate consequences are more addictive
2) Sometimes the reinforcement does not happen at all, in those cases you will get extinction
Extinction (p. 251) refers to the weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer
available.
i) For example, if you lose power you will stop trying to load your web browser; the behaviour
will be extinguished.
Reward Devaluation
1) Food is only rewarding when you are hungry, and it becomes less rewarding when you are not.
2) A person is less likely to act a certain way for a reward when the reward has been devalued in some way.
a) If it doesn`t satisfy a need, hard to get, or has unpleasant consequences later on.
• Example, when rats are pre-fed before having to complete a task where food is the reward,
the food is devalued and less desireable, and therefore less likely to condition behaviour.
Reinforcement Schedules and Operant Conditioning
Schedules of Reinforcement
1.) Typically, behaviour is rewarded according to some kind of schedule.
Schedules of reinforcement (p. 252) are rules that determine when reinforcement is available.
2) Reinforcement may be available at predictable or irregular times.

i) It might be based on how often someone engages in a behaviour, or the passage of time.
Continuous reinforcement (p. 253) occurs when every response made results in reinforcement.
a) For example, vending machines should delivery your snack every time you deposit the
correct amount of money and push the correct buttons.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement (p. 253) occurs when only a certain number of responses are rewarded,
or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available.
3) There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules (Figure 6.14).

i) Ratio schedules are based on the amount of responding.

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Chapter 6: Learning
Fixed-ratio schedule (p. 254), reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses
have been completed.
a) For example, a rat may have to press a lever 10 times before receiving food.
b) Someone working on a commission might have to sell ten cars before receiving a
bonus.
Variable-ratio schedule (p. 254), the number of responses required to receive reinforcement
varies according to an average.
c) For example, slot machines and other games of chance run on a variable-ratio
schedule.
d) This schedule promotes strong response levels because it is unknown when the
reward will come, but it is known that the possibility is there.
ii) In contrast, interval schedules are based on the passage of time, not the number of responses.
Fixed-interval schedule (p. 255) reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of
time passes.
a) If your professor gives you an exam every three weeks, you are on a fixed-interval
schedule.
b) This schedule produces a scalloped pattern as the behaviour decreases after the reward
and picks back up around the time the reward is supposed to come.
c) This is similar to how students study. They stop studying after an exam and then
pick back up right before an exam.
Variable-interval schedule (p. 255) the first response is reinforced following a variable amount
of time.
a) The time interval varies around an average.

 Example, looking at the sky during a meteor shower rewards you for looking
up at irregular times. However, looking up more frequently would not cause
more meteors to appear.
Partial reinforcement effect (p .255) refers to a phenomenon in which organisms that have been
conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditioned under
continuous reinforcement.
a) Likely due to the individual becoming accustomed to not receiving reinforcement each time.
 This effect can be seen with gambling, pick-up lines in bars, or superstitious behaviour
by athletes.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Reinforcement and Superstition
1) What do we know about superstition and reinforcement?

i) Reinforcement is often systematic and predictable or else the behaviour is extinguished. ii.) In
some cases, it isn’t clear what behaviour lead to reinforcement.
a) For example, after a losing streak, a team suddenly wins a game.
b) No one changed how they played, so what happened?
c) Was it a change in the pre-game rituals? Not washing a pair of socks?
ii) It is believed this is how superstitions are formed.
2) How can science explain superstition?
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i) B.F. Skinner attempted to create superstitious behaviour in pigeons by delivering food every 15
seconds, regardless of what the birds did.
a) The pigeons came to repeat whatever behaviour they were doing right before the
food came (e.g., spin, stand on one foot, etc.).
ii) In another study, children were told a doll would sometimes spit marbles out at them and that
these marbles could be traded in for toys.
a) These children developed superstitious behaviours, such as sucking their thumbs or
kissing the doll on the nose.
iii) Superstitious behaviours have also been found to have an effect on performance outcomes.
a) College students where ask to take part in a putting competition. One group was given the
“lucky ball” and the other was given “the ball everyone has used so far”.
b) Those who believed they had a lucky ball performed significantly better than those with the
other ball.
3) Can we critically evaluate these findings?

i) Superstitious beliefs have been shown to have positive effects on certain outcomes.
a) However, this depends on whether one has more control over the outcome or not.
b) For example, one has more control on an exam than gambling.
ii) Superstitious behaviours may help behaviours such as putting and taking an exam, but not on
whether the slot machine will pay out.

i) People all over the world believe in superstitions.
a) Patrick Roy was famous for his superstitions
b) He would skate backwards and spin, talk to his goal posts, etc
c) Still lost 400 games despite his superstitions
Applying Punishment
1) People tend to be more sensitive to punishment than they are to rewards.
i) For example, in one study students played a computerized game where they could choose a
response that brought a monetary reward or loss.
a) The students found losing money to be about three times as punishing as being
rewarded with money was pleasurable.
2) There are a lot of ethical concerns around the use of punishments, especially the spanking of young
children.
i) Over 20 countries have banned corporal punishment.
ii) When severe (e.g., hard or in the face), corporal punishment has been associated with poorer
parent-child relationships, delinquency in children, and higher changes of the children
becoming victims or perpetrators of abuse in adulthood.
iii) Less harsh forms (e.g., light spanking) have been shown to be more effective and have less
negative side effects.
3) Punishment is most effective when combined with reinforcement of an alternative, suitable behaviour
(Table 6.4).
Are Classical and Operant Learning Distinct Events?

1) It is possible that complex bahviour is likely influenced by both classical and operant conditioning.
i) Example used earlier is the slot machine. The machine pays out on a variable-ratio schedule
of reinforcement, while the lights and sounds are the conditioned stimuli that cause an
unconditioned response of excitement.
• Classical conditioning produced an emotional response, while Operant conditioning
maintained the behaviour.

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Lecture Launchers
 Pigeon Overhead: Bombs Away!
 Superstitious Behaviour: Being a Little Critical of Skinner
 Superstitious or Playing It Cautious?
 Behavioural Control of a Behaviour Problem
 The Cat’s Out of the Bag! ... er, Box!
 Chimpanzees, Poker Chips, and Token Economies
 Applied Learning
 Neural Mechanisms in Classical and Operant Conditioning
 Punishment

 Operant Conditioning in Human Behaviour
 Using Candy to Illustrate Operant Conditioning Concepts
 Reinforcement vs. Punishment
 Schedules of Reinforcement
 Shaping the Professor’s Behaviour
 Conditioning a Student “Rat”
Web Resources
 B. F. Skinner Foundation: http://www.bfskinner.org/
 Positive Reinforcement: A Self-Instruction Exercise:
http://psych.athabascau.ca/
 Animal Cognition Web Site: http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/
 Animal Trainer’s Introduction to Operant and Classical Conditioning:
http://www.wagntrain.com/
 Animal Training at Sea World: http://www.seaworld.org/

Classical and Operant Conditioning (1:50)
Law of Effect: Classical and Operant Conditioning (1:42)
 Law of Effect (1:33)

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III. MODULE 6.3: COGNITIVE AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (Text p. 260)

Learning Objectives
 Know the key terminology associated with cognitive and observational learning.
o Understand the concept of latent learning and its relevance to cognitive aspects of
learning
o Without being able to observe learning directly, it might seem as if no learning occurs.
However, Tolman and Honzik showed that rats can form “cognitive maps” of their
environment, even though they is no obvious reward for learning them. The rats only
demonstrate their knowledge when reinforcement is made available.
 Apply principles of observational learning outside of the laboratory
o Answer the questions on page 267 based on what the information in Module 6.3.
 Analyze the claim that viewing violent media increases violent behaviour.
o Psychologists agree that observational learning occurs and that media can influence
behaviour. Many studies show a correlational relation between violent media exposure
and aggressive behaviour. However, research is lacking in cause-and-effect. Albert
Bandura’s work from the 1960s suggests that exposure to violent media can at least
temporarily increase aggressive behaviour.
Cognitive Perspective on Learning

1) When it comes to the real world, learning is rarely as simple as pairing a conditioned stimulus (tone)
with an unconditioned stimulus (food) as is done with classical conditioning.
i) In addition, classical conditioning can take place only if an organism recognizes that there is a
consistent relationship between the two stimuli.
a) For example, rats show fear for tones paired 100% of the time with shocks than tones
paired 50% of the time with shocks (Figure 6.15).
Latent Learning
1) Much of human learning involves absorbing information and then demonstrating what we have
learned at a later date (e.g., quizzes).
i) Psychologist Edward Tolman proposed that humans (as well as other animals) display latent
learning.
Latent learning (p. 261) is learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the
organism is reinforced for doing so.
2) He demonstrated latent learning in rats running a maze (Figure 6.15).

i) He had three groups of rats run through the maze 10 times.
a) One group was rewarded every time they found the route out.
b) The second group was rewarded only after the 10th time.
c) The third group was never rewarded.
ii) However, the second group quickly performed as well as the first group after receiving a
reward.
a) It appears the second group was learning after all, but only demonstrated their
knowledge when they received reinforcement worthy of quickly running
through the maze.
iii) This study demonstrated that rats process a cognitive map of their environment.

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3) This study relates to human behaviours as well.

i) For example, you probably have a familiar route you take to school or work every day.
a) Let’s say there is a vacant building along the way that you never give much attention.
b) But if a great, inexpensive restaurant moved in, you would be able to navigate there
without any trouble.
S-O-R Theory of Learning

1) Latent learning suggests more thinking is involved in learning than is suggested by conditioning
theories
2) Stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) Theory was created to account for the internal thought processes.
3) Differences in performance across conditions would be attributed to cognitive interpretation of the
situation
i) Could be influenced by mood, fatigue, social factors
4) The key factor is the ‘O’, the organism mediates each S-R situation
Observational Learning
1) Previous examples of learning involved direct experience, however direct experience is not necessary
to learn.
Observational learning (p. 262) involves changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from
watching others.
i) Many cultural customs are spread through observation.

ii) Rats smell the breath of other rats and then search for food that matches that odor.
a) A breathing rat is a good indicator that the food is alright to eat.
iii) Children will avoid foods they witness their parents reacting with disgust to.
Processes Supporting Observational Learning

1) Albert Bandura identified four processes involved in observational learning (Figure 6.16):
i) Attention to the act or behaviour.
a) Seeing someone react with a classically conditioned fear to snakes can result in
acquiring a similar fear.
b) Paying attention to others being rewarded or punished, as in operant conditioning, can
result in learning.
c) However, we are more likely to learn by seeing others rewarded than punished.
ii) Memory for it.
a) There is often a delay from when we learn a new behaviour and when the need to
perform it arises.
b) For example, you might watch a cooking show, but not repeat the step until dinner
time.
iii) Ability to reproduce it.
a) We obviously need the ability to be able to reproduce the behaviour.
b) Observational learning is most effective when we first observe, practice immediately,
and continue practicing soon after acquiring the response.
c) It also helps to observe others throughout the process of learning. This helps to see a
model making a mistake so that we can reflect on our own mistakes.
iv) Motivation to do so.
a.) Being hungry or thirsty will motivate an individual to observe where others are going
to find food a drink.
b.) Conversely, a child with no interest in playing a piano is less motivated to observe his
teacher during lessons.

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Myths in Mind: Teaching is Uniquely Human

1) Teaching behaviours are not limited to humans.
i) Research has found teaching behaviours in ants.
a) A “teacher” ant gives a “pupil” ant feedback on how to locate a food source.
2) Field researchers studying the behaviours of Japanese macaque monkeys noticed a rapid spread of
potato washing in salt water.
i) One of the smarter monkeys of the group began washing the potatoes, which probably gave
them a better taste, and those in the group quickly followed this monkey’s behaviour.
3) A lot of social learning occurs between mothers and their young.

i) Chimpanzee mothers demonstrate to their young the skills required to crack open nuts.
ii) Mother killer whales show their offspring how to beach themselves in order to eat marine
mammals (e.g., seals).
Imitation and Mirror Neurons

1) One of the primary mechanisms that allow observational learning to take place is imitation.
Imitation (p. 265) is recreating a motor behaviour or expression, often to accomplish a specific
goal.
i) Children imitate the facial expressions of adults as early as infancy.

a) As they mature, children imitate motor acts produces by models (e.g., parents, teacher,
friend, etc.).
2) Humans will actually over-imitate other humans.
i) One study had a model show 3 and 4-year-old children and chimps how to open black box to
retrieve a treat.
a) The catch is that the model added some steps that were not necessary in opening the box.
ii) Both the children and chimps figured out how to open the box, but the children imitated every
step, whereas the chimps skipped the useless steps.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Linking Media Exposure to Behaviour

1) What do we know about the media and behaviour?
i) Learning from the media can involve direct imitation as well as influence what we view as
normal or acceptable behaviour.
ii) American children spend roughly 5 hours a day interacting with electronic media.
iii) There is much concern about the effects of media on certain behaviours (e.g., aggression) as
well as the desensitization of individuals to violence.
2) How can science explain the effect of media exposure on children’s behaviour?
i) Albert Bandura performed one of the first experiments examining whether watching violence
leads to violent behaviour.
a) One group of children watched an adult or cartoon attack a “Bobo” doll, whereas the
other group watched adults who did not attack the Bobo doll.
b) These children where then brought into a room filled with toys, including the Bobo
doll.
c) Those who watched the adults attack the doll, where also likely to attack the doll.
d) The other group of children did not attack the doll.

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Chapter 6: Learning
ii) Listening to violent music can also lead to aggressive behaviours.

a) In one study, students listened to either classical music, heavy metal, or no music
while participating in a laboratory experiment.
b) All students completed a survey about their mood at the beginning and then wrote a
short essay while listening to the music.
c) They were then brought into another room where they got negative feedback about
their essay (regardless of content) as a means of provoking aggression in the students.
d) Following this feedback, students rated their anger and mood levels with a
questionnaire.
e) Those who listened to heavy metal music reported greater feelings of anger in
response to the negative feedback as well as lower levels of mood.
3) Can we critically evaluate this research?

i) Decades of research show there is a positive correlation between exposure to violent media and
aggressive behaviour in people.
a) This correlation is stronger than that between aggression and peer influence, abusive
parenting, or intelligence.
ii) However, correlation does not equal causation.
a) Long-term studies are limited by correlational designs versus the use of formal
experiments.

i) Despite being able to determine cause-and-effect, we know that media violence is at least a
risk factor for future aggressiveness.
ii) As a result, many organizations have stepped in to help parents make decisions about which
type of media their children will be exposed to.
a) The Motion Picture Association of American has been rating movies since 1968.
b) Parental advisory stickers have been on music with lyrics that are sexually explicit,
reference drug use, or depict violence since the 1980s.
c) Video games are also labeled with parental advisory stickers.
Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Violence, Video Games, and Culture

1) Research has found that a regular pattern of playing violent video games causes short- and long-term
effects on violent thinking and behaviour.
2) Being able to personalize your own character in the game is related to an increase in aggressive
behaviour.
3) People who play violent video games often become less sensitive to the feelings and well-being of
others.
4) Players of violent video games show increased physiological arousal during play.
5) These same effects can be found in both Western and Eastern cultures.
6) There are no overall gender differences in aggression displayed by gamers.

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Lecture Launchers
 Bear Boys, Swine Girls, Wolf Children
 Role Models: Who and Why

 Applying Behavioural Principles
 Human Cognitive Maps
 Tie Your Shoes
 Learning Theory Comparison
 Conditioning in Everyday Life
 Behaviour Modification Project
Web Resources
 Transmission of Aggressions Through Imitation of Aggressive Models:
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/

Battered Husbands (12:32)

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Chapter 6: Learning
WORK THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY MODEL
Text p. 268
 MYPSYCHLAB: Video Series
Learning episode from the MyPsychLab Video series offers 5–7 minute segments covering
the most recent research, science, and applications and utilizing the most up-to-date film and
animation technology. Multiple-choice and short-answer questions are provided for student
assignments.
Episode 7: Learning
1. The Big Picture: What Does It Mean to Learn?
2. The Basics 1: Classical Conditioning: Learning Predictable Signals
3. The Basics 2: Operant Conditioning: Learning About Consequences
4. Special Topics: Social Anxiety Disorder
5. Thinking Like a Psychologist: Physical Punishment – You Decide!
6. In the Real World Application: Learned Aggression
7. What’s In It For Me? Personal Behaviour Modification
Format
The MyPsychLab video series was designed with flexibility in mind, available in MyPsychLab. Each
half-hour episode in the MyPsychLab video series is made up of several five-minute clips which can be
viewed separately or together:
• The Big Picture introduces the topic of the episode and draws in the viewer.
• The Basics uses the power of video to present foundational topics, especially those that students find
difficult to understand.
• Special Topics dives deeper into high-interest and often cutting-edge topics, showing research in
action.
• Thinking Like a Psychologist models critical thinking and explores research methods.
• In the Real World focuses on applications of psychological research.
• What’s In It for Me? These clips show students the relevance of psychological research to their lives.
Text p. 268
 ASSIGNMENT: Work the Model
After students read the chapter and view the video (available in MyPsychLab and at
www.youtube.com/workthemodel) assign the discussion topic found in the “Why is this
relevant?” section as a classroom discussion or as a short-answer writing assignment through
MyPsychLab.
Discussion Question or Writing Assignment:

Imagine you are asked by a roommate to help him devise a weight loss program to increase his chances of
making the football team. Create a one month behaviour modification program based on the principles of
operant conditioning which will get him started towards his goal.
RUBRIC FOR WRITING ASSIGNMENT:
Trait 1 Rubric: Development of Ideas

Specific Trait
Response Priorities
Complete for all multi-part prompts
Top Student’s example integrates the core idea of operant conditioning and uses it
Priority appropriately.

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Second Response is in the context of the answer.

Priority
Score Point Description of Student Response
Response includes the core idea that behaviours aimed at losing weight must be
identified and reinforced (in other words, reinforcement is used, not punishment).
Response is also in the context of the example presented in the prompt. Response may
4 vary but includes:
• Identifying target behaviour that will lead to losing weight (example: changing
eating habits, exercising)
• Gathering and recording baseline data of current behaviour that is not helping
to lost weight (e.g., current eating habits or amount of exercise)
• Creating short-term and long-term schedules (e.g., daily food intake or daily
exercise routine plus weekly goals and monthly goals);
• Listing reinforcers including when they will be implemented (e.g., eat X
calories/day and get to play videogame or exercise X times per week and go
see a movie);
o Reinforcers should be rewarding and not counter to ultimate weight
loss goal, although an occasional treat would be okay if described as
such
• Monitoring progress in comparison to baseline data
Response includes the core idea that behaviours aimed at losing weight must be
identified and reinforced (in other words, reinforcement is used, not punishment).
Response may be in the context of the example presented in the prompt. Response
3 includes most of the following:
• Identifying target behaviour that will lead to losing weight (example: changing
see a movie);
such
Response may be in the context of the example presented in the prompt.

Response includes some of the following:
2 • Identifying target behaviour that will lead to losing weight (example: changing

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Chapter 6: Learning
see a movie);
such
Response contains missing or incorrect information for all aspects of the prompt.
Response fails to include the core idea that behaviours aimed at losing weight must be
1 identified and reinforced. Response is not in the context of the example. Response
does not describe any steps associated with a behaviour modification program, such as
identifying target behaviours or recording baseline data.
Trait 2 Rubric: Organization

Specify Trait
Organization is clear and helps the reader understand the respondent’s point of view.
4 Transitions connect concepts and guide the reader. Contains an effective introduction
and conclusion.
Organization helps the reader understand the respondent’s point of view. Transitions
3 connect some concepts. Contains an appropriate introduction and conclusion.
A lack of organization interferes with the reader’s understanding of the respondent’s

2 point of view. Response has few transitions that would help the reader follow the
essay. Either the introduction or the conclusion or both are ineffective.
A lack of organization profoundly interferes with the reader’s understanding of the

1 respondent’s point of view. Response lacks transitions that would help the reader
follow the essay. Both the introduction and the conclusion are absent or ineffective.

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Trait 3 Rubric: Conventions

Specific Trait
Response does not contain a significant number of errors in grammar, spelling,

punctuation, or word choice. Errors do not interfere with the reader’s understanding.
4 Response demonstrates variety in sentence structure. Demonstrates sophistication and
skill with a wide variety of conventions.
Response contains a significant but not excessive number of errors in grammar,

spelling, punctuation, or word choice. Most errors do not interfere with the reader’s
3 understanding. Response demonstrates some variety in sentence structure.
Demonstrates control over basic but not complex conventions.
Response contains a substantial number of errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or

word choice. Many errors interfere with the reader’s understanding. Response
2 demonstrates little to no variety in sentence structure. Demonstrates minimal control
over basic conventions.
Response contains a large number of errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or word

choice. Many errors interfere with the reader’s understanding. Response demonstrates
1 little to no variety in sentence structure. Demonstrates a lack of control over basic
conventions.
Trait 4 Rubric: Voice

Specific Trait
The writing has an individual, engaging voice with a compelling tone. There is a sense
of a personality behind the written words. Words are precise and natural; there may be
4 figurative language used appropriately. Sentences are graceful and clear with a natural
rhythm and variety that demonstrate fluency. Awareness of audience is evident.
The writing has a clear but uncomplicated voice. The writing is relatively fluent, but
overall it may lack spontaneity and vitality. Word choice is appropriate and functional;
3 figurative language may be limited to clichés. Sentences may occasionally be awkward
or repetitious but demonstrate some variety in structure. There are few surprising or
unexpected moments. Some awareness of audience is evident.

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The writing may have an artificial or uneven tone. Word choice may be simple and
limited, or overly jargonistic, reflecting text written to impress. There may be little
2 evidence the writer is engaged in the topic; the text lacks liveliness. Sentences may be
choppy, rambling, or repetitive in a way that limits fluency. There may be little or no
audience awareness.
The writing may lack voice or use a tone inappropriate for the audience. Word choices
are vague, inappropriate, or incorrect. Sentences may be limited in variety or be
1 comprised of awkward fragments or run-ons which produce a halting voice. No
commitment to audience and/or topic is evident.
Trait 5 Rubric: Focus & Coherence

Specific Trait
Response persuasively justifies its conclusions through logic, examples, and
4 illustrative language. References to theories, concepts, etc. effectively demonstrate a
strong command of psychology.
Response justifies its conclusions through some combination of logic, examples, and
illustrative language. References to theories, concepts, etc. effectively demonstrate a
3 good command of psychology.
Response provides some justification for its conclusions. Some combination of logic,
examples, and illustrative language are present but are inconsistent or somewhat
2 ineffective. References to theories, concepts, etc. effectively demonstrate only a partial
understanding of psychology.
Response provides no significant justification for its conclusions. Logic, examples, and
illustrative language are absent, inconsistent, and/or ineffective. References to theories,
1 concepts, etc. effectively demonstrate no more than a weak grasp of psychology.

377
▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS
 Learning Chapter Classroom Discussion Topics

 Twitmyer, Serendipity, and Self-Promotion
 Whatever Happened to Little Albert?
 Pigeon Overhead: Bombs Away!
 Superstitious Behaviour: Being a Little Critical of Skinner
 Superstitious or Playing It Cautious?
 Behavioural Control of a Behaviour Problem
 The Cat’s Out of the Bag! ... er, Box!
 Chimpanzees, Poker Chips, and Token Economies
 Applied Learning
 Neural Mechanisms in Classical and Operant Conditioning
 Punishment
 Bear Boys, Swine Girls, Wolf Children
 Role Models: Who and Why
 Chemical Alarms
 Sleep-Assisted Learning
Lecture/ Discussion: Learning Chapter Classroom Discussion Topics
• If you were designing the ideal slot machine, how could you apply the principles of learning to ensure
that people play the machine over and over again despite winning very little money? How does your
ideal slot machine compare to state lotteries or mail contests (such as Publisher’s Clearing House
Sweepstakes)?
• There is no doubt that at least some behaviours in some people can be controlled through
conditioning techniques, both operant and classical. The question then is, “Who controls the
controllers?” What is to prevent a few powerful individuals from taking advantage of others by
applying behaviour modification techniques? What are the potential abuses of behaviour
modification? How can behaviour modification be used so that everyone—both controllers and those
controlled—is happy?
• Think of cases in your own life when punishment worked effectively and other cases when it did not.
What were the differences between the two situations? Why did it work in some cases but not in
others? How do your own experiences compare to the discussion in the text on the circumstances
under which aversive control is likely to be most effective? Can you add new conditions to those
listed in the text?
▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics

Lecture/Discussion: Twitmyer, Serendipity, and Self-Promotion
Ivan Pavlov is, of course, credited with “discovering” classical conditioning, and every introductory
psychology student learns of procedures he developed to identify learning in dogs. Few, if any, ever hear
of Edwin Twitmyer. Twitmyer is interesting for a couple of reasons. First, his 1902 doctoral dissertation
provides a wonderful example of how accidents can lead to scientific discovery. Second, it shows that

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Chapter 6: Learning
how scientific information is constructed depends on more than simply making discoveries in
laboratories. Twitmyer “discovered” classical conditioning in the United States at the same time Pavlov
was doing his own work in Russia, and before Pavlov’s work became public. However, Twitmyer failed
to gain the notoriety that Pavlov did. At the time Twitmyer was finishing his doctoral research,
neurophysiologists and psychologists were studying the simplest unit of behaviour, which is called a
“reflex arc.” Most students are already familiar with the patellar reflex, or knee jerk, which is an example
of a simple reflex. In this reflex, as it is tested in medical exams, consists of a sharp tap on tendon
attached to the kneecap. In turn, this tap elicits a kicking movement of the lower leg. Repetition of the
tapping increases the amount of movement. Twitmyer was interested in why repetition should enhance
the reflex. Why, he thought, doesn’t repetition lead to fatigue and a weakened response? To find out, he
conducted a long series of experimental sessions.
Gardner and Gardner (1998) summarized Twitmyer’s procedure as follows:
Twitmeyer’s [sic] experimental apparatus released a hammer that hit the kneecap with a
measured amount of force at a precise time. To warn his subjects, the apparatus also
struck a bell once just a half-second before the hammer struck the kneecap. One day, the
apparatus broke down while a well-practiced subject was in place. When Twitmyer
retested the apparatus, the bell sounded but the hammer failed to operate. To Twitmyer’s
surprise, the subject’s knee jerked as if struck by the hammer. Twitmyer thought that the
subject, a fellow student, was joking or possibly kicking without waiting for the hammer.
The subject reported that he was as surprised as Twitmyer. The knee seemed to jerk by
itself. (p. 21)
Twitmyer repeated this error with a few other subjects, that is, he rang the bell without letting the hammer
deploy. He found that some kicked without the hammer, but some did not. In particular, he found that the
number of pairings between hammer and bell mattered. Some responded to the bell without the hammer
after only 30 trials, but almost all responded to the bell without the hammer (i.e., a conditioned response)
after 130 pairings.
It was clear that Twitmyer (1974) understood the significance of his chance discovery:
The movement of the legs following the tap of the bell, without the blows on the tendons,
has the characteristics of a simple, immediate reaction to the stimulus. Upon the
unanimous testimony of the subjects, it was not produced voluntarily, i.e., there was no
idea of the movement in consciousness, antecedent to the movement itself. It may,
therefore be held, tentatively at least, that the movement is a reflex action. The afferent
excitation must therefore reach the [spinal] cord at the level of the medulla and then pass
down to the second or third lumbar segment in which the cell bodies of the efferent
conduction path are located. Here then we have a new and unusual reflex arc.
…The occurrence of the phenomenon, therefore, depends upon the preliminary

simultaneous occurrence of the sound of the bell with the kick produced in the usual way,
i.e., a blow on the tendon. After a certain number of such trials, the number varying for
different subjects, the association of the sound of the bell and the kick becomes so fixed
that the bell itself is capable of serving as a stimulus to the movement. (pp. 1063-1065).
According to Dallenbach (1959), Twitmyer’s work was “one of the most, if not the most, important
experimental discoveries of his day and generation in his hand and he let it slip through his fingers!” (p.
635). Why is it, then, that Twitmyer failed to continue this line of research? And why was his research
ignored?

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Dissertations generally don’t gain much publicity. To compound matters, Twitmyer chose a modest title
for his dissertation, “A Study of the Knee-Jerk,” which attracted little attention and offered no suggestion
as to the new and exciting discovery he had made. Next Twitmyer presented his research at the annual
meeting of the American Psychological Association in a paper called, “Knee-Jerks Without Stimulation
of the Patellar Tendon.” This title was no more exciting. Conferences typically publish abstracts of
presentations, not full papers, and these abstracts were not readily available. So, even though the
essentials of his discovery were included in his abstract, most would not find it. To make matters worse
for Twitmyer, the audience he had at this conference was unhelpful. Dallenbach pointed out that,
“William James, president of the Association that year, presided at the meeting at which Twitmyer
reported. [Twitmyer’s] report, though presented before the elite of American psychology, fell dead. Not
one of his hearers commented upon it after his presentation.” Dallenbach also pointed out that, had he
been a good chairman of the session, James would have helped this poor student by asking the first
question to get the discussion rolling. Instead, he said nothing.
So why didn’t Twitmyer continue this line of research? Why do you know of Pavlov, but not of Twitmyer?
One might blame Twitmyer’s mentors for not encouraging him. One might blame the Zeitgeist. As Schulz
said in his first edition of A History of Modern Psychology, “[u]nless the Zeitgeist is ready for what the
great man has to say, he may not be heard…” (p. 10). However, Dallenbach placed significant
responsibility on the researcher himself. Dallenbach suggested that Twitmyer failed to push his ideas
forward and to effectively report them. According to Dallenbach, “[Twitmyer] 'missed the boat,' not
because of an unfavourable Zeitgeist, but because he was a young, inexperienced scholar, not a promoter.
He did not know how to promote his discovery and he could not withstand discouragement. Pavlov, on the
other hand, was experienced in the promotional arts, and he utilized them to their fullest extent. He gave
his phenomenon a distinguishing name, "conditioned response," and, despite initial discouragement, he
continued his experiments and reports. … He persisted in his 'promotion' until he had created a Zeitgeist
favourable to his work” (pp. 637–638).
References:
Dallenbach, K. (1959). Twitmyer and the Conditioned Response. The American Journal of
Psychology, 72(4), 633–638.
Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1998). The Structure of Learning: From Sign Stimuli to Sign
Language. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 20–22
Schulz, D. P. (1969). A History of Modern Psychology. New York: Academic Press, Inc.
Twitmyer, E. B. (1974). A study of the knee jerk. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 103(6), 1047–
1066.

Lecture/Discussion: Consumer Psychology
Impulse buying is a joy to many retailers, but a scourge to many consumers. It is also a behaviour of great
interest to consumer psychologists who want to know why people give in to their impulses. Are window
displays especially important in catching the shoppers’ attention and eliciting their spending behaviour?
Or, is it those clever commercials that reel in the customers? The field of consumer psychology addresses
these questions and many others. As you might guess, researchers in this field are in demand by
advertisers, manufacturers, and retailers who want advice on how to capture the attention of potential
customers and get people to open their wallets.
Consumer psychologists have shown that many of Madison Avenue’s techniques are based on principles
of conditioning, whether advertising executives realize it or not. For example, Gerald Gorn (1982)

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showed that associating an item with pleasant stimuli induces people to like the item itself. Gorn had
college students view slides of either a beige or blue pen. During the presentation, half the students heard
a song from a recent musical film and half heard a selection of classical Indian music. (Gorn made the
reasonable assumption that the show tune would be more appealing to most Americans.) Later, students
were allowed to choose one of the pens. Almost three-fourths of those who heard the popular music chose
a pen that was the same colour as the one they had seen in the slides. An equal number of those who
heard the Indian music chose a pen that differed in colour from the one they had seen. This is an instance
of classical conditioning: the music was an unconditioned stimulus for internal responses associated with
pleasure or displeasure, and pens became conditioned stimuli for similar responses. You can see why
television commercials often pair products with music, attractive people, or other appealing stimuli.
Advertising is not the only influence on spending. Credit cards, as some of us know all too well, have a
power of their own. Handing over your card to a sales person is immediately rewarded by the delivery of
a desired item into your hands; the payment is not due until much later. Thus, through a process of
operant conditioning, credit card use becomes more likely. Even the mere presence of a credit card
increases the likelihood and magnitude of spending. When a card is repeatedly paired with the responses
involved in spending, it becomes a stimulus for “spending behaviour.” Through a process of classical
conditioning, it may also come to elicit positive emotional responses (Feinberg, 1986).
Retailers may use this information to attract customers, say, by displaying signs of the credit cards they
accept. But, a knowledge of conditioning principles can also help consumers control their spending. To
avoid impulse buying, credit cards can be left at home. To reduce susceptibility to commercials, turn
down the sound. But, perhaps the most effective inhibitor of that impulse to “buy, buy, buy” is to think of
Pavlov and Skinner.
References:
Feinberg, R. A. (1986). Credit cards as spending facilitating stimuli: A conditioning interpretation.
Journal of Consumer Research, 13, 348–356.
Gorn, G. J. (1982). The effects of music in advertising on choice behaviour: A classical conditioning
approach. Journal of Marketing, 46, 94–101.

Lecture/Discussion: Whatever Happened to Little Albert?
In an article that was originally published in American Psychologist, February 1979, Volume 34, Number
2, pp. 151–160, Ben Harris contends that many General Psychology textbooks have misrepresented the
details and interpretations of the Watson and Rayner’s research with Little Albert.
Excerpts from the article:

Almost 60 years after it was first reported, Watson and Rayner’s (1920) attempted conditioning of
the infant Albert B. is one of the most widely cited experiments in textbook psychology.
Unfortunately, most accounts of Watson and Rayner’s research with Albert feature as much
fabrication and distortion as they do fact. From information about Albert himself to the basic
experimental methods and results, no detail of the original study has escaped misrepresentation in
the telling and retelling of this bit of social science folklore.
The Experiment
As described by Watson and Rayner (1920), an experimental study was undertaken to answer three questions:
(1) Can an infant be conditioned to fear an animal that appears simultaneously with a loud,

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The Experiment
As described by Watson and Rayner (1920), an experimental study was undertaken to answer three
questions: (1) Can an infant be conditioned to fear an animal that appears simultaneously with a loud,
fear-arousing sound? (2) Would such fear transfer to other animals or to inanimate objects? (3) How long
would such fears persist? In attempting to answer these questions, Watson and Rayner selected an infant
named Albert B., whom they described as “healthy,” and “stolid and unemotional” (p. 1). At
approximately 9 months of age, Albert was tested and was judged to show no fear when successively
observing a number of live animals (e.g., a rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a monkey), and various inanimate
objects (e.g., cotton, human masks, a burning newspaper). He was, however, judged to show fear
whenever a long steel bar was unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer just behind his back. Two months
after testing Albert’s apparently unconditioned reactions to various stimuli, Watson and Rayner attempted
to condition him to fear a white rat. This was done by presenting a white rat to Albert, followed by a loud
clanging sound (of the hammer and steel bar) whenever Albert touched the animal. After seven pairings
of the rat and noise (in two sessions, one week apart), Albert reacted with crying and avoidance when the
rat was presented without the loud noise.
In order to test the generalization of Albert’s fear response, 5 days later he was presented with the rat, a
set of familiar wooden blocks, a rabbit, a short-haired dog, a sealskin coat, a package of white cotton, the
heads of Watson and two assistants (inverted so that Albert could touch their hair), and a bearded Santa
Claus mask. Albert seemed to show a strong fear response to the rat, the rabbit, the dog, and the sealskin
coat; a “negative” response to the mask and Watson’s hair; and a mild response to the cotton. Also, Albert
played freely with the wooden blocks and the hair of Watson’s assistants.
After an additional 5 days, Watson reconditioned Albert to the rat (one trial, rat paired with noise) and
also attempted to condition Albert directly to fear the previously presented rabbit (one trial) and dog (one
trial). When the effects of this procedure were tested in a different, larger room, it was found that Albert
showed only a slight reaction to the rat, the dog, and the rabbit. Consequently, Watson attempted “to
freshen the reaction to the rat” (p. 9) by presenting it with the loud noise. Soon after this, the dog began to
bark loudly at Albert, scaring him and the experimenters and further confounding the experiment.
To answer their third question concerning the permanence of conditioned responses over time, Watson
and Rayner conducted a final series of tests on Albert after 31 days of neither conditioning nor extinction
trials. In these tests, Albert showed fear when touching the Santa Claus mask, the sealskin coat, the rat,
the rabbit, and the dog. At the same time, however, he initiated contact with the coat and the rabbit,
showing “strife between withdrawal and the tendency to manipulate” (Watson & Rayner, 1920, p. 10).
Following these final tests, Albert’s mother removed him from the hospital where the experiment had
been conducted. (According to their own account, Watson and Rayner knew a month in advance the day
that Albert would no longer be available to them.)
Introductory-Level Textbook Versions of Albert

A selective survey of textbooks used to introduce students to general, developmental, and abnormal
psychology revealed that few books fail to refer to Watson and Rayner’s (1920) study in some manner.
Relatively minor details that are misrepresented include Albert’s age (Calhoun 1977; Johnson &
Medinnus, 1974), his name (Galanter, 1966), the spelling of Rosalie Rayner’s name (e.g., Biehler, 1976;
Helms & Turner, 1976; McCandless & Trotter, 1977; Papalia & Olds, 1975), and whether Albert was
initially conditioned to fear a rat or a rabbit (CRM Books, 1971; Staats, 1968).
Of more significance are texts’ misrepresentations of the range of Albert’s postconditioning fears and of
the postexperimental fate of Albert. The list of spurious stimuli to which Albert’s fear response is claimed
to have generalized is rather extensive. It includes a fur pelt (CRM Books, 1971), a man’s beard (Helms
& Turner, 1976), a cat, a pup, a fur muff (Telford & Sawrey, 1968), a white furry glove (Whittaker,
1965), Albert’s aunt, who supposedly wore fur (Bernhardt, 1953), either the fur coat or the fur neckpiece

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of Albert’s mother (Hilgard, Atkinson, & Atkinson, 1975; Kisker, 1977; Weiner, 1977), and even a teddy
bear (Boring, Langfeld, & Weld, 1948). In a number of texts, a happy ending has been added to the story
by the assertion that Watson removed (or “reconditioned”) Albert’s fear, with this process sometimes
described in detail (Engle & Snellgrove, 1969; Gardiner, 1970; Whittaker, 1965).
What are the causes of these frequent errors by the authors of undergraduate textbooks? Prytula et al.
(1977) cataloged similar mistakes but offered little explanation of their source. Cornwell and Hobbs
(1976) suggested that such distortions, if not simply due to overreliance on secondary sources, can be
generally seen as authors’ attempts to paint the Albert study (and Watson) in a more favourable light and
to make it believable to undergraduates. Certainly, many of the common errors are consistent with a
brushed-up image of Watson and his work. For example, not one text mentions that Watson knew when
Albert would leave his control—a detail that might make Watson and Rayner’s failure to recondition
Albert seem callous to some modern readers.
However, there are other reasons for such errors besides textbooks’ tendencies to tell ethically pleasing
stories that are consistent with students’ common sense. One major source of confusion about the Albert
story is Watson himself, who altered and deleted important aspects of the study in his many descriptions of
it. For example, in the Scientific Monthly description of the study (Watson & Watson, 1921), there is no
mention of the conditioning of Albert to the dog, the rabbit, and the rat that occurred at 11 months 20 days;
thus Albert’s subsequent responses to these stimuli can be mistaken for a strong generalization effect (for
which there is little evidence). A complementary and equally confusing omission occurs in Psychological
Care of Infant and Child (Watson, 1928a). There, Watson begins his description of the Albert study with
Albert’s being conditioned to a rabbit (apparently the session occurring at 11 months 20 days). As a result,
the reader is led to believe that Albert’s fear of a rat (a month later) was the product of generalization
rather than the initial conditioning trials. Besides these omissions, Watson and Rayner (1920) also made
frequent editorial comments, such as the assertion that fears such as Albert’s were “likely to persist
indefinitely, unless an accidental method for removing them is hit upon” (p. 12). Given such comments, it
is understandable that one recent text overestimates the duration of the Albert experiment by 300%
(Goldenberg, 1977), and another states that Albert’s “phobia became resistant to extinction” (Kleinmuntz,
1974, p. 130).
A second reason for textbook authors’ errors, it seems, is the desire of many of us to make experimental
evidence consistent with textbook theories of how organisms should act. According to popular versions of
learning theory (as described by Herrnstein, 1977), organisms’ conditioning should generalize along
simple stimulus dimensions; many textbooks list spurious fear-arousing stimuli (for Albert) that
correspond to such dimensions. To illustrate the process of stimulus generalization, Albert is often said to
have feared every white, furry object—although he actually showed fear mostly of nonwhite objects (the
rabbit, the dog, the sealskin coat, Watson’s hair), and did not even fear everything with hair (the
observers). But to fit a more simplified view of learning, either new stimuli appear in some texts (e.g., a
white rabbit, a white glove) or it is simply asserted that Albert’s conditioning generalized to all white and
furry (or hairy) stimuli (see Biehler, 1976; Craig, 1976; Helms & Turner, 1976). Though it might seem as
if Albert’s fear did generalize to the category of all animate objects with fur (e.g., the rabbit) or short hair
(e.g., Watson’s head), this is impossible to show conclusively. The only experimental stimuli not fitting
this category were the blocks and the observers’ hair. Apparently the blocks were a familiar toy (thus not
a proper stimulus), and Albert’s familiarity with the observers is not known (although we may guess that
one might have been his mother).


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Lecture/Discussion: Pigeon Overhead: Bombs Away!

Animals have consistently played a prominent role in learning and conditioning experiments, from
Edward Thorndike’s cats to Edward Tolman’s rats to the disobedient menagerie of Marian and Keller
Breland. Included in this list are some very famous pigeons who almost helped the national defense.
B. F. Skinner worked at the University of Minnesota during the second World War. Interested in applying
the principles of operant conditioning to the war effort, Skinner trained pigeons to peck at discs which had
moving pictures of enemy targets displayed on them. The pecking served to close electronic circuits,
which in turn formed a self-regulating system. Although this is no great feat in itself – these actions
faithfully follow the most basic rules of operant conditioning – Skinner’s vision was to install his pigeons,
discs, and circuits in gliders packed with explosives. The idea was to have the pigeons peck on cue to
manipulate the circuits, which in turn would keep the glider on its kamikaze course toward an enemy
target. A neat, tidy bombing run, with no loss of human life.
The Defense Department declined Skinner’s help, even though he demonstrated to top scientists that the
homing device withstood electronic jamming, the apparatus was inexpensive to build, and the basic set-up
could be applied to a range of enemy targets. In the present era of Star Wars weaponry, stealth bombers,
and combat guided by virtual reality, perhaps a pigeon bombardier wouldn’t seem so far-fetched.
References:
Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (1993). An introduction to theories of learning (4th ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Skinner, B. F. (1960). Pigeons in a pelican. American Psychologist, 15, 28–37.

Lecture/Discussion: Superstitious Behaviour: Being a Little Critical of Skinner
Referring to any behaviour as “superstitious,” in the context of science, is using loaded terminology,
particularly when attributing this behaviour to a nonhuman species. Such a claim, under normal
circumstances, would require substantial evidence to support it. One should also expect rival hypotheses
to be considered and conclusions to be based on replication of findings. However, sometimes, even the
science of psychology fails its own tests. The case of “superstitious behaviour” demonstrates that
psychology doesn’t always worry about burden of evidence when a “sexy” finding and the reputation of a
well-known psychologist are at stake.
Perhaps because of his notoriety, mainstream psychology has not been horribly critical of B. F. Skinner. In
fact an informal study published by Skinner in 1948 is still cited regularly, even in this text, as a classic
study and as sufficient evidence of superstitious behaviour. However, findings are only as good as the
methods used to obtain them. In his 1948 paper Skinner made informal observations of eight pigeons. He
describes neither his procedures, nor his method for making observations clearly. Schwarz (1989)
summarized Skinner’s study as follows:
Pigeons were first trained to eat grain from a feeder. Then the pigeons were exposed to a procedure
in which the feeder was made available at regular intervals irrespective of what they were doing—
that is, pigeons were not required to do anything to get food. … Skinner’s reasoning in doing this
experiment was roughly this: when food was delivered, the pigeons would certainly be doing
something. They might be strutting about the cage, grooming, flapping their wings, turning around,
pecking at a screw on the wall, etc. While one could not be sure of what the pigeons would be doing
at any particular moment, one could be sure that they would be doing something. When
reinforcement occurred, it would be paired with whatever response the pigeons had just emitted.
Though this response did not produce the reinforcer, the temporal contiguity of

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response and reinforce would be sufficient to strengthen (increase the likelihood of) the
behaviour. … Skinner expected that each pigeon would ultimately be engaged in some activity
with a high frequency. And this is what Skinner observed.” (pp. 156–157)
In his report, Skinner failed to describe his procedure for reinforcement nor did he describe the method
used to record pigeon behaviour in sufficient detail for anyone to make a direct replication. Indeed, upon
reading his report, it is impossible to determine to what extent he was systematic in manipulating the
reinforcement schedule or in collecting his data. Because of this lack of detail, readers must depend on his
interpretation of the observations he (presumably) made. Without citing anyone else or offering any
alternative explanations, Skinner simply stated that “The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort
of superstition. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behaviour and the
presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking” (p. 171). Then he immediately drew analogies
between his interpretation of the pigeons and human behaviour. Whenever a researcher finds what he was
looking for, readers should be cautious, as should the researcher. Richard Feynman is often quoted as
saying that science is a means of bending over backward to prove ourselves wrong (Feynman, 1985).
Skinner did the opposite. He tried to confirm his expectation with the least amount of evidence. Even
though his report is interesting and should prompt further systematic investigations, it was so informally
conducted (and reported) that a responsible scientist would not draw conclusions prior to replication and
prior to looking for alternative explanations.
Staddon and Simmelhag (1971) were among the responsible scientists who attempted to replicate
Skinner’s study and indeed challenged him. In their report, they provided the details necessary to
replicate. For example, they described their pigeon subjects in some detail. They described the three
schedules of food delivery they used: (1) a response-independent fixed-interval schedule in which the
food magazine was presented at 12-second intervals; (2) a response independent variable-interval
schedule in which the food magazine was presented on the average every 8 seconds; and (3) food was
delivered (reinforcement occurred) for the first key peck 12 seconds or more after the preceding
reinforcement. They developed a formal system of coding pigeon responses which they include in their
publication. They also published their analyses in a systematic fashion, which allowed the reader to see
the pattern in the data that the researchers had seen in the pigeons.
Schwarz (1989) pointed out that Staddon and Simmelhag’s procedure
. . . was very much like Skinner’s procedure. The main difference came in the recording of data.
Staddon and Simmelhag established 16 behavioural categories, including wing-flapping, walking,
turning in circles, putting the head in the feeder, raising the beak to the ceiling, and pecking at
one or another part of the chamber. They then observed the pigeons continuously during the
sessions, and classified all the pigeons’ activities into these 16 categories. At the end of each
session they had a record of the frequency with which these different responses occurred, and the
order in which they occurred. Thus their observations were much more detailed and systematic
than Skinner’s” (p. 157).
Based on Skinnerian notions, Staddon and Simmelhag would have anticipated that “at the time of the very
first food delivery the pigeons might be engaged in any one of the 16 responses. … The effect of that first
food delivery would be to increase the frequency of whatever response had preceded it. This in turn would
make it likely that the same response would be occurring when the next food delivery occurred, thus
increasing its frequency still more. Ultimately, we would expect to find each pigeon spending most of its
time engaged in one particular activity—different from one pigeon to the next, but quite reliable from
minute to minute and session to session for each pigeon” (Schwarz, 1989, p. 158). However, that is not
what they found. Staddon and Simmelhag reported “that the ‘superstition’ situation generally produces
two distinct kinds of activity: interim activities that occur at short and intermediate postfood times, and

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the terminal response that begins later in the interval and continues until food delivery” (p. 12). All birds
produced the same terminal behaviour pattern, not the random assortment that Skinner reported. Terminal
responses consisted of pecking at the wall above the food hopper, what you would expect if pecking were
a prefeeding behaviour rather than the result of being reinforced (Gardner, 1998, p. 155).
As Schwarz (1989) pointed out, “Though Skinner’s demonstration of superstition has been extremely
influential, it has not been confirmed in subsequent research” (p. 157). On the other hand, other
researchers have confirmed the findings and interpretations of Staddon and Simmelhag, for example,
Fenner (1980), Reberg, Innis, Mann, & Eizenga (1978), and Timberlake and Lucas (1985). Yet
Skinner maintains his notoriety while these others folks do not.
References:
Fenner, D. (1980). The role of contingencies and “principles of behavioural variation” in pigeons
pecking. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 34, 1–12.
Feynman, R. P. (1985). Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! Adventures of a Curious Character.
New York: Bantam Books.
Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1998). The Structure of Learning: From Sign Stimuli to Sign
Language. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 154-155.
Reberg, D., Innis, N. K., Mann, B., & Eizenga, C. (1978). Superstitious behaviour resulting from
periodic response-independent presentations of food or water. Animal Behaviour, 26, 507–519.
Schwarz, B. (1989). Psychology of Learning and Behaviour, 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company, Inc., 156–158.
Skinner, B. F. (1948). “Superstition” in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168–
172.
Staddon, J. E. R., & Simmelhag, V. L. (1971). The “superstition” experiment: A reexamination of its
implications for the principles of adaptive behaviour. Psychological Review, 78, 3–43.
Timberlake, W. & Lucas, G. A. (1985). The basis of superstitious behaviour: Chance contingency,
stimulus substitution, or appetitive behaviour. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour,
44, 279–299.

Lecture/Discussion: Superstitious or Playing It Cautious?
Consider this type of learning. A man who calls himself Orpheus tells you that he has the power to make
the sun rise by singing to it. Being, by now, scientifically skeptical, you demand a demonstration of this
environmental control. Orpheus begins to sing at about 5 A.M. and soon the sun rises. He can repeat this
demonstration for you daily, showing that his response is always followed by this change in the
environment. You now suggest another test: omit the singing and see if the sun still comes up. Orpheus
must reject such a test. The consequence of his not singing would surely be the sun’s not rising, and for
the sake of the world, he dare not risk such a dire consequence.
This example can be seen as accidental operant strengthening of a coincidental relationship between
behaviour and reinforcers. The rituals gamblers use in trying to change their luck illustrate their learned
belief that something they were doing caused the dice or cards to fall a certain way. Such accidentally
conditioned responses are called superstitions.
Superstition develops whenever a behaviour coincidentally happens to be followed by a reinforcer and, as

a result, the behaviour is repeated. Many common examples occur in the context of athletics. Many
athletes go through some rather bizarre rituals, tugging on the belt, adjusting their cap, tapping their spikes
with a bat, before entering the batter’s box. One explanation for these behaviours is that at one time

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it happened to be followed by hitting a home run. These behaviours often do not easily extinguish because
circumstances provide intermittent reinforcement for them. If a batter goes through a ritual every time he
or she steps to the plate, he or she will, from time to time (about a third of the time, if he or she is a good
hitter) again be reinforced for these actually unrelated behaviours.
When the environmental consequences are vital for an individual or a group, a superstitious response is
extremely resistant to extinction. This is true for two reasons. First, as in the case of Orpheus, the risk
involved in not making the response, if the connection were a causal one, would be greater than the gain in
knowledge from finding out that one’s behaviour was not producing the effect. Second, if the individual
believes the superstition is valid, omitting the “necessary” act might produce other changes in his or her
behaviour that would directly affect the event in question. This is often seen among students who have a
special pen or pair of jeans that they always use for taking final exams. If the pen is lost or the filthy jeans
are thrown out by an exasperated parent, they may indeed do poorly on the exam because of expectation of
failure and distracting thoughts about “their luck running out.”
The development of such superstitions can be demonstrated easily in the laboratory. A hungry pigeon is
confined to a box with a feeding mechanism that automatically dispenses a pellet of food every 15
seconds, regardless of what the pigeon does. Whatever response the pigeon happens to be making when
the food is delivered then becomes a reinforced response, and the probability of its occurrence is
increased. Different stereotyped behaviour patterns are likely to emerge in different subjects—turning
counterclockwise, turning in a circle several times before going to the food dispenser, jerking the head in
one direction, as well as other “bizarre” movements.

Lecture/Discussion: Behavioural Control of a Behaviour Problem
Rorey B. was a preschool child of average intelligence who was a “behaviour problem.” He screamed,
fought, disobeyed, and bossed others both at home and school, although he was only four years, eight
months of age. His parents were concerned over this obviously undesirable behaviour that they expected
to get even worse as he got older. “He continually told other children what to do and how to play, and
enforced his demands with punches, kicks, and slaps,” they reported.
Observation of Mrs. B’s interaction with her son revealed three things: (a) she reinforced this undesirable
behaviour with excessive attention; (b) she did not program consequences in a consistent fashion; and (c)
the relationships between the undesirable behaviour and any negative consequences was unclear because
she frequently used lengthy explanations before applying the sanctions.
The behavioural psychologists who consulted with Mrs. B taught her to arrange three types of
contingencies: punishment, extinction, and reward.
Punishment: As soon as Rorey acted aggressively or disobediently, Mrs. B took him to a time-out room
that contained no items of interest to a child. He was told only that he could not stay with the others if
he fought or disobeyed. He was put in the time-out room, without conversation or further explanation,
for a two-minute period (or two minutes from the end of his last cry or tantrum). This punishment
involved the negative stimulus of loss of opportunity for stimulation. It could be removed by
behaving in socially acceptable ways. When the time was up, Rorey was taken back to his regular
activities without comment on the previous episode.

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Extinction: Less serious forms of undesirable behaviour were ignored so that they would have no
reinforcing consequences—a contingency.
Positive Reinforcement: Desirable behaviours such as cooperative play and following instructions were
directly praised, and at the end of each period of desirable play, Rorey got some special treats such as
cookies, cold drinks, or a small toy.
To demonstrate the effectiveness of mother as behaviour therapist, the psychologists first observed
Rorey’s behaviour for a period of time—a baseline period—and then instructed Mrs. B to carry out her
behavioural contingency management program. This sequence was repeated a second time. Rorey’s
aggressive and disobedient behaviour was dramatically changed by manipulating their consequences. His
parents and neighbours commented that Rorey behaved like a “different child.” During the first baseline
period, Rorey followed only about 30 percent of instructions given him, but a week later he was following
three-fourths of them. On some days, Rorey never misbehaved at all, even resisting striking back when
another child hit him. As Rorey’s problem behaviour declined, his mother commented more favourably
about him; she felt she was a more effective mother and showed more affectionate concern for her son.
Reference:
Zeilberger, J., Sampen, S., & Sloane, H. (1968). Modification of a child’s problem behaviours in the
home with the mother as therapist. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 1, 47–53.

Lecture/Discussion: The Cat’s Out of the Bag! ... er, Box!
Edwin Guthrie is chiefly known for one idea in Behaviourism; the principle of one-trial learning. Guthrie
held that learning was complete – that is, an association between a stimulus and a response was at its
strongest – after only one pairing of the stimulus and response.
The way he set about testing his idea was to use a variant of Thorndike’s puzzle box. Guthrie modified
the box by placing a long, thin rod vertically in it, wired so that each time a cat rubbed against it the door
to the box would spring open, allowing the animal to exit. Guthrie noted that among some 800 cats, each
had a stereotyped way of rubbing the rod, which was repeated trial after trial, even in absence of
reinforcement. He took this as evidence for one-trial learning; the response was full-blown from the first
trial, and it was not modified over trials.
Being a good Behaviourist, Guthrie made careful observations of the laboratory animals. Being a good
Behaviourist, Guthrie stuck to fairly straightforward, objective testing conditions. But being a good
Behaviourist, Guthrie assumed that species-specific behaviour would not play a major role in the
experiment’s outcomes. Like Clark Hull, for example, Guthrie was interested in demonstrating a principle
of learning, regardless of whether it was demonstrated by a cat, rat, chimpanzee, or human. Unfortunately,
cats exhibit a stereotyped greeting response when in the presence of a conspecific (which, for most
domestic cats, includes humans). That is, they rub against their fellow cat as it passes by or, in the case of
greater distances, they rub against a more convenient object, such as a tree, furniture, or Uncle Harry’s leg.
As Guthrie and his laboratory assistants observed the cats, then, it is not remarkable that they all showed
highly stereotyped behaviour; they did what cats do.
Bruce Moore and Susan Studdard illustrated this point in a simple experiment. Cats were placed in puzzle
boxes that had long, thin, vertical rods, but this time rubbing the rods triggered no doors. Moore and
Studdard also varied whether a person was present or not as the cats meandered through the box. They
discovered, quite simply, that when a person was present the bar was rubbed, and when a person was not
386
Chapter 6: Learning
present, the bar was not rubbed. As Guthrie observed, the rubbing itself was quite stereotyped, befitting
an innate feline response.
References:
Guthrie, E. R., & Horton, G. P. (1946). Cats in a puzzle box. New York: Rinehart.
Leahey, T. H., & Harris, R. J. (1993). Learning and cognition (3rd. ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Moore, B., & Studdard, S. (1979). Professor Guthrie and felis domesticus, or: Tripping over the cat.
Science, 205, 1031–1033.

Lecture/Discussion: Chimpanzees, Poker Chips, and Token Economies
According to Skinnerian thought, in token economies, when individuals engage in particular behaviours,
they earn tokens (i.e., secondary reinforcers) that can later be traded for primary reinforcers. These tokens
thus serve to reinforce the behaviour that preceded the token. An alternative explanation for why token
economies, and indeed money, work suggests that the tokens feed individuals forward into the next
behaviour, rather than reinforcing backwards. The following excerpt lays out the logic more clearly by
presenting research conducted by Kelleher with several chimpanzees.
“Cowles (1937) and Wolfe (1936) demonstrated that chimpanzees could learn to use poker chips to
operate a vending machine that dispensed grapes, and then learn to pull a lever (much like a Nevada slot
machine lever) to earn poker chips, which they could insert into a slot to operate a vending machine.
Textbooks and teachers often cite this result as a demonstration that the value of money depends on
secondary reinforcement.
“In later experiments, Kelleher (1956, 1957a, 1957b, 1958a, 1958b) replicated and extended Cowles’s
(1937) and Wolfe’s (1936) findings. Basically, Kelleher taught two young male chimpanzees first to get
grapes by operating the vending machine with poker chips, and then to earn poker chips by pressing a
telegraph key. Kelleher next varied the schedules of poker chip reward for key-pressing. When the
chimpanzees were working for poker chips, he lighted a white earning light; when they could spend their
poker chips, he turned off the earning light and lighted a red spending light.
“Time has to be divided into earning periods and spending periods in this experiment. If Kelleher had
allowed the chimpanzees to press the key to earn poker chips and then let them spend each poker chip in
the vending machine as soon as they received it, the demonstration would be much less significant.
Without the division into earning and spending periods, Kelleher’s procedure would only be an example of
a chain of responses starting with a key-press, followed by a poker chip, followed by picking up the chip
and putting it in the slot, followed by receiving a grape. This is practically the same thing as the chains
analyzed by the goal gradient principle for rats in mazes. … The only difference is that chimpanzees have
hands that they can use to manipulate objects so that they can execute chains of movement that are
superficially more complex than the chains of running executed by rats in mazes. Other attempts to
demonstrate [a reinforcing effect of a stimulus] through complex chains of reinforcement schedules in a
Skinner box fail for the same reason (e.g., Jacob & Fantino, 1988). [A discriminative stimulus] can
maintain an earlier link in a chain by feeding forward to the next link without feeding backward to
reinforce the link that it follows.

387
“By lighting one light to signal working periods and a second light to signal spending periods, Kelleher
produced a much more interesting situation, something much more like a chimpanzee working to earn
poker chips in order to spend them later. Human beings also work during designated times, and spend
during other, quite separate, times. Even street vendors who get paid in coins, transaction by transaction,
normally collect the coins during designated earning times and spend the money later.
“The rate at which Kelleher’s chimpanzees worked at pressing the key depended on the schedule of poker
chip reward. Like many human factory workers, however, they got to a point where each chimpanzee
worked at a stable rate for a given schedule of payment so that it took about the same amount of time,
about 4 hours, each day for them to earn the allotted number of poker chips, about 50 chips, depending on
the condition. Consequently, they could have been working for a stable period of time or for a stable
number of chips. The spending light came on after about the same amount of working time either way.
Note that this is because of the stable rate of working maintained by a stable schedule of reward. …
“Kelleher’s chimpanzees lived in rather boring cages when they were not serving in experiments. The
experimental enclosure was larger and more interesting. At the beginning of the experiment, the
chimpanzees naturally spent a certain amount of time running, jumping, climbing, playing with the
apparatus, and otherwise enjoying the place before they settled down. This period of playfulness before
settling down to work persisted through hundreds of hours of experimental sessions. At the beginning of
each session, the chimpanzees took between 20 and 40 minutes before they pressed the key for the first
time. The next key-press came a little sooner, the next sooner, and so on, faster and faster until they
reached their top speed usually with a spurt at the end of the earning period.
“Kelleher (1958b) reasoned that this pattern of results could be interpreted in either of two ways. First, if
the poker chips acted as secondary rewards, then the pause at the beginning of each session might be the
result of lack of reward. The first chip rewarded the first few responses, which reinforced key-pressing so
that responding increased, which resulted in more rewards, which further increased responding, and so on
until the chimpanzees reached their top speed.
“Perhaps the poker chips acted, instead, as discriminative stimuli. As chips collected in the pile beside the
lever, the steadily growing pile was a kind of clock telling the chimpanzees how close they were coming
to the end of the earning period and the beginning of the spending period with its delicious grapes. At the
beginning of the session with no pile at all, a chimpanzee could see that spending time was a long way
off. Even after accumulating a few chips he could see that grape time was still far away. He might
respond more than he had at the start, but still sluggishly. As the pile grew, he could tell that spending
time was getting closer and this stimulated him to press faster and faster until the end spurt when the pile
was highest. In the secondary reward description, the poker chips act backward to reinforce what the
chimpanzee had done before. In the discriminative stimulus description, the poker chips act forward to
stimulate the next thing the chimpanzee does.
“With this in mind, Kelleher tried the following ingenious test. He put 50 poker chips in the experimental
enclosure before each chimpanzee arrived for his daily session. If the poker chips were acting as response
contingent secondary rewards (Sr), then the chimpanzees would be finding a large heap of free Srs as they
entered the enclosure. The free chips would then reward the beginning laziness and playfulness, and
reward this behaviour at a better rate than key-pressing ever had. If the chips were Srs, the chimpanzees
should take much longer to settle down to work, or they might never settle down to work at all. If the pile
of chips was acting as a discriminative stimulus, however, we would expect just the opposite. The
chimpanzees would arrive to find the clock set ahead telling them that they were near to spending time. If
the chips were [discriminative stimuli] the chimpanzees should begin at the high middle-of-the-session
rate, immediately, and improve them then on as more chips piled up.

388
Chapter 6: Learning
“Kelleher’s results were decisive. When the chimpanzees found the pile of free chips, they omitted their
usual 20- to 40-minute period of no responding. They went directly to work pressing the key at a high
rate.
“Kelleher’s experiment tests whether the pile of poker chips acts backward as an Sr to reward the
chimpanzees for pressing the key, or acts forward as [a discriminative stimulus] to stimulate them to press
the key more rapidly. When the chimpanzees got a pile of poker chips for doing nothing, they
immediately started to press the key rapidly as if the pile of chips stimulated them forward to intense
activity rather than rewarding them backward for doing nothing.”
Source of excerpts: Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1998). The Structure of Learning: From Sign
Stimuli to Sign Language. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., pp. 147–150.

Lecture/Discussion: Applied Learning

Behaviour modification can be thought of as a technology that developed out of learning theory. Based on
the principles of operant conditioning, behaviour modification seeks to structure the reinforcement a
person receives for his or her actions in order to modify or shape more productive behaviour. There are
several areas of application, as noted by Garry Martin and Joseph Pear.
• Education. Behaviour modification has been applied to both classroom management and specific
learning skills, from preschool through university education. For example, disruptive behaviours
such as tantrums, aggressive acts, or leaving one’s seat can be modified effectively with the
proper program. Content skills, such as reading comprehension, mathematics, or spelling, can
also benefit from the application of operant principles.
• Severe mental and behavioural problems. Perhaps the most visible use of behaviour modification
techniques is in the management of mental retardation, schizophrenia, and autism. In these
instances social skills, vocational skills, and self-care can be established either on an institutional
ward or in a private setting.
• Clinical behaviour therapy. Behaviour therapy has grown in popularity over the past several
decades. In many cases (e.g., the treatment of phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder), it is
the treatment of choice.
• Self-management. Behaviour modification has been used to help people achieve their personal
goals, such as overcoming procrastination, maintaining an exercise program, or relieving mild
phobias.
• Medicine and health care. There are several areas related to medical practice that currently rely on
operant principles. For example, patient compliance in drug-taking can be increased through
appropriate reinforcement, as can stress management or the promotion of healthy lifestyles.
• Community psychology. Behaviour modification techniques have been applied beyond the level
of the individual to the level of the community. Community mental health centres, halfway
houses, and youth organizations often employ behavioural techniques to promote job-skills
training or increase compliance with community programs (e.g., recycling, litter removal,
decreasing vandalism).

389
• Business, industry, government. Positive reinforcement, schedules of reinforcement, fading, and

chaining have been used to improve worker morale, reduce shoplifting, decrease absenteeism,
and increase worker efficiency.
• Sports psychology. Behaviour modification has been used to improve athletes’ skills (such as
coordination and execution), to change coaches’ behaviours (such as teaching effective
managerial strategies), to increase motivation and endurance (such as having athletes keep public
records of their fitness training), and to treat athletes’ personal problems (such as a behavioural
therapist might do).
• Behavioural assessment. Psychodiagnostic assessment has gained a new partner in behavioural

assessment. Identifying problem behaviours and long-standing behaviour repertoires at intake can
help establish an effective treatment program.
Reference:
Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2007). Behaviour modification: What it is and how to do it (8th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Lecture/Discussion: Neural Mechanisms in Classical and Operant Conditioning

With regard to classical conditioning, Ramirex-Amaya and Bermudez-Rattoni (1999) found that the
amygdala and insular cortex were related to classically conditioned immune responses. Likewise,
Fanselow and LeDoux (1999) and LeDoux (2000) have also found that the amygdala plays an important
role in conditioned fear responses. Interestingly, the hippocampus is not related to conditioned fear
responses or conditioned immune responses. However, any additional learning that may occur in addition
to the learning via classical conditioning does involve hippocampal neural processes. When the
hippocampus is lesioned in rats, contextual learning, such as learning that the rat’s cage is related to
receiving shock or food, is disrupted.
Approach and avoidance behaviours are typical behaviours that emerge after operant conditioning
procedures. For example, reinforcement (e.g., food) promotes approach behaviours, and punishment (e.g.,
shock) promotes avoidance behaviours. Gray (1987, 1990) has implicated emotional reactions in his
description of two distinct systems that are related to approach and avoidance behaviours: the behavioural
approach system (BAS) and the behavioural inhibition system (BIS). In the BAS, environmental signals
of reward produce positive emotions (e.g., happiness, hope, relief), both of which increase the likelihood
of approach behaviour. In the BIS, environmental signals of punishment produce negative emotions (e.g.,
anxiety, fear), both of which increase the likelihood of avoidance behaviour. Distinct neural pathways
support Gray’s behavioural systems. Specifically, activation of the left frontal lobe is related to
pleasurable feelings and approach behaviour, whereas activation of the right frontal lobe is associated
with unpleasant emotions and avoidance behaviours (Davidson, 1995; Sutton & Davidson, 1997).
References;
Davidson, R. (1995). Cerebral asymmetry, emotion and affective style. In R. J. Davidson & K.
Hugdahl (Eds.) Brain Asymmetry (pp. 361–387). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gray, J. A. (1987). ThePsychology of Fear and Sstress. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gray, J. A. (1990). Brain systems that mediate both emotion and cognition. Cognition and Emotion,
4, 269–288.
Ramirez-Amaya, V., & Bermudez-Rattoni, F. (1999). Conditioned enhancement of antibody
production is disrupted by insular cortex and amygdala but not hippocampal lesions. Brain,
Behaviour, & Immunity, 13, 46–60.

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Chapter 6: Learning
Sutton, S. K., & Davidson, R. J. (1997). Prefrontal brain asymmetry: A biological substrate of the
behavioural approach and inhibition systems. Psychological Science, 8, 204–210.

Lecture/Discussion: Punishment
Students often have difficulty distinguishing between negative reinforcement and punishment. These
examples of types of punishment may clarify what it is and when it should be used.
Physical punishment or aversive punishment involves administering a stimulus that evokes discomfort.
Spankings, electric shock, harsh sounds, or pinches would be included in this category. Aversive
punishment its typically used in extreme cases, as it is neither pleasant to administer nor to receive.
Reprimands are strong verbal commands (“No!” “Stop that!” “Bad!”) used when an inappropriate
behaviour is displayed. They are sometimes accompanied by physical or nonverbal reprimands. Timeout
can be exclusionary or nonexclusionary. Exclusionary timeout involves removing an individual for a short
time from a situation that he or she finds reinforcing. Nonexclusionary timeout involves introducing a
stimulus that is less reinforcing. For example, children might be given a “good conduct” badge to wear
while playing in a classroom. If the child becomes disruptive, the badge will be removed, and the child
will be ignored by the teacher and not allowed to play with the others. Finally, response cost involves
removing a specified amount of reinforcement after an undesired behaviour occurs. Parking tickets, bank
fees, or library fines would be examples of this type of punishment.
As the text mentions, to be effective punishment must be swift, certain, and sufficient. Some guidelines
for deciding to use punishment include selecting a specific response to punish (such as spitting out food)
rather than a general category of behaviour (such as not eating or being finicky); maximizing the
conditions for a desirable alternative response and minimizing the conditions for the causes of the
undesirable response; and selecting an effective punisher (i.e., one that can be delivered immediately and
will not be associated with subsequent positive reinforcement).
References:
Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2007). Behaviour modification: What it is and how to do it (8th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Lecture/Discussion: Bear Boys, Swine Girls, Wolf Children
Cases of feral children can be traced back for centuries, at least as far as the celebrated case of Romulus
and Remus. The term feral, in its modern usage, refers to a number of situations: Human children raised
by animals; children surviving in the wilderness; children raised in isolated confinement; or children
raised in confinement with little human contact. Regardless of the circumstances, children reared under
atypical conditions present a unique case of learning.
Carlos Linnaeus first documented cases of feral children based largely on anecdotal evidence. Colourful
figures such as the Hessian wolf-boy (1344), Lithuanian bear-boy (1661), or Irish sheep-boy (1672)
covered both a lot of terrain and much of the animal kingdom, and provided ammunition for thinkers from
Jean-Jacques Rousseau to Francis Gall about the contributions of nature and nurture to human
development. Other notable cases include the Wild Boy of Aveyron, Kaspar Hauser, and Wild Peter. It
wasn’t until the well-known case of the wolf-children of Midnapore, Kamala and Amala, that structured

391
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Adonc pria li roys à un mout vaillant chevalier et moult uset
d’armez, que on clammoit le Monne de Basèle, et à trois ou quatre
autres preus chevaliers ossi, que il se volsissent avanchier et
chevauchier si priès des Englès, qu’il pewissent conssiderer leur
couvenant. Chil vaillant chevalier le fissent vollentiers et se partirent
dou roy, qui tout bellement cevauchoit, mès s’arestoit en
souratendant leur revenue. Jà estoit il heure de nonne, et sollaux
commenchoit à tourner. Et avoit li roys englès fait sonner ses
trompettes, et chacuns dez siens estoit remis en se bataille desoubz
se bannierre, si comme ordonnés avoit estet en devant, car bien
sentoient que li Franchois les aprochoient. Et seoient touttes
mannierres de gens bien et faiticement les dos contre le solleil, et les
archiers mis contre les annemis. Enssi et en cel estat les trouvèrent
li dessus dit chevalier. Quant il eurent bien conssideré et ymaginé
leur couvenant que pour rapporter ent le certaineté, et bien s’en
perchurent li Englès, il s’en retournèrent arrière. Si encontrèrent en
leur chemin pluisseurs bannierrez des leurs à une lieuwe des
Englès, qui chevauçoient toudis avant et ne savoient où il alloient. Si
les fissent arester et attendre lez autres, puis s’en revinrent au roy et
à son consseil, et dissent qu’il avoient veut et comsideret les Englèz,
qui estoient à mains de deux lieuwez de là et avoient ordonnet trois
bataillez, et les atendoient bellement. Adonc estoit dalléz le roy
messires Jehans de Haynnau, qui le relation oy mout vollentiers,
pour tant que li bon chevalier en raportoient verité. Et li dissent cil qui
ce rapport faisoient, qu’il regardast quel cose il en volloit faire. Lors
pria li roys au Monne de Basèle qu’il en volsist dire son advis, pour
tant qu’il estoit durement vaillans chevaliers, et les avoit veu et
justement conssideré. Li Monnes s’escuza par pluisseurs foix, et
disoit que là avoit tant de noblez seigneurs et de bons chevaliers
que sus yaux ne s’en vorroit mies ensonniier. Non obstant ses
excusanches et son bel langage, il fu tant priiéz et cargiéz dou roy
qu’il en dist son advis en telle mannierre. Fos 93 vº et 94.
—Ms. de Rome: Ce samedi au matin, qant li rois de France ot oy
messe en l’abeie de Saint Pière, dedens Abeville, où il estoit logiés,
on fist sonner ses tronpètes, liquel cevauchièrent en toutes les rues
d’Abeville, pour resvillier gens d’armes, armer et traire sus les
camps. Au son des tro[n]pètes dou roi, se armèrent et apparillièrent
tous signeurs et toutes aultres gens; et tant en i avoit grant fuisson,
que il missent plus de demi jour à widier hors d’Abeville. Et devés
sçavoir que onques nobles gens, qui deuissent sentir et considerer
que c’est de tels coses, ne se ordonnèrent pis, ne issirent de bonne
ville ne ne missent sus les camps, que les François fissent. Li rois
issi de Abbeville, mesire Jehan de Hainnau et le signeur de
Montmorensi en sa compagnie, et se traist sus les camps. Li rois de
Boesme et mesires Carles, ses fils, issirent assés tos apriès li; et
tout issoient sans ordenance, ne point n’atendoient l’un l’autre. Qant
on ot un petit eslongiet Abbeville, il fu dit au roi: «Sire, ce seroit bon
que vous envoiissiés chevauceurs devant, pour aviser le couvenant
de vostres ennemis.» Li rois respondi et dist: «On i envoie!»
Donc furent esleu quatre chevaliers usés d’armes, les quels je
vous nonmerai: premiers le Monne de Basèle, le signeur de
Biaugeu, mesire Mille de Noiiers et mesire Loeis d’Espagne. Chil
quatre chevalier se departirent dou couvenant des François et
cevaucièrent sus les camps, et si avant aprocièrent les Englois que
les Englois euissent bien trait jusques à euls, se il vosissent, mais
nennil. Onques ne se desrieulèrent, mais se tinrent tout quoi et les
regardèrent en seant. Et qant li quatre chevaliers les orent avisés et
considerés, il se missent au retour. Et ensi que il retournoient, il
encontroient lors gens qui ceminoient, les auquns à cheval, les
aultres à piet et sans ordenance, de quoi il en fissent pluisseurs
arester et demorer tous qois sus les camps, car il lor disoient:
«Pourquoi allés vous avant, folle gent, sans les banières des
marescaus? Vous vos alés perdre: vechi les ennemis devant vous.»
Qant chil quatre chevalier furent venu deviers le roi, il s’arestèrent et
trouvèrent le roi sus les camps, le conte d’Alençon, le conte de
Flandres, le conte de Blois, le duc de Lorraine, mesire Jehan de
Hainnau, le signeur de Montmorensi et grant fuisson de nobles
signeurs autour de li, car tout s’arestoient, pour tant que il estoit
arestés. Qant li rois vei les chevaliers ens sa presence, il volt sçavoir
quel cose il avoient veu et trouvé, ce fu raison. Li chevalier
regardoient l’un l’autre, et ne voloit nuls parler premiers. Donc
regarda li rois sus le Monne de Basèle et li dist: «Monnes, parlés, je
vous voel oïr.» Fos 118 vº et 119.
P. 171, l. 30: le Monne de Basèle.—Mss. A 1 à 6: le Moyne de
Baselée. Fº 145 vº.—Mss. A 11 à 14, 18, 19: le Moynne de Baseles.
Fº 139.—Mss. A 20 à 22: le Moynne de Baselle. Fº 209 vº.—Mss. A
23 à 33: le Moyne de Bascle. Fº 164 vº.
P. 171, l. 31: Noiiers.—Mss. A 23 à 29: Nouyers. Fº 164 vº.
P. 172, l. 22: que on tenoit.—Ms. B 6: pour tant que il estoit le plus
rusés de guerre. Fº 322.
§ 276. P. 172, l. 28: Sire.—Ms. d’Amiens: «Sire, vostre conroy sont

diversement espars par ces camps: si sera durement tart ainschois
qu’il soient ordonné ne rassamblé, car nonne est jà passée. Si
consseilleroie que vous fesissiés chy endroit vostre host logier, et
demain matin, apriès messe, si ordonnissiéz vos batailles
meurement, et puis chevauchissiés par deviers vos ennemis,
rengiés sans desroy, el nom de Dieu et de saint Gorge, car je sui
certain que vostre annemy ne s’enfuiront mies, ains vous atenderont
seloncq che que j’ay veut.»
Chilx conssaulx pleut assés au roy de Franche, et l’ewist
vollentiers fait. Si fist envoiier partout as routtez des seigneurs et
priière qu’il fesissent retraire leurs bannierrez arrière, car li Englèz
estoient là devant rengiés; si volloit là endroit logier jusquez à
l’endemain. Bien fu sceu entre lez seigneurs li mandemens dou roy,
mès nulx d’iaux ne se volloit retourner, se chil ne se retournoient, qui
estoient premiers. Et chil qui estoient devant avanchiet, ne se
volloient retourner pour tant qu’il estoient si avant allet, se li autre ne
se retournoient premiers, car ce lor sambloit estre homtez, mais il se
tenoient quoys. Li autre, qui estoient derière, chevauchoient toudis
avant pour tant qu’il voloient y estre ossi avant que li autre ou plus.
Et tout ce estoit par orgoeil et par envie, si comme on puet bien
supposer, et dont touttes bonnez gens d’armes n’ont que faire, car
Dieux et fortune het ces deus visces. Or ne fu mies li conssaux dou
bon chevalier tenus, ne li coummandemens dou roy acomplis, dont
che fu follie, car oncques bien ne vint de desobeir à son souverain.
Tant avoit là de grans seigneurs, de baronnie et de chevalerie, que
merveillez seroit à recorder. Si regardèrent li ungs sus l’autre, si
comme pour leur honneur avanchier, car, enssi con dist, c’est une
bonne envie d’armes, mès que on le face raisonnablement. Fº 94.
—Ms. de Rome: Li Monnes enclina le roi et dist: «Sire, volontiers,
puis que vous le conmandés, et ce sera par l’amendement et
correction de mes signeurs et compagnons. Nous avons cevauchiet
si avant que nous avons veu et consideré le couvenant des Englois.
Il sont mis et ordonné en trois batailles, bien et faiticement, et ne font
nul samblant que il doient fuir, mais vous attenderont à ce qu’il
moustrent. Si conselle de ma partie, salve tousjours le millour
conseil, que vous faites toutes vos gens chi arester sus les camps,
et logier pour celle journée. Car, avant que li darrainnier puissent
estre là où li premier sont, et vos batailles ordonnées et mis en pas,
ensi que il apertient, il sera tart et hors d’eure pour courir sus et
combatre vos ennemis. Et seront vos gens tous las, et vous
trouverés vos ennemis frès et nouviaus, et tous avisés à savoir quel
cose il deveront faire. Et ce consel, je le donne et nul aultre; et qui
mieuls scet, se le die.» Donc regarda li rois sus son frère, le conte
d’Alençon, et sus messire Jehan de Hainnau, et dist: «Il nous
samble que chils chevaliers a bien parlé, et nous volons que sa
parole soit oïe et tenue.»—«Monsigneur, respondirent li doi desus
nonmé, il a parlé bien et sagement, ensi que il apertient, selonch
l’usage d’armes; si faites apriès son consel.» Donc s’arestèrent li
signeur tous sus l’opinion dou Monne de Basèle, qui fu uns moult
vaillans chevaliers et usés d’armes, et le plus proçain dou corps le
bon roi de Boesme. Et fu conmandé à deus marescaus de France
de faire ordenance sus ces paroles et tantos. Li doi marescal
obeirent, ce fu raison, et cevauchièrent li uns devant, et li aultres
derrière, en disant et conmandant as bannières: «Arestés, banières,
de par le roi, ou nom de Dieu et de monsigneur saint Denis.» Chil
qui estoient premiers, à ceste ordenance arestèrent, et li darrainnier,
point, mais cevauçoient tout dis avant et disoient que point il ne se
aresteroient, jusques à tant que il seroient ausi avant que li premier
estoient. Et qant li premier veoient que li darrainnier les aproçoient, il
cevauçoient avant et voloient moustrer: «Je sui premiers, et
premiers demorrai.»
Ensi par grant orguel et beubant fu demenée ceste cose, car
casquns voloit fourpasser son compagnon. Et ne pot estre creue ne
tenue la parole dou vaillant chevalier, de quoi il lor en mesvint si
grandement, com vous orés recorder assés briement. Ne ausi li rois
de France ne si marescal ne porent estre mestre de lors gens, car il i
avoit si grant multitude de peuple, et par especial de grans signeurs,
que casquns par envie voloit là moustrer sa poissance. Et trop grant
temps avoit que point il ne s’estoient veu en parti de bataille avoir, si
apparans conme ceste estoit, et cose si notable que la poissance
d’Engleterre et la poissance de France ensamble l’un contre l’autre;
car tout estoit là des deus roiaulmes, ou dedens Agillon et en
Gascongne avoecques le conte Derbi, ou devant Agillon au siège
avoecques le duch de Normendie. Si se voloient li un pour l’autre
avancier, et non estre nonmé à demorer derrière. Et cevauchièrent
en cel estat sans arroi et sans ordenance si avant que il aprochièrent
les ennemis, et que ils les veirent en lor presence. Or fu moult grans
blames pour les premiers, et mieuls lor vausist à estre aresté à
l’ordenance dou vaillant chevalier desus nonmé, que ce que il
fissent. Car si tretos que il veirent lors ennemis, il reculèrent tout à
un faix si desordonneement que chil qui derrière estoient et qui
venoient, s’en esbahirent. Et quidièrent li pluisseur que la bataille
fust conmenchie et li premier desconfi; et orent adonc bien espasce
de aler devant se il veurent, de quoi li auqun i alèrent. Et li aultre se
tinrent tout quoi et ne moustrèrent point adonc de haste, mais
laissièrent passer ceuls qui passer voloient, et disoient: «Nous
demorrons chi, atendans le roi et ses arrois, car il nous est dit de ses
marescaus ensi.» Là ot sus les camps si grant peuple de
conmunauté des chités et bonnes villes de France que tout estoit là
reversé, et les cemins tous couvers entre Abbeville et Crechi, et plus
de euls vingt mil de ces bons honmes, qant ils se veirent sus les
camps, traissent lors espées, et escriièrent: «A la mort, ces traitours
Englois! Jamais piés n’en retournera en Engleterre.» Fº 119.
P. 173, l. 19 à 22: en disant... saint Denis.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14,
18, 19: en disant et commandant aux banières, de par le roy, ou nom
de monsigneur saint Denis, que chacun se tenist selon ce que
ordonné lui estoit. Fº 146.—Mss. A 20 à 22: en commandant aux
bannières, de par le roy, eulx arrester, en nom Dieu et saint Denis.
Fº 210.—Mss. A 23 à 33: en disant aux banières: «Arrestés,
banières, de par le roy, ou nom de Dieu et de saint Denis.» Fº 165.
P. 173, l. 28: ceste cose.—Ms. B 6: car il estoient sy grant peuple
au regart des Englès qu’il lez deuissent avoir tout devorez. Fº 323.
§ 277. P. 174, l. 22: Il n’est nulz.—Ms. de Rome: Vous devés

sçavoir, et c’est cose posible et legière assés à croire, que il n’est
honme, tant fust presens à celle journée, ne euist bon loisir de aviser
et imaginer toute la besongne ensi que elle ala, qui en sceuist ne
peuist recorder, de la partie des François, bien justement la verité. Et
ce que je en ai escript, je en fui enfourmés de vaillans honmes,
chevaliers d’Engleterre qui là furent, et liquel missent grande entente
à veoir le couvenant des François: ce furent depuis mesires Jehans
Candos et mesires Bietremieus de Brouhes, et de la partie des
François li sires de Montmorensi, et des chevaliers messire Jehan
de Hainnau; car chil doi hault baron estoient et furent ce jour au frain
dou roi Phelippe de France. Mais sitos que les chevaliers usés
d’armes, qui estoient de la partie des Englois, veirent le povre
couvenant des François, il dissent: «Ces gens sont nostre.» Et aussi
li sage chevalier de France et usé d’armes, parellement dissent:
«Nous sonmes en parti de tout perdre, car il n’i a point de bonne
ordenance en nous.»
Les Englois, qui ordonné estoient en trois batailles, et qui seoient
jus à terre tout bellement, sitos que il veirent les François aprochier,
ils se levèrent sus, moult ordonneement sans nul effroi, et se
rengièrent en lors batailles. Et se mist en grande ordenance ceste
dou prince, car elle pensoit bien à avoir le grignour faix de la
journée, et missent les archiers tout devant en fourme de une erce,
et les gens d’armes ou fons, et la bataille seconde sus une aultre
èle, pour reconforter la première, se besoings estoit, et le roi
d’Engleterre et sa bataille, encores plus en sus, liquel avoient pris la
mote d’un moulin à vent. Et là se tenoit li rois au plus hault, pour
veoir plus lonc et autours de li. Et pooit estre li rois adonc en l’eage
de trente sis ans, en la flour de sa jonèce, et conforté grandement en
ses besongnes. Fos 119 vº et 120.
P. 174, l. 28 et 30: voir Sup. var. (n. d. t.)
§ 278. P. 175, l. 14: Quant li rois.—Ms. d’Amiens: Ensi en

chevauchant toudis avant, li maistres des arbalestriers, qui
conduisoit les Geneuois, chevauça tant et se routte qu’il se
trouvèrent devant les Englèz. Lors s’arestèrent tout quoy et prissent
leurs arsbalestrez et leur artillerie, et s’appareillièrent pour
coummencher le bataille. Environ heure de vesprez, coummencha
ungs esclistrez et ung tonnoire très grans et une pleuve très grosse
avoecq un très grant vent; et l’avoient li Franchois ens ou viaire, et li
Englès au dos. Quant li maistres des arbalestriers eut ordonné et
aroutté les Geneuois pour traire, il coummenchièrent à huer et à
juper moult hault; et li Englès [demorèrent] tout koy et descliquièrent
aucuns kanons qu’il avoient en le bataille, pour esbahir les
Geneuois.
Apriès ce que li oraiges fu passés, li dit mestre des arbalestriers
fissent avanchir bidaus et Geneuois, et aller par devant lez bataillez
pour traire et pour bersser as Englès et yaux derompre, enssi que
coustumme est, et allèrent de si priès qu’il traissent assés li uns as
autrez. Et furent assés tost bidaus et Geneuois par lez archiers
desconfis et fuisson fuis en voies, se il pewissent; mais les bataillez
des grans seigneurs estoient si escaffées pour yaux avanchier et
combattre lors ennemis, qu’il n’atendirent ne ung, ne autre, ne
ordonnanche, ne aroy; ains coururent tous desordonnés et
entremeslés, tant quil encloïrent les Geneuois entre yaux et les
Englès, par quoy il ne peurent fuir, ains cheoient li cheval foible
parmy yaux, et li cheval fort cheoient parmy les foiblez qui cheu
estoient. Et chil qui derière estoient, n’y prendoient point garde pour
le priesse; si cheoient parmy chiaux qui ne se pooient relever. Et
d’autre part, li archier traioient si espessement et si ouniement à
chiaux qui estoient devant et d’encoste, que li cheval, qui sentoient
ces saiettez barbues, faisoient merveillez. Li ung ne volloient avant
aller, li autre salloient contremont, li pluisseur regettoient fort, li autre
se retournoient les culz pour les saiettez qu’il sentoient, par deviers
les ennemis, maugret leurs mestres, et chil qui sentoient le mort, se
laissoient cheoir. Et les gens d’armes englès, qui estoient rengiet à
piet[359], s’avanchoient et se freoient entre ces seigneurs et ces gens
qui ne se pooient aidier de leurs chevaux, ne d’iaux meismes, et
tenoient daghes, haces et cours espios de gue[r]re, durs et roys, et
ocioient gens à leur aise, sans contredit et à peu de fait et de
deffensce; car il ne se pooient aidier ne dessonniier li uns par l’autre,
ne oncquez on ne vit tel mesaventure, ne perdre tant de bonnes
gens à peu de fait.
En telle mannierre dura chilz grans mesciéz pour lez Franchois
jusques à le nuit, car li nuis les desparti. Et jà estoit vesprez, quant li
bataille coummencha; ne oncques li corps dou roy de Franche, ne
nulz de se bannierre ne peut che jour parvenir jusques à le bataille.
Ossi ne fissent nullez des commugnez des bonnes villez de
Franche, fors tant que li sires de Noiiers[360], ungs anchiens
chevaliers et durement preudons et vaillans, porta l’oriflambe, la
souverainne bannierre dou roy, si avant qu’il y demoura. Fº 94.
—Ms. de Rome: Qant li rois Phelippes de France vint auques
priès de la place où les Englois estoient aresté et ordonné et il les
vei, se li mua li sans, car moult les avoit encargiet en grant haine, et
perdi tous pourpos et arrois sus l’estat que li Monnes de Basèle avoit
dit et ordonné, et dist tout en hault: «Par m’ame et par mon corps, je
voi mes ennemis, mais je les voel aler combatre. Faites traire avant
ces Geneuois et conmenchier la bataille, ou nom de Dieu et de
monsigneur saint Denis.» Donc fu faite voie as arbalestriers, et
moustroient les auquns que point il n’i aloient de bonne volenté, car
jà il estoient tous las de venir à piet de Abbeville jusques à là, où il i
a siis lieues, et de porter lors arcs. Ces Geneuois pooient estre
environ quinse mille. Li mestres des arbalestriers des Geneuois dist
tout en hault: «On nous fait issir hors de l’ordenance des marescaus.
On nous avoit dit que nous reposerions meshui ichi, et entenderions
à mettre nostre artellerie à point; et on voelt, tous lassés que nous
sonmes, que nous alons tantos combatre!» Ces paroles furent ditets
et reprises au conte d’Alençon, qui durement en fu courouchiés, et
dist à ceuls qui estoient dalés li: «Regardés, on se doit bien cargier
de tèle ribaudaille! Il ne sont bon, fors à la table. On tue tout! Il nous
porteront plus d’empecement que de avancement.» Entrues que ces
paroles et detriances couroient, et que chil Geneuois se requelloient,
descendi dou chiel une plueve si grose et si espesse que mervelles
fu à considerer, et conmença à esclitrer et à tonner, et sambla
proprement que li mondes deuist finer. Avoecques tout ce, il vint une
vollée de corbaus, si grande et si espesse, en vollant pardesus les
deus hoos et en demenant très grant noise. Adonc dissent auquns
chevaliers, et de l’une part et de l’autre: «Il auera, avant que il soit
nuit, ichi très grande bataille et effusion de sanc et mortalité de
honmes, sur qui que li affaires tourne.»
Apriès toutes ces coses, li temps s’apaisa et li solaus conmença à
luire sus l’eure de basses vespres, biaus et clers. Li François
l’avoient en l’oel, et li Englois au dos. Qant chil Geneuois furent tout
requelliet et mis ensamble, et il deubrent aprocier les Englois, il
conmenchièrent tout de pluisseurs vois à juper si hault que ce fu
mervelles. Et fissent ceste ordenance pour les Englois esbahir, mais
les Englois n’en fissent compte, assés tos apriès la seconde fois en
tèle manière et la tierce ensi, et il l’ont de usage; et puis passèrent
avant et tendirent lors arbalestres, et conmenchièrent à traire. Et
qant chil archier d’Engleterre veirent ceste ordenance, il passèrent
un pas avant, et puis fissent voler ces saiètes, les quelles entrèrent
et descendirent si ouniement sus ces Geneuois que ce sambloit
nège. Li Geneuois, qui point n’avoient apris à trouver tels archiers
que chil d’Engleterre sont, qant il sentirent ces saiètes qui lor
perchièrent bras et poitrines, et lors ceoient sus lors visages et de
plus lonc que il ne pooient traire, se conmenchièrent à esbahir et
furent tantos desconfi. Et coppèrent li pluisseur les cordes de lors
arbalestres, et les aultres les ruèrent jus, et conmencièrent à tourner
les dos et moustrèrent samblant que il voloient fuir, mais il ne
peurent, car il furent enclos des gens d’armes. Et li rois de France et
son frère, le conte d’Alençon, qant il veirent le mauvais couvenant de
euls, dissent: «Tués la pietaille! Tués la pietaille! Il nous ensonnient
et tiennent le cemin sans raison.» Là veissiés gens d’armes
entouelliés entre euls ferir et fraper sus euls et ocire, et moult de
vaillans honmes, euls et lors cevaus, ceoir et tresbuchier parmi euls,
que on ne pooit aidier ne relever. Et toutdis traioient archier englois
esforciement ou mont, et ne perdoient nuls de lors trais, car il
enfieroient et enpalloient parmi les corps, ou parmi chevaus, ou
testes ou bras ou jambes de gens d’armes, par telle manière que on
estoit mehagniet trop durement ou bleciet ou mort, et si ne savoit on
d’où les saiètes venoient. Ensi se conmença la bataille, ce samedi, à
heure de basses viespres, tout oultre l’ordenance et la volenté des
vaillans honmes qui avoient consilliet que on se logast là ce samedi
devant les Englois, et que le dimence on aueroit avis conment on se
poroit ordonner. Fº 120.
P. 175, l. 22: quinze mil.—Ms. B 6: qui fasoient porter sur les cars
leurs arbalestres. Fº 324.
P. 176, l. 19 et 20: li Englès.—Ms. B 6: Les Englès avoient entre
eulx deulx des bonbardieaulx, et en firent deux ou trois descliquier
sur ces Geneuois, qui trop mal ordeneement se mirent quant il les
oïrent ruer. Fº 325.
P. 176, l. 31: cil d’Engleterre.—Ms. B 6: qui traissent deus ou trois

fois où il ne tiroient c’une fois. Fº 326.
P. 177, l. 12: raison.—Ms. B 6: Et ossy ly aucuns Geneuois, pour
eulx oster de che dangier, se mettoient vingt ou trente ensamble et
se deffendoient. Fº 326.
P. 177, l. 15: voir Sup. var. (n. d. t.)
§ 279. P. 177, l. 24: Li vaillans.—Ms. d’Amiens: Li bons roys de

Behaingne, qui tant fu larges et courtois, preux et vaillans, quant il
entendi que on se combatoit, apella le Monne de Basèle, qui estoit
dalléz lui et de ses chevaliers, et les bons chevaliers de son pays de
Behayngne et de Luxembourch, qui durement l’amoient, et leur pria
et enjoindi especialment que il le volsissent mener si avant qu’il
pewist ferir un cop d’espée. Si chevalier acomplir veurent son desir,
se requeillièrent tout enssamble et fissent chevauchier les
bannierrez leur seigneur le roy, et s’en vinrent de grant vollenté
assambler as Englès; et là eut fort hustin et dur, et reboutèrent
adonc le bataille dou prinche. Fº 94 vº.
—Ms. de Rome: Li vaillans et nobles rois de Boesme et contes de
Lucenbourc, sires de Ammeries et de Rainmes, qui se nonma
Jehans, et li auqun dient que il fu rebaptisiés à avoir nom Carles, et
qui fils fu à l’empereour Henri, entendi par ses gens que la bataille
estoit conmenchie: «Ha! dist li Monnes de Basèle, liquels estoit
dalés li et à son frain, on n’a point tenu ne creu mon ordenance. Si
sonmes sus un parti que de tout perdre.» Li gentils rois entendi la
parole dou chevalier; se li demanda: «Monnes, quel heure est il, et
conment sont nostre ennemi?»—«Sire, respondi li chevaliers, il est
tous bas vespres, et si avons le solel en l’oel. Et sont li nostre de
povre arroi, car il entrèrent ou tret des archiers et s’en vont perdre
sans raison, et, puis que la cose est conmencie, on n’i puet
remediier.» Adonc dist li gentils rois, qui tous aveugles estoit, au
Monne de Basèle et as ses aultres chevaliers: «Biau signeur, je vous
pri chierement, et par la foi que vous me devés, que vous me menés
si avant en la bataille que je puisse ferir un cop d’espée.» Et il
respondirent tout: «Monsigneur, volentiers.»
Là se aloiièrent tout li chevalier dou roi par les resnes de lors
cevaus ensamble, à la fin que il ne se peuissent departir l’un de
l’autre, ne perdre la veue de lor signour le roi, ne retourner l’un sans
l’autre. Et qant il se furent mis en celle ordenance, li Monnes de
Basèle, qui estoit li plus usés d’armes, et qui dou matin avoit
cevauchiet pour aviser le couvenant des ennemis, fist tourner les
banières dou roi sus costé, et regarda là où les gens d’armes englois
se tenoient, qui encores se tenoient en lors pas, ensi que ordonné
on les avoit. Les banières dou roi de Boesme, li rois et ses gens
tourniièrent tant que il vinrent là où les gens d’armes estoient, et
conmenchièrent la bataille à euls, et qant il i entrèrent, il estoit jà tart.
Là furent chil Behagnon et Alemant requelliet de la bataille dou
prince et des vaillans hommes qui là estoient. Là fu la bataille forte
et dure et bien poursievoite. Et ot li rois de Boesme son desirier
acompli, car on le mist tout devant; et se il euist esté congneus que
ce euist esté li rois de Boesme, on ne l’euist pas tretiiet jusques à
mort. Mais li vaillans homs fu là ocis, et tout chil qui avoecques le
gentil roi estoient, reservé deus equiers, Lambeqins dou Pé et
Pières d’Auvilers. La manière conment il se sauvèrent, je ne le sçai
pas, mais par euls fu sceu l’ordenance dou roi et des gens, et
conment il entrèrent dedens la bataille et asamblèrent à lors
ennemis.
Bien est verité que de si grans gens d’armes et de si noble
cevalerie et si grant fuisson que li rois de France avoit là, il en
issirent trop petit de grant fais d’armes, car la bataille conmença tart,
et si estoient li François trop fort lassé et travilliet. Toutesfois, ensi
que il venoient, li vaillant honme, pour lor honnour et pour euls
acquiter, cevauçoient toutdis avant, et ne savoient où il aloient, fors
morir. Considerés cel afaire et conment une dure fortune et perverse
tourna sus les François. Fos 120 vº et 121.
P. 178, l. 19: li Monnes de Basèle.—Mss. A 18, 19: le Moine de la

Basèle. Fº 151 vº.—Mss. A 20 à 22: le Moisne de Baselle. Fº 212 vº.
P. 178, l. 21: conté.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 20 à 22: duchié.
Fº 147 vº.
P. 178, l. 21: Lussembourc.—Mss. A 18, 19: Lucebourc. Fº 151 vº.
P. 179, l. 5: Saint Pol.—Mss. A 15 à 17: Saint Poul. Fº 148.
P. 179, l. 6: de Namur.—Mss. A 15 à 17: Jehan de Namur. Fº 148.
P. 179, l. 7: Sanssoire.—Le nom de ce chevalier est omis dans les
mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14.
P. 179, l. 13: il s’en parti.—Ms. B 6: messire Charles de Behaigne,
qui jà s’apelloit roy d’Alemaigne, quoique l’empereur vesquit encore,
fist là voller l’aigle d’Alemaigne, car il s’en parti et pluiseurs des siens
qui le sievirent; et ne cessa de chevaucier, sy vint en la chité
d’Amiens. Fos 333 et 334.
P. 179, l. 17: voir Sup. var. (n. d. t.)
§ 280. P. 179, l. 24: Vous devez.—Ms. de Rome: Vous devés
sçavoir que li rois de France avoit grant angousse au coer, qant il
veoit ses gens ensi desconfire et fondre l’un sus l’autre par une
puignie de gens que li Englois estoient, et en demanda consel à
mesire Jehan de Hainnau qui dalés lui estoit. Li dis mesire Jehan
respondi et dist: «Monsigneur, je ne vous saueroie aultre cose
consillier: le millour pour vous est que vous vos retraiiés et tenés
arrière de la bataille. Il en est avenu par le desroi et le mauvaise
ordenance des vostres, ce que chils vaillans chevaliers li Monnes de
Basèle en dist et proposa ce matin. Vous perderés celle fois, et vous
gagnerés une aultre. Ensi vont les pareçons d’armes et les fortunes
en ce monde. Et encores est li perils trop grans pour vous, car il sera
tantos tart et fera brun de la nuit. Si vous poriés, qui estes rois de
France, aussi bien fourvoiier que avoiier, et mettre sus vostres
ennemis que entre vostres amis; et vous tous seuls ne poés pas
faire la besongne.»
Li rois de France, qui tous fremissoit d’aïr et de merancolie, ne
respondi point adonc, mais cevauça encores un petit plus avant. Et li
sambla que il se voloit adrecier deviers le conte d’Alençon, son frère,
dont il veoit les banières sus un petit tertre, liquels contes d’Alençon
estoit descendus et avoit là requelliet ses gens moult ordonneement;
et en cel estat, sans requler, il vint combatre les Englois, et aussi li
contes de Flandres en tèle manière. Vous devés sçavoir que li grant
signeur et moult de vaillans gens s’aquitèrent vaillanment et
moustrèrent tout estat et fait de proèce, et ne furent pas trouvet mort
à l’endemain en fuiant, mais l’espée en la main et le viaire viers lors
ennemis.
Che samedi au matin, avoit li rois de France donné à mesire
Jehan de Hainnau un noir coursier durement biel et grant. Et portoit
sus le dit coursier uns chevaliers de Hainnau, qui se nonmoit Tieris
de Senselles, la banière dou dit messire Jehan de Hainnau. Et avint
que li chevaus et le chevalier sus passa de force tout parmi les
conrois des Englois, ne onques la banière ne li vola hors des buhos
où li hanste estoit boutée. Qant li chevaliers se vei hors de la bataille
et sus les camps, il n’ot nul talent de retourner arrière, car riens n’i
euist fait, et si ne pooit sçavoir que son mestre estoit devenu. Si prist
le cemin pour venir viers Dourlens et viers Arras, et fu le dimence à
Cambrai et là aporta la banière.
Messires Jehans de Hainnau et mesires Carles de Montmorensi
estoient au frain dou roi de France et li plus proçain de li, et avoient
cause de li garder et consillier. Si le fissent partir et issir hors dou
peril, ensi que à force. Là avoit un chevalier de Hainnau, qui se
nonmoit sires Henris d’Usfalise, sires dou Petit Wargni, moult vaillant
et appert chevalier, et estoit retenus au capiel et au frain le signeur
de Montmorensi. Qant il vei que son signeur s’en retournoit, il n’ot
nulle volenté dou retourner, mais feri cheval des esporons et entra
dedens la bataille, et i fist d’armes ce que il peut[361], mais il i demora.
Dieus ait l’ame de li et de tous les aultres, car ce samedi il en i ot
mors grant fuisson. Fº 121.
P. 179, l. 26: fondre.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 18 à 22: fouldroier.
Fº 148.
P. 180, l. 25: Thieri.—Mss. A 15 à 17: Henrry. Fº 148 vº.
P. 180, l. 26: Senselles.—Ms. A 7: Fenseilles. Fº 141 vº.—Mss. A
15 à 17: Sanselles. Fº 148 vº.—Mss. A 20 à 22: Seriseilles. Fº 213.
§ 281. P. 181, l. 15: Ceste bataille.—Ms. d’Amiens: Lors s’avala la

bataille dou comte de Norhantonne et de l’evesque de Durem; et
reconfortèrent celle dou prinche de Galles. Li comtez de Blois, li dus
de Lorainne et leurs gens se combatoient d’autre part mout
vassaument, et donnèrent à leur endroit les Englèz assés affaire. Et
fu tel fois que li bataille dou prinche de Gallez branla et eut moult
affaire. Et vinrent doy chevalier englès de le bataille dou prince
deviers le roy englès et li dissent: «Sire, il vous plaise à venir
comforter vostre fil, car il a durement affaire.» Adonc demanda li rois
s’il estoit auques blechiés ne navréz, et on li dist: «Oil, mès non trop
durement.» Donc respondi li roys et dist as chevalliers: «Retournés
deviers lui et ne m’en venés meshui querre jusquez à tant qu’il soit si
navrés qu’il ne se puist aidier: laissiés l’enfant gaegnier ses
esperons.» Adonc retournèrent li chevallier de le bataille dou roy et
revinrent deviers le prinche et se bataille. Fº 94 vº.
—Ms. de Rome: Ceste bataille, ce samedi, entre la Broie et Creci,
fu moult felenesse et très orible. Et i avinrent pluisseurs grans fais
d’armes, liquel ne vinrent pas tout à connissance; car, qant la bataille
conmença, il estoit jà moult tart. Et ce greva plus les François que
aultre cose, car pluisseurs gens d’armes, chevaliers et esquiers, sus
la nuit, perdirent lors signeurs et lors mestres. Si vaucroient par les
camps, et ne savoient où il aloient, et souvent il s’embatoient entre
les Englois, où il estoient mal logiet.
Vous devés sçavoir que, se les trois batailles dou roi d’Engleterre
se fuissent toutes misses ensamble et euissent poursievi les
François, tout i fuissent demoret ou mort ou pris, quoique il en i
demorast assés et trop. Mauvaisement on puet sçavoir conment chil
se conbatirent, qui là furent mort, tels que le conte Carle d’Alençon,
frère au roi de France, le conte Lois de Blois, lor neveu, le conte Lois
de Flandres, le duch de Lorrainne, le conte de Harcourt, frère à
mesire Godefroi de Harcourt, qui là estoit, le conte d’Aumale, le
grant prieus de France et pluisseurs aultres; mais on doit croire et
supposer que si grans signeurs que chil estoient, ne furent pas mort
ne ocis à petit de fait. Mais couvint que des grans fais d’armes par
euls et par lors gens i avenissent, liquel ne vinrent pas tout à la
congnisance de ceuls qui m’en enfourmèrent; mais en tels coses on
en puet mieuls sçavoir la verité par les victorieus que par les
desconfis, car il ont plus grant loisir et l’avis plus atempré, et plus
grant entente il i mettent au regarder que ne font li fuiant ou li cheu
ou chil qui tirent à euls sauver. Chil grant signeur de France desus
nonmé, liquel pour leur honnour et pour euls acquiter, qant il
entrèrent en la bataille, moult de vaillans hommes, chevaliers et
esquiers qui les servoient et qui offisce avoient, les uns de estre au
frain dou signeur, et les aultres à porter les banières ou à estre dalés
pour aidier à deffendre et à garder, ne puet estre que il ne fuissent
grant fuisson, et que la venue d’euls et la moustre ne fesist à cremir.
Et avint que chil qui avoient à garder le corps le prince de Galles,
qant il veirent si grant peuple venir à l’encontre d’euls, resongnièrent
le faix et orent consel de envoiier deviers le roi son père, ensi qu’il
fissent, qui estoit en sus de la bataille dou prinche et sus la mote
d’un moulin à vent. Et estoient chil de la bataille dou roi à costé par
derrière de une grose haie, et ne pooit on venir ne entrer sus euls
fors que par devant, à la fin que il vosist descendre et venist aidier
son fil, quoi que la seconde bataille et la première fuissent remisses
tout en une; et i envoiièrent, et i vint uns chevaliers de par le conte
de Warvich. On li fist voie, et parla au roi et dist: «Chiers sires, je sui
chi envoiiés de par ceuls qui ont le corps de vostre fil, le prince, en
garde, et vous segnefiient que il font doubte que la poissance des
François ne les esforce, car elle est trop grande.» Donc respondi li
rois: «Et mon fil, en quel estat est il?»—«En nom Dieu, sire, respondi
li chevaliers, il est encores fors et hetiés et en bon point.» Donc dist
li rois: «Or alés, alés et retournés deviers ceuls qui chi vous
envoient, et lor dites de par moi que il est heure que li enfes gagne
ses esporons, et ne me venés plus querre, tant que il ait poissance
de tenir en main glave ne espée; car se il plaist à Dieu et à
monsigneur saint Gorge, la journée sera pour li.» Li chevaliers
retourna sus ceste parole.
Or avoit li rois ensi parlé, je vous dirai pourquoi. De là où il estoit, il
pooit veoir en partie le couvenant des François, si ques ils et ses
gens l’avoient veu et veoient encores si très povre et mauvais que
pires ne pooit estre; car ensi que il venoient et entroient en la
bataille, il s’abandonnoient follement et se perdoient[362].... Fº 121 vº.
P. 181, l. 15: la Broie.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 18, 19: Broye. Fº 148 vº.—
Mss. A 20 à 22: Braye. Fº 152.
P. 181, l. 16: Creci.—Ms. A 7: Cresy. Fº 141 vº.
P. 181 l. 16 et 24: voir aussi Sup. var. (n. d. t.)
P. 181, l. 25: à raençon.—Ms. B 6: Et proprement le roy

d’Engleterre avoit ordonné que on n’entendesist à prendre
prisonniers; et n’en y eult mie, que che soir, que l’endemain, douze.
Fº 331.
P. 181, l. 25 et 26: car entre... de peuple.—Mss. A 20 à 22: Ainsy
l’avoit le roy Edouard ordonné dès le matin pour l’advertance de la
grant multitude des François. Fº 213 vº.
P. 182, l. 16: d’Arondiel.—Mss. A 18, 19: d’Aronde. Fº 152 vº.
§§ 282, 283, 284. P. 183, l. 23: On doit.—Ms. d’Amiens: A ceste
bataille, qui fu assés priès de Crechi, eut trop de contraires et de
inconveniens pour les Franchois. Premierement par orgoel il se
combatirent sans arroy, sans ordonnanche et oultre le vollenté dou
roy; car il ne peult oncquez parvenir jusques à le besoingne, ne
messires Jehans de Haynnau, qui estoit retenus pour son corps, ne
pluisseurs autres bons chevaliers. Et assamblèrent li Franchois as
Englès, li pluisseur qui n’avoient beu ne mengiet tout le jour, mais
estoient lasset et travilliet, dont il n’estoient mies plus fort, ne mieux
en leur alainne; et se combatoient le solleil en l’oeil, qui mout lez
grevoit, et avoecq tout ce, il estoit durement tart, car il fu tantost nuis.
Se ne savoient li pluisseur radrechier à leur bannière, ne à leurs
mestres, mès cil qui aventurer et combattre se volloient, tout enssi
qu’il venoient, se boutoient ens; et quant il estoient parvenu jusques
à la bataille, il trouvoient d’encontre ces archiers qui trop grant
encombrier leur faisoient. Enssi se parsevera ceste vesprée tant que
la nuis fu toutte obscurchie, et ne recongnissoient mies l’un l’autre.
Touttesfois, li Englès ne se mouvoient de leur place, ne dou lieu où il
estoient ordounné, ne nulx hommes d’armes de leur costet ne se
metoit devant leur tret, car il pewissent bien foliier. Li roys de France,
qui se tenoit enssus de le bataille, dallés lui monseigneur Jehan de
Haynnau et aucuns de son consseil, bons chevaliers et sceurs, qui
estoient garde de son corps, enqueroit souvent coumment li
besoingne se portoit. Se li fu dit environ soleil esconssant li
mesaventure et li pestilence qui estoit avenus sus ses gens; et se
n’y avoit point de remède de nul recouvrier. Quant li roys oy ces
nouvellez, si fu durement enflaméz d’ayr, et se feri son cheval des
esperons par deviers ses ennemis. Adonc le ratinrent chil qui dallés
lui estoient, messires Jehans de Haynnau, messires Carlez de
Montmorensi, li sires de Saint Digier, li sires de Saint Venant et
aucun bon chevalier qui ordonnet estoient pour son corps garder et li
conssillier, et qui ymaginèrent et considerèrent le peril, et dissent:
«Ha! chiers sirez et noblez roys, aiiés atemprance et mesure en
vous. Se aucune partie de vos gens se sont perdu par follie et par
leur outrage, ne vous voeilliés pour ce mettre en peril, ne le noble
couronne de France en tel meschief ne tel aventure; car encorres
estes vous puissans assés de rassambler otant de gens que vous
avés perdu et plus assés. Jà ne sera vos royaummes si desconfis, et
retournés meshui à la Broie qui est assés priès de chy: dedens
demain aurés vous autrez nouvelles et bon consseil, se Dieux
plaist.»
Li roys, qui moult estoit escaufféz d’aïr, tout en chevauchant,
considera lez parollez de sez bons chevaliers et leur consseil, et
plus celui de monseigneur Jehan de Haynnau que nulx des aultrez,
car il le sentoit si loyal et si adviset, que contre se deshonneur, il ne
l’ewist nullement fourconssilliet. D’autre part ossi, au voir dire, il veoit
bien qu’il estoit tart, et une puignie de gens qu’il avoit dallés lui,
pooient, sus une desconfiture, peu faire. Si se rafrenna et tourna son
cheval sus frain, et prist le chemin de la Broie et y vint gesir celle
nuit, et li chevalier dessus noummet, qui estoient dallés lui. Encorres
se combatoient et entoueilloient aucuns de chiaux qui estoient à le
bataille. Si s’en parti messires Carles de Behaingne, filx au bon roy
de Behaingne, qui s’appelloit et escripsoit roys d’Allemaingne; ossi
fissent pluisseurs seigneurs, car ce ewist esté pité se tout y fuissent
demouret. Si en demoura il assés, dont ce fu dammaiges, mès telz
bataillez et si grans desconfitures ne se font mies sans grant
occision de peuple. Li comtez Guillaume de Namur eut mort
desoubz lui son courssier, et fu en grant peril de son corps et à grant
meschief relevés; et y demora ung bon chevalier des siens que on
clammoit messires Loeys de Jupeleu. Si se sauva li dis comtes par
l’avis et l’effort de sez hommes qui le gouvrenoient, qui le missent
hors dou peril. On ne vous poet mies dire ne recorder de tous chiaux
qui là furent, quel aventure il eurent, ne coumment il se combatirent
chil qui y demorèrent, ne coumment cil s’en partirent, qui se
sauvèrent; car trop y fauroit de raisons et de parolez. Mès tant vous
di, que on oy oncques à parler de si grande desconfiture, ne tant
mors de grans seigneurs, ne de bonne chevalerie, qu’il eut là à si
peu de fait d’armes qu’il y eut fait, si comme cil le temoignent qui y
furent, tant d’un lés comme de l’autre, et par lesquelx li pure verité
en est escripte. Ceste bataille fu par un samedi, l’endemain dou jour
Saint Bietremieu, ou mois d’aoust, l’an de grace Nostre Seigneur mil
trois cens quarante six.
Quant la besoingne fu departie et la nuis fu venue toutte espesse,
li roys englès fist criier sus le hart que nulx ne se mesist à cachier
apriès les ennemis, et que nus ne despouillast les mors, ne les
remuast, jusquez à tant qu’il en aroit donnet congiet. A celle fin fist li
rois ce ban, que on les pewist mieux reconnoistre au matin, et
coummanda que chacuns allast à se loge reposer sans desarmer, et
pria que tout li comte, seigneur, baron et chevalier venissent souper
avoecq lui, et coummanda à ses marescaux que son host fust bien
gardés et escargaitiés toute celle nuit. Li coummandemens dou roy
fu fais de tout en tout; et vinrent soupper dalléz le roy, chil qui priiet
en estoient. Si poés bien croire qu’il furent en grant joie et en grant
repos de coer, pour la belle aventure qui avenue leur estoit. Fos 94 vº
et 95.
Page 184, l. 25: voir Sup. var. (n. d. t.)
P. 185, l. 6: garites.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 18 à 22: creneaulx.

Fº 149 vº.
P. 185, l. 9: chastellain.—Mss. A 23 à 29: capitaine. Fº 168.
P. 185, l. 9 et 10: li infortunés.—Mss. A 30 à 33: le fortuné.
Fº 189 vº.
P. 185, l. 30: perseverèrent.—Les mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 18, 19,
ajoutent: après celle desconfiture. Fº 149 vº.
§ 285. P. 187, l. 20: Quant la nuis.—Ms. d’Amiens: Le diemenche

au matin fist grant brumme, si ques grant fuisson des Englès
yssirent des loges, aucun à cheval et aucun à piet, et allèrent, par le
congiet dou roy, aval les camps pour savoir se il porroient veoir
aucuns des Franchois qui se rassamblaissent par troppiaux ou
granment enssamble pour yaux rassaillir de nouviel. Si en trouvèrent
fuisson des commungnes dez bonnes villez qui avoient dormit en
boskès, en fossés et en hayes, par troppiaux; et demandoient li ungs
as autres de leur aventure et qu’il devenroient; car il ne savoient que
avenu leur estoit, ne que li roys ne leurs conduisières estoit
devenus. Quant il virent ces Englès venir viers yaux, il les atendirent
et penssèrent que ce fuissent de leurs gens. Et chil Englès se
ferirent entr’iaux, si comme li leux entre brebis, et les tuoient à
vollenté et sans deffensse. Une autre compaignie d’Englès allèrent
aventurer d’un autre costet. Si trouvèrent grans tropiaux de gens en
pluisseurs lieux, qui alloient aval lez camps pour savoir se il poroient
oyr nouvellez de lor seigneur; li autre queroient lors mestres, li
aultres leurs proismez, li autres lors compaignons, et chil Englès les
ocioient tout enssi qu’il les trouvoient ou encontroient. Fº 95.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
—Ms. de Rome: [Li rois acola le prince, et] li princes, li. Et là li dist
li rois: «Biaus fils, Dieus vous doinst bonne perseverance! Vous
estes mon hiretier, car vous vos estes wi vaillanment portés et
acquités.» Li princes, à ceste parole, s’enclina tout bas, et se
humelia en honnourant le roi son père, ce fu raison.
Vous devés sçavoir que grant joie de coer fu là entre les Englois,
qant il sentirent et congneurent de fait que la place lor estoit
demorée, et que la nuit avoit esté pour euls. Si tinrent ceste aventure
à belle, et en regratiièrent Dieu qui lor avoit envoiiet, et passèrent la
nuit jusques à l’endemain.
Qant ce vint le dimence au matin, il fist grant brume, et tèle que à
painnes pooient veoir lonch un arpent de terre. Adonc se departirent
de l’oost par l’ordenance dou roi et des marescaus, cinq cens
hommes d’armes et doi mille archiers, pour descouvrir et savoir se il
trouveroient ne veoiroient auquns François qui se vosissent
requellier. Che dimence au matin, estoient parti de la ville d’Abbeville
et de Saint Riqier en Pontieu les conmunautés de Roem, de
Biauvais et de Amiens, qui riens ne savoient de la desconfiture qui
estoit avenue le samedi. Et trouvèrent ces gens, à male estrine pour
euls, ces Englois qui cevauçoient. Si se boutèrent entre euls, et
quidièrent de premiers que ce fuissent de lors gens. Et lorsque les
Englois les avisèrent, il les courirent sus moult vistement, et furent
tantos ces François desconfis et mis en cace. Si en i ot mors sus les
camps, que par haies, que par buissons, ensi que il fuioient pour

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Introduction To Psychological Science

Canadian 2nd Edition Krause Solutions

MODULE 6.1: Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association

MODULE 6.2: Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences

MODULE 6.3: Cognitive and Observational Learning

WORK THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY MODEL

FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

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I. MODULE 6.1: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION

Learning (p. 229) is a process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of

2.) There are different types of learning.

Pavlov’s Dogs: Classical Conditioning of Salivation

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b) Classical conditioning influences many responses and occurs in a variety of settings.

2) A stimulus is an external event or cue that elicits a response.

Unconditioned Response (UR) (p. 230) is a reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned

Evolutionary Function of the CR

Classical Conditioning and the Brain

Processes of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Spontaneous Recovery (p. 233) is the reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Conditioned Emotional Responses

3) Conditioned emotional responses happen outside of the laboratory as well.

Evolutionary Role of Fear Conditioning

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Conditioned Taste Aversions

4) Conditioned taste aversions usually only develop with new foods.

3) Can we critically evaluate this information?

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4) Why is this relevant?

Drug Tolerance and Conditioning

iii) Similar results have been found in experiments with rats.

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Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises

Video Clips on MyPsychLab

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II. MODULE 6.2: OPERANT CONDITIONING: LEARNING THROUGH CONSEQUENCES

Operant conditioning (p. 245) is a type of learning in which behaviour is determined by

Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning

1) Contingency refers to a consequence which is dependent upon an action.

2) The consequences of a behaviour can be either reinforcing or punishing (Figure 6.10).

Reinforcement and Punishment

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3) Learning is measure using the operant chambers

4) Decreased responding is also a possible outcome of an encounter with a stimulus.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

2) With positive reinforcement, a stimulus is added to a situation.

3) With negative reinforcement, “negative” indicates the removal of something.

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4) Negative reinforcement can be further classified into two subcategories.

5) Similar to reinforcement, various types of punishment are possible (Table 6.2).

7) Behaviour may also decrease as a result of the removal of a stimulus.

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Applying Operant Conditioning

Processes of Operant Conditioning

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

3) Token economies demonstrate the power of secondary reinforcers.

Discrimination and Generalization

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