Invitation To Psychology 7Th Edition Wade Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Invitation to Psychology 7th Edition
Wade Solutions Manual

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Chapter 6 Memory
▲ TABLE OF CONTENTS
To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click
To return to the Table of Contents, click on ▲Return to Table of Contents
To return to a section of the Lecture Guide, click on ► Return to Lecture Guide
► LECTURE GUIDE
➢ In Pursuit of Memory (p. 3)
➢ The Three-Box Model of Memory (p. 3)
➢ The Biology of Memory (p. 4)
➢ How We Remember (p. 5)
➢ Why We Forget (p. 6)
➢ Reconstructing the Past (p. 6)
▼ FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

➢ Chapter-At-A-Glance (p. 2)
➢ Lecture Guide (p. 3)
➢ Learning Objectives (p. 8)
➢ Rapid Review (p. 9)
➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 10)
➢ Activities and Exercises (p. 19)
➢ Handout Masters (p. 27)
➢ Revel Multimedia (p. 29)
➢ MyPsychLab Multimedia (p. 30)
➢ Practice Quiz and Test Yourself Answer Keys (p. 31)
Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
2 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
►Chapter-At-A-Glance
Detailed Outline Instructor Resources Revel Multimedia
In Pursuit of Memory Learning Objectives: 6.1a, Video: When Memory Fails
Measuring Memory 6.1b
Models of Memory Activities & Exercises: 6.1, Interactive: Memory Survey
6.2 Interactive: Rudolph and His Pals
Handouts: 6.1 Interactive: Three-Box Model of Memory
The Three-Box Model of Memory Learning Objectives: 6.2a, Interactive: Sensory Register
The Sensory Register: Fleeting Impressions 6.2b, 6.2c Interactive: Semantic Network in Long
Working Memory: Memory’s Notepad Lecture Launchers: 6.1, Term Memory
Long-Term Memory: Memory’s Storage System 6.2, 6.3 Interactive: Types of Long-Term
Activities & Exercises: 6.3, Memories
6.4, 6.5
The Biology of Memory Learning Objectives: 6.3a, Video: Memory and the Brain
Changes in Neurons and Synapses 6.3b, 6.3c Video: Neuroscience of Memory
Where Memories Are Made Lecture Launchers: 6.4
Hormones, Emotion, and Memory Activities & Exercises: 6.6 Interactive: Memory and the Brain
Interactive: Brain Areas Involved in
Memory
Interactive: Flashbulb Memories
How We Remember Learning Objectives: 6.4a Interactive: Pennies From Heaven

Encoding, Rehearsal, and Retrieval Lecture Launchers: 6.5, Interactive: Effects of Retrieval Practice
6.6, 6.7
Activities & Exercises: 6.7,
6.8, 6.9
Why We Forget Learning Objectives: 6.5a, Video: Leading Questions and Memory
Mechanisms of Forgetting 6.5b, 6.5c
Childhood Amnesia: The Missing Years Lecture Launchers: 6.8, 6.9 Interactive: Two Kinds of Forgetting
The Repression Controversy Activities & Exercises: 6.10 Curves
Interactive: Retroactive Interference
Interactive: Proactive Interference
Interactive: Infant Memory Survey
Reconstructing the Past Learning Objectives: 6.6a, Interactive: The Accuracy of Eyewitness
The Manufacture of Memory 6.6b, 6.6c Testimony
The Conditions of Confabulation Lecture Launchers: 6.10,
The Eyewitness on Trial 6.11, 6.12, 6.13
Activities & Exercises:
6.11, 6.12
▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents
3 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
► Lecture Guide
I. IN PURSUIT OF MEMORY
➢ Activity 6.1 - Depth of Processing and Memory
➢ Activity 6.2 - Demonstrating Simple Memory Principles
➢ REVEL Multimedia
➢ MyPsychLab Multimedia
Learning Objective 6.1.A - Distinguish between recall and recognition tasks in explicit memory,
and between explicit and implicit memory.
A. Measuring memory
1. Ways to measure explicit memory (conscious recollection of an event or item of information)
a. Recall -- the ability to retrieve information that is not present
b. Recognition -- the ability to identify information you previously experienced
2. Ways to measure implicit memory (information that affects our thoughts and actions even when
we do not consciously or intentionally remember it)
a. Priming -- exposure to one set of information affects answers on a different type of task
Learning Objective 6.1.B - Describe the basic characteristics of three memory systems according
to the information-processing model, and note the challenges to this view proposed by parallel
distributed processing.
B. Models of memory
1. Information processing models are based on computers -- we encode information, store it, and
retrieve it
a. After encoding, next step is storage (maintenance of memory over time)
b. After storage, then retrieval (recovery of stored memory)
2. Storage takes place in three interacting systems (three-box model)
a. Sensory memory -- retains incoming information for a second or two
b. Working memory -- holds limited amount of information for about 30 seconds
c. Long-term memory (LTM) -- accounts for longer storage
3. Parallel distributed processing model
a. Maintains that memory is different than a computer; the human brain processes
information simultaneously
b. Considers knowledge to be stored in connections among thousands of units
II. THE THREE-BOX MODEL OF MEMORY

➢ Lecture Launcher 6.1 - The Inner Workings of Working Memory
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.2 - Working Memory
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.3 - Episodic  Semantic
➢ Activity 6.3 - Sensory Memory

➢ Activity 6.4 - The Limits of Working Memory
➢ Activity 6.5 - The Value of Chunking
Learning Objective 6.2.A - Explain the function and duration of the sensory register in the three-
box model of memory.
4 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
A. Sensory register: fleeting impressions

1. Includes separate memory subsystems for each sense
2. Stores information as visual images (up to 1/2 sec.) and auditory images (up to 2 sec.)
3. Acts as a holding bin until we select items for attention
4. Pattern recognition occurs during transfer of information from sensory memory to working
memory
5. Information that does not go on to working memory is lost
Learning Objective 6.2.B - Explain the function and duration of working memory.
B. Working memory: memory’s notepad

1. Holds information up to about 30 seconds as an encoded representation
2. Transfers information to LTM or information decays and is lost
3. Holds information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary use, which is why this part of
memory is often referred to as working memory
4. Holds seven (plus or minus two) chunks of information – a leaky bucket
5. Memory limitations may be overcome by chunking -- grouping small bits of information into
larger units, using our knowledge
Learning Objective 6.2.C - Describe the different forms of long-term memory, and explain the
serial-position effect in transferring information from working memory to long-term memory.
C. Long-term memory: memory’s storage system

1. Organization in long-term memory
a. By semantic category
i. Research has shown that people recall information by category
ii. Clinical data supports semantic organization
iii. Network models assume that information is organized semantically
b. By sound and form of words -- evidence from tip-of-the-tongue states
2. Contents of long-term memory
a. Procedural memories—knowing how
b. Declarative memories—knowing that
i. Semantic memories—internal representations of the world, independent of context
ii. Episodic memories—representations of personally experienced events
3. Serial position effect provides evidence for the existence of short- and long-term memories
a. The three-box model has been used to explain recency and primacy effects
i. Primacy effect -- tendency to remember items that occur early on a list -- thought to be
due to transfer of items to LTM
ii. Recency effect -- tendency to remember items that occur near the end of a list --
thought to be due to items still being in working memory at time of recall
b. Cannot fully explain the recency effect
III. THE BIOLOGY OF MEMORY

➢ Lecture Launcher 6.4 - Reconsolidation
➢ Activity 6.6 - Memories of 9/11
Learning Objective 6.3.A - Outline the process of long-term potentiation in the formation of
memories.
5 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
A. Changes in neurons and synapses

1. In working memory, changes within neurons temporarily alter neurotransmitter release
2. LTM changes involve permanent structural changes in the brain
a. Long-term potentiation occurs—increases synaptic responsiveness
b. Consolidation is the time required for physical changes to occur in LTM; until this
occurs, memories in LTM are vulnerable to disruption
Learning Objective 6.3.B - Evaluate the evidence that memories are not stored in any one part of
the brain.
B. Where memories are made

1. Working memory tasks  frontal lobes
2. Formation of long-term declarative memories  hippocampus
3. Encoding of pictures and words  prefrontal cortex, association areas of cortex
4. Procedural memories of classically conditioned responses to unpleasant stimuli cerebellum
5. Many more brain areas associated with memory are currently being investigated
Learning Objective 6.3.C - Summarize the evidence that memory can be influenced by emotion
and hormonal levels.
C. Hormones, emotion, and memory

1. Flashbulb memories -- memories of emotional events that seem photographic -- are notalways
complete or accurate, especially over time
2. Adrenalin connection -- hormones released during stress enhance memory, but high levels of
those hormones interfere with ordinary learning
3. Sweet memories -- the effect of these hormones may be due to glucose
4. Still many unknowns about the connection between hormones and memory
IV. HOW WE REMEMBER
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.5 - “Your Name Escapes Me, But Your Face...Well, It Escapes Me Too.”
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.6 - The Role of Distinctiveness in Memory
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.7 - Mnemonics in Mind
➢ Activity 6.7 - Improving Memory

➢ Activity 6.8 - Schemas and Memory
➢ Activity 6.9 - The Self-Reference Effect
Learning Objective 6.4.A - Describe and give examples of major memory retention strategies.
A. Some kinds of information are encoded automatically (e.g., location of objects in space), whereas
others require effort (e.g., learning information from a textbook)
B. Techniques
1. Mnemonics -- strategies for encoding, storing, and retaining information
2. Effective encoding -- accurate encoding is an important first step
3. Maintenance rehearsal (rote repetition) -- maintains information in working memory but does
not lead to LTM retention
4. Elaborative rehearsal (elaboration of encoding) -- associating new items of information with
information that has already been stored in LTM
5. Deep processing -- processing the meaning of what you are trying to remember
6. Retrieval practice -- practice makes nearer to perfect
6 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
V. WHY WE FORGET
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.8 - Saving a Famous Brain
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.9 - How False Memories are Formed
➢ Activity 6.10 - Decay and Interference in Short-Term Memory
Learning Objective 6.5.A - Summarize the processes of decay, replacement, interference, and cue-
dependent forgetting.
A. The decay theory -- holds that memories fade with time if they are not used; does not apply well to
lapses in LTM
B. Replacement -- new memories for old -- new information sometimes wipes out old information
C. Interference
1. Retroactive interference -- new information interferes with old
2. Proactive interference -- old information interferes with new
D. Cue-dependent forgetting -- forgetting due to lack of retrieval cues
1. Retrieval cues are important for remembering
2. Context or mental/physical states (state-dependent memory) can be retrieval cues
3. We remember better when the material matches our current mood
Learning Objective 6.5.B - Discuss the reasons why childhood amnesia is likely to take place.
E. Childhood amnesia: The missing years -- inability to remember things from the first years of life
1. May occur because brain areas involved in formation or storage of events are not well
developed until a few years after birth
2. Several explanations have been offered for childhood amnesia
a. Brain development
b. Cognitive development
c. Social development
Learning Objective 6.5.C - Explain why claims of repressed memories should be greeted with
skepticism.
E. The repression controversy

1. Repression -- pushing upsetting information into the unconscious mind (a controversial
proposition)
2. False memories of sexual abuse can arise as a result of the use of "recovered memory"
techniques
VI. RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST

➢ Lecture Launcher 6.10 - Culture and Memory
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.11 - The Chowchilla Kidnapping
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.12 - Hypnosis and Memory
➢ Lecture Launcher 6.13 - Eyewitness Testimony
➢ Activity 6.11 - Do We Make Accurate Copies of Events in Our Memories?

➢ Activity 6.12 - “Pssst…Have You Heard About This Demonstration?”
7 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
Learning Objective 6.6.A - Explain why memory is more reconstructive than people think.
A. The manufacture of memory -- a reconstructive process

1. Source misattribution -- other information is integrated into memories and cannot be
distinguished from original memory
Learning Objective 6.6.B - Describe conditions under which confabulation is especially likely to
occur.
B. The conditions of confabulation (remembering something incorrectly)

1. Person has thought about imagined event many times
2. The image of the event contains a lot of details
3. The event is easy to imagine
Learning Objective 6.6.C - Summarize the evidence indicating that eyewitness testimony can be
susceptible to memory errors.
C. The eyewitness on trial

1. People reconstruct memories, so eyewitness testimony can be incorrect
2. Errors are particularly likely to occur when the suspect’s ethnicity differs from that of the
witness
3. Recollection of past events is influenced by the way a question is asked
8 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
▼ Learning Objectives
LO 6.1.A - Distinguish between recall and recognition tasks in explicit memory, and between explicit and
implicit memory.
LO 6.1.B - Describe the basic characteristics of three memory systems according to the information-
processing model, and note the challenges to this view proposed by parallel distributed
processing.
LO 6.2.A - Explain the function and duration of the sensory register in the three-box model of memory.
LO 6.2.B - Explain the function and duration of working memory.
LO 6.2.C - Describe the different forms of long-term memory, and explain the serial-position effect in
transferring information from working memory to long-term memory.
LO 6.3.A - Outline the process of long-term potentiation in the formation of memories.
LO 6.3.B - Evaluate the evidence that memories are not stored in any one part of the brain.
LO 6.3.C - Summarize the evidence that memory can be influenced by emotion and hormonal levels.
LO 6.4.A - Describe and give examples of major memory retention strategies.
LO 6.5.A - Summarize the processes of decay, replacement, interference, and cue-dependent forgetting.
LO 6.5.B - Discuss the reasons why childhood amnesia is likely to take place.
LO 6.5.C - Explain why claims of repressed memories should be greeted with skepticism.
LO 6.6.A - Explain why memory is more reconstructive than people think.
LO 6.6.B - Describe conditions under which confabulation is especially likely to occur.
LO 6.6.C - Summarize the evidence indicating that eyewitness testimony can be susceptible to memory
errors.
9 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
►Rapid Review
Chapter 6 examines the nature of memory. Memory is not simply a recording that can be replayed at any
time. Rather, our memories often incorporate outside information into our recollections so that what we
recall is a reconstruction of events and not necessarily a directly-veridical memory of them. Memory is
tested using recall, retrieval, and relearning methods. There are two prominent models of memory: the
information-processing model, which compares memory processes to computer processes, and the
parallel distributed processing model, which holds that knowledge is represented as connections among
thousands of processing units operating in parallel. The three-box model (an information-processing
model) suggests that there are three types of memory: sensory memory, working memory, and long-term
memory. Psychologists are interested in knowing what kinds of brain changes take place when we store
information. Research has examined memory and its relationship to neurons, brain structures, and
hormones. There are several different theories that explain why we forget: decay theory, replacement
theory, interference theory, repression, cue-dependent forgetting, and theories about childhood amnesia.
10 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS

6.1 - The Inner Workings of Working Memory
6.2 - Working Memory
6.3 - Episodic  Semantic
6.4 - Reconsolidation
6.5 - “Your Name Escapes Me, But Your Face...Well, It Escapes Me Too.”
6.6 - The Role of Distinctiveness in Memory
6.7 - Mnemonics in Mind
6.8 - Saving a Famous Brain
6.9 - How False Memories are Formed
6.10 - Culture and Memory
6.11 - The Chowchilla Kidnapping
6.12 - Hypnosis and Memory
6.13 - Eyewitness Testimony
► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.1 – The Inner Workings of Working Memory

Area 46 could be anywhere; a loading dock, part of a busy airport, or a sector of a computer chip
manufacturing plant. But Area 46 of the frontal lobe refers to a specific location that’s revealed a specific
function. Scientists are heralding Area 46 as the “scratch pad of the brain.”
Most models of memory posit a “working memory” or holding area where information is stored before
being consolidated (or lost). Two research teams used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to
pinpoint where that activity takes place. Susan Courtney, working at the National Institutes of Mental
Health, led a research project that had volunteers view a face on a computer monitor for 3 seconds. The
participants kept the image in mind during an 8-second pause, and then saw another face on the screen.
If the second face matched the first, the participants pressed a button. The fMRI scans taken during this
task showed that areas in the back of the brain were active when the faces first appeared, whereas Area
46 of the frontal lobe became and stayed active during the pause. (The distinction wasn’t perfect; some
rear areas were slightly active during the pause, and some frontal areas were active when the faces were
shown.) In a second study, a research team led by Jonathan D. Cohen of Carnegie Mellon University and
the University of Pittsburgh asked participants to recall increasingly long strings of consonants flashed on
a screen. As the sequence of letters increased, activity in the frontal lobe increased. Like the other study,
other areas of the brain were also active during these tasks.
Taken together, these results suggest that there is a coordinated effort in brain activity when working
memory is activated. The frontal lobe “scratch pad” of Area 46 works in concert with other brain regions to
process information and distribute it effectively. Further research, using millisecond-to-millisecond fMRI
recording, may reveal with greater accuracy how different types of information get processed.
Bower, B. (1997, April 26). Where in the brain is working memory? Science News, 151, 258.
Boyd, R. S. (1997, November 30). Scientists find “scratch pad” where brain sorts memory. Austin American-Statesman, A22.
Green, S., Blackmon, K., Thesen, T., DuBois, J., Wang, X., Halgren, E., & Devinsky, O. (2017). Parieto-frontal gyrification and
working memory in healthy adults. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 1-6. doi:10.1007/s11682-017-9696-9
Montojo, C. A., & Courtney, S. M. (2008). Differential neural activation for updating rule versus stimulus information in working
memory. Neuron, 59, 173-182.
O'Reilly, R. C., Braver, T. S., & Cohen, J. D. (1999). A biologically-based neural network model of working memory. In P. Shah
& A. Miyake (Eds.), Models of working memory. Cambridge University Press.
Peverill, M., McLaughlin, K. A., Finn, A. S., & Sheridan, M. A. (2016). Working memory filtering continues to develop into late
adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 78-88.
Walsh, M. K., Montojo, C. A., Sheu, Y.-S., Marchetti, S. A., Harrison, D. M., Newsome, S. D., Zhou, F., Shelton, A. L., &
Courtney, S. M. (2011). Object working memory performance depends on microstructure of the frontal-occipital
fasciculus. Brain Connectivity, 1, 317-329.

◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 6
11 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
Lecture Launcher 6.2 – Working Memory

Allen Baddeley and his colleagues argued that original formulations of short-term memory, according to
the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, are too rigid of a system, storing only 7 ± 2 items at any given time.
Baddeley’s working memory (WM) model is more flexible, in that individuals can engage in multiple tasks,
as long as they use different components of the WM model, each of which has its own capacity. The
three components of WM include: the phonological loop, which stores a limited amount of auditory
information for a short amount of time; the visuo-spatial sketchpad, which stores visual and spatial
information; and the central executive, which integrates information from the other two components and
long-term memory (LTM).
Support for the independent components of WM includes neuropsychological evidence using a

combination of fMRIs and cognitive tasks. In a study by D’Esposito et al. (1995), participants performed
two tasks in both single-task and dual-task conditions. One task was a (verbal) lexical decision task,
which theoretically should be handled by the phonological loop of WM. The second task was a visual
mental rotations task, proposed to utilize resources from the visuo-spatial sketchpad of WM. When the
tasks were performed alone, the verbal task activated the left temporal cortex, and the visual task
activated the occipital and parietal cortex. However, when participants had to perform the two tasks
simultaneously (dual-task condition), the central executive should allocate resources to the other two
“slave systems.” The fMRI showed that only during the dual-task condition, when the central executive of
WM is necessary to allocate resources, did the prefrontal cortex become active.
Au, J., Katz, B., Buschkuehl, M., Bunarjo, K., Senger, T., Zabel, C., ... & Jonides, J. (2016). Enhancing working memory
training with transcranial direct current stimulation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(9), 1419-1432.
Baddeley, A. D. (2017). Modularity, working memory and language acquisition. Second Language Research, 33(3), 1-17.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp.
47-89). New York: Academic Press.
Brunoni, A. R., & Vanderhasselt, M-A. (2014). Working memory improvement with non-invasive brain stimulation of the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain and Cognition, 86, 1-9.
Caeyenberghs, K., Metzler-Baddeley, C., Foley, S., & Jones, D. K. (2016). Dynamics of the human structural connectome
underlying working memory training. Journal of Neuroscience, 36(14), 4056-4066.
D’Esposito, M, Detre, J. A., Alsop, D. C., Shin, R. K., Atlas, S., & Grossman, M. (1995). The neural basis of the central
executive of working memory. Nature, 378, 279–281.
Hu, Y., Allen, R. J., Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (2016). Executive control of stimulus-driven and goal-directed attention in
visual working memory. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 78(7), 2164-2175.

Lecture Launcher 6.3 – Episodic  Semantic

The daily lives of Beth, Jon, and Kate sound nightmarish. The 14, 19, and 22-year-olds can’t remember
where they’ve been shortly after they’ve been there, can’t recall who’ve they’ve seen shortly after they’ve
seen them, and can’t recognize familiar buildings shortly after they’ve walked out of them. Each of these
young people suffered from brain seizures at an early age that produced extensive damage to the
hippocampus. And if the story ended here we’d shake our heads dejectedly, mumbling about the grace of
God and knocking on available wood, as the trio walked away under the constant supervision of their
parents.
It turns out, though, that Beth, Jon, and Kate all attended mainstream schools, have good speech and
language skills, read and spell as well as their peers, and have acquired lots and lots of factual
knowledge. Their abilities in these areas, contrasted with their disabilities in others, highlight the
difference between semantic memory and episodic memory. What’s more, they suggest that the areas of
the brain responsible for these types of memory are different. Researchers led by Faraneh Vargha-
Khadem of University College London Medical School studied these unusual individuals and concluded
12 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
that although the hippocampus regulates recall of personal experiences, it plays only a minor role in the
storage and acquisition of factual knowledge. In short, although episodic memory has been tragically
disrupted for these three, semantic memory has remained largely intact.
Baddeley, A., Jarrold, C., Vargha-Khadem, F. (2011). Working memory and the hippocampus. Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 23(12), 3855–3861.
Baddeley, A., Allen, R., Vargha-Khadem, F. (2010). Is the hippocampus necessary for visual and verbal binding in working
memory? Neuropsychologia, 48(4), 1089–1095.
Bower, B. (1997, August 2). Factual brains, uneventful lives. Science News, 152, 75.
Cooper, J. M., Vargha-Khadem, F., Gadian, D. G., Maguire, E. A. (2011). The effect of hippocampal damage in children on
recalling the past and imagining new experiences. Neuropsychologia, 49(7), 1843–1850.
Devitt, A. L., Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2017). Episodic and semantic content of memory and imagination: A multilevel
analysis. Memory & Cognition, 1-17. doi:10.3758/s13421-017-0716-1
Isaacs, E., Christie, D., Vargha-Khadem, F., Mishkin, M. (1996). Effects of hemispheric side of injury, age at injury, and
presence of seizure disorder on functional ear and hand asymmetries in hemiplegic children. Neuropsychologia, 34(2),
127–137.
Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., & Szpunar, K. K. (2017). Escaping the past: Contributions of the hippocampus to future thinking
and imagination. In The Hippocampus from Cells to Systems (pp. 439-465). Springer International Publishing.

Lecture Launcher 6.4 – Reconsolidation

According to most models of LTM, new memories must undergo a period of consolidation, during which
they are converted into a stable form for long-term storage. Traditionally it was believed that, after a
memory underwent consolidation, it would continue to remain crystallized in storage. More recently
however, researchers have found evidence that the act of retrieving or reactivating certain types of
memory returns them to a preconsolidated state, and that these memories must be reconsolidated
following retrieval. If the reconsolidation process is disrupted, the previously stable memory will be lost.
A great example of the need for reconsolidation comes from a study by Nader, Scafe, and LeDoux
(2000). The researchers fear conditioned rats by pairing a tone with foot-shock. The following day, rats
were put back into the conditioning chamber and the tone stimulus was presented by itself. Immediately
after this re-exposure to the conditioned stimulus, some rats were injected with a protein synthesis
blocking drug. Finally, the rats were tested for conditioned fear to the tone the following day. The results
showed that the rats given the protein synthesis blocking drugs following re-exposure showed less fear
conditioning than the rats who did not receive the drug. These results suggest that re-exposing the rats to
the tone and chamber following fear conditioning caused the memory of fear conditioning to become
reactivated, and blocking protein synthesis prevented the reconsolidation of the fear memory. Importantly,
the drug by itself did not simply “erase” the fear memory, because when the researchers gave the drug to
rats without re-exposing them the chamber and tone, the fear conditioning was unaffected.
Other experiments have demonstrated that reconsolidation is required following the retrieval of many
different types of memory, for example, taste memories, spatial memories, and procedural memories.
Some experts believe that reconsolidation might be a mechanism by which stable, older memories are
made malleable so that they can be updated to include new information. Others believe that destabilizing
older memories is simply an unintended consequence of the retrieval process. Either way, it has been
suggested that blocking the reconsolidation process could be a successful way to help people forget
maladaptive or traumatic memories. For example, children who are scarred by memories of abuse could
be prompted to recall the abuse and then given drugs which block reconsolidation. In theory, the act of
recalling the abuse would make the memories unstable again, and with reconsolidation disrupted, the
memories would be lost or at least weakened.
Lee, J. (2009). Reconsolidation: Maintaining memory relevance. Trends in Neurosciences, 32(8), 413–420.
Nader, K., Schafe, G., & LeDoux, J. (2000) Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after
retrieval. Nature, 406, 722–726.
Sekeres, M. J., Moscovitch, M., & Winocur, G. (2017). Mechanisms of memory consolidation and transformation. In Cognitive
Neuroscience of Memory Consolidation (pp. 17-44). Springer International Publishing.
13 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY

Lecture Launcher 6.5 –

“Your Name Escapes Me, But Your Face...Well, It Escapes Me Too.”
Memory disruptions often become increasingly prevalent as we age. Beyond the annoyance of forgetting
an acquaintance’s name, the groceries we need for a new recipe, or someone’s face is the annoyance of
not quite knowing what to do about it. Memory disruptions could be due to faulty encoding of information,
faulty retrieval, or both. A recent study suggests that encoding may be particularly important in successful
memory among the elderly.
Researchers led by Cheryl L. Grady working at the National Institute on Aging used positron emission
tomography (PET) to study the brain activity of young and elderly participants as they took part in a
memorization task. (PET scans show areas of heightened blood flow in the brain, which is often an
indicator of activity in those areas.) Two groups of 10 volunteers each (one averaging 25 years of age
and the other 69 years) viewed 32 unfamiliar faces for 4 seconds each, while PET scans recorded their
brain activity. After a short break, PET scans were again obtained as the participants looked at faces from
the first session, now paired with distracter faces, and identified which ones they had seen before.
The research team found that the group of younger participants recognized significantly more faces than
did the elderly group. What’s more, the PET scans revealed that among the younger participants, several
brain regions (especially the hippocampus) leapt into activity during the memorization task. By
comparison, the elderly participants’ PET scans showed no heightened activity during the memorization
process. These findings suggest support for the encoding deficit hypothesis of aging. The relatively
poorer performance by the elderly participants seems to be due to not sufficiently encoding the
information in the first place.
Haxby, J. V., Ungerleider, L. G., Horwitz, B., Rapoport, S. I., & Grady, C. L. (1995). Hemispheric differences in neural systems
for face working memory: A PET‐rCBF study. Human Brain Mapping, 3(2), 68-82.
Lamp, G., Alexander, B., Laycock, R., Crewther, D. P., & Crewther, S. G. (2016). Mapping of the underlying neural
mechanisms of maintenance and manipulation in visuo-spatial working memory using an n-back mental rotation task: A
functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 10. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00087
Wu, C. (1995). Brain scans hint why elderly forget faces. Science News, 148, 36.

Lecture Launcher 6.6 – The Role of Distinctiveness in Memory

The use of bizarre imagery is a component of several effective mnemonic techniques. Winograd and
Soloway noted that people often report that they are better able to remember information that they
have attempted to make distinctive. For example, we often store things in unusual places (such as
leaving soccer cleats in the kitchen) in the belief that it will be easier to remember where we put the
item at a later time. This is somewhat like using a bizarre image with the method of loci. In order to
examine this belief, Winograd and Soloway presented research participants with sentences that
described an object stored in a normal location ("The milk is in the refrigerator.") or an unusual location
("The tickets are in the freezer."). Participants were asked to either rate the sentence for the likelihood
of using this location to store the item, the memorability of the storage location, or to generate an
image of what was described in the sentence and then rate its memorability. Participants were then
given a recall test in which they were asked to remember the locations of the objects presented in the
sentences. Contrary to what might be expected, items rated low in likelihood (that is, stored in unusual
locations) were remembered less often than those rated high, regardless of the rated memorability.
Although distinctiveness may be an effective aid for remembering a particular item, Winograd and
Soloway concluded that it does not appear to be useful for remembering the association between two
14 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
items. This is an important point because when we store an object in an unusual place we need to
remember the association between the object and the location. This differs from what occurs in the
method of loci, in which we start with a location and use an imaginal representation of the location to
store and remember an object. In the distinctiveness situation we are doing the opposite; starting with
an object and trying to remember a location that was not established with a strong imaginal
representation.
Winograd, E., & Soloway, R. (1986). On forgetting the location of things stored in special places. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 115, 366–372.

Lecture Launcher 6.7 – Mnemonics in Mind

Here is a collection of mnemonics, divided into naive strategies (i.e., those used regularly and easily by
most people, without needing formal instruction) and technical mnemonics (i.e., those requiring some
training).
Naive Mnemonics
• Rehearsal: Simple rote repetition

• Rhyme: Constructing a little ditty to keep track of information
• Chunking: Restructuring a list into meaningful units
• Images: Visualizing a cereal box full of money to remember “Bank and Groceries”
• First-letter mnemonics
– Acronyms: Roy G. Biv for the visible spectrum; HOMES for the Great Lakes
– Acrostics: Arithmetic: “A Real Idiot Thinks He Might Eat Turkey In Church”
Technical Mnemonics
• Method of Loci: A physical setting is first memorized, then filled in

• Peg-Word: Construct a rhyme, then “hang” the information on the rhyme’s peg
• Number-Letter: A translation scheme matching letters to numbers and vice-versa
• Link: A visual image of each item is linked to the following one, forming a chain
• Story: Like the link system, but with stories using the to-be-remembered information

Lecture Launcher 6.8 – Saving a Famous Brain

The name Henry Molaison may not ring a bell. That is because for over 50 years Mr. Molaison was known
simply by his initials: H.M. It was not until his death in December 2008 that the full name of the world’s
most famous amnesiac was released. His death also set into action a plan developed to preserve his
brain for science.
It may seem unnecessary to save H.M.’s brain, because numerous CT and MRI scans had been
performed over the years to map the damage from his 1953 surgery. However, because of the limitations
of these non-invasive techniques, researchers could not precisely determine which brain regions had
been affected. Luckily, a relative of Mr. Molaison’s, acting as his conservator, agreed to donate Henry’s
brain to science when he died. Because a brain begins to deteriorate very quickly after a person dies,
researchers set up a careful plan to be activated upon H.M.’s death.
15 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
On December 8, 2008, Mr. Molaison died in the Connecticut nursing home where he had been living.
Following the plan, his head was immediately wrapped in cold-packs to slow down the deterioration
process, and his body was taken to a nearby hospital for one last set of MRI scans. The brain was then
carefully extracted and placed in formaldehyde. This last step was critical, because the human brain is
normally too soft to transport or study. Placing the brain in formaldehyde causes the brain to become firm
enough to safely handle, and halts further deterioration. After the brain has been fully preserved,
researchers plan to freeze it, and then use a special machine to cut it into an estimated 2,600 slices. The
slices will then be stained to help researchers identify the various regions of the brain. Finally, each slice
will be photographed with a high-resolution camera.
Researchers plan to put all of the images online, so that scientists around the world can study them.
Eventually, the team responsible for preserving H.M.’s brain hopes to add images from the brains of other
amnesiacs, creating a digital library that will allow scientists to examine the similarities and differences.
When he was alive, H.M. contributed a huge amount to our understanding of memory and the brain, but it
is likely that his brain still has a lot to teach us.
Lysen, F. (2015). “There was nothing hidden that might not be revealed:” The Brain Observatory and the imaginary media of
memory research. In S. Groes (Ed.), Memory in the 21st Century (pp. 57-62), New York: Springer.
Miller, G. (2009). The brain collector. Science, 324 (5935), 1634–1636.
http://thebrainobservatory.ucsd.edu/hm

Lecture Launcher 6.9 – How False Memories are Formed

Researchers at Northwestern University have used MRI technology to study how people form false
memories. The purpose of the study was to create laboratory conditions that set up a circumstance in
which people would remember something that did not happen. Participants were asked to look at pictures
of objects and to imagine other objects while their brain activity was being measured. Researchers found
that the brain areas associated with generating visual images were highly activated when people imagine
images. Many of the images that the participants were asked to imagine were incorrectly identified as
actually having been seen. According to Kenneth Paller, co-investigator of the study, regions of the brain
involved in perceiving an object and those involved in imagining an object appear to overlap. This would
allow a vividly imagined event to leave a memory trace in the brain that is similar to a real event.
Three brain areas (percutaneous, right inferior parietal cortex, and anterior cingulate) showed greater
responses in the study phase to words that would later be falsely remembered as having been presented
with photos. Brain activity during the study phase could predict which objects would subsequently be
falsely remembered as having been seen as a photograph. The false memories appeared to be
associated with more vivid visual imagery that left a trace in the brain that was mistaken for a true
memory.
Gonsalves, B., Reber, P. J., Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. B., Mesulam, M. M., & Paller, K. A. (2004). Neural evidence that vivid
imagining can lead to false remembering. Psychological Science, 15(10), 655-660.
Mitchell, K. J. (2016). The cognitive neuroscience of source monitoring. In The Oxford Handbook of Metamemory (p. 425).
Oxford University Press.
Mitchell, K. J., & Johnson, M. K. (2009). Source monitoring 15 years later: what have we learned from fMRI about the neural
mechanisms of source memory?. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 638.

Lecture Launcher 6.10 – Culture and Memory
16 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
All cultures place certain memory expectations on their members. For example, in Western culture we are
expected to remember (through honors, ceremonies, observances) significant dates, persons, or
activities. The Fourth of July, Thanksgiving Day, Presidents Day, and, most obviously, Memorial Day are
examples of a kind of culturally shared memory system. Although often there are no explicit guidelines for
activities on these occasions and no particularly dire sanctions for not observing them, we will certainly be
looked at askance if we don’t remember when they are or what they signify. Other cultures and
subcultures have similar occasions, such as religious observances (e.g., first Friday of the month) or
anniversaries (e.g., the Tiananmen Square demonstration).
Cultures and subcultures also have ritualized reminders for memory events. For example, people in
Western cultures automatically know that a string around one’s finger or an image of an elephant serve
as reminders to do something, just as rosary beads help Catholics remember their prayers or a flag at
half-mast helps remind a large group to honor someone’s memory. The use and form of these reminders
can vary from culture to culture, although like the memory tasks themselves they typically are learned
implicitly within a cultural context.
Beyond these aspects of a “general cultural memory,” there is also evidence that gender stereotypes play
a role in what gets remembered and by whom. The formation of gender stereotypes and gender role
expectations are often culture-bound. That cultural learning can in turn inspire certain types of memory.
For example, Stephen Ceci and Urie Brofenbrenner (1985) showed that remembering when to terminate
an event is better if the event is consistent with gender stereotypes. Boys were better at remembering
when to stop charging a motorcycle battery than remembering when to take cupcakes out of the oven,
whereas girls showed the opposite pattern. Similarly, Douglas Herrmann and his colleagues (1992)
showed that female and male undergraduates had differential memory for an ambiguous paragraph
depending on its title. When given a “male-like” title (“How to Make a Workbench”), men remembered
more details than did women, although the opposite was true if the ambiguous passage had a “female-
like” title (“How to Make a Shirt”). The influence of culture on memory, then, also occurs indirectly through
the expectations and stereotypes set up within a cultural context.
Ceci, S. J., & Brofenbrenner, U. (1985). “Don’t forget to take the cupcakes out of the oven”: Prospective memory, strategic
time-monitoring, and context. Child Development, 56, 152–164.
Cole, M., & Gay, J. (1972). Culture and memory. American Anthropologist, 74(5), 1066-1084.
Herrmann, D. J., Crawford, M., & Holdsworth, M. (1992). Gender-linked differences in everyday memory performance. British
Journal of Psychology, 83, 221–231.
Searleman, A., & Herrmann, D. J. (1994). Memory from a broader perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Wagoner, B. (2017). Oxford Handbook of Culture and Memory. Oxford University Press.

Lecture Launcher 6.11 – The Chowchilla Kidnapping

In the summer of 1976, a busload of children, together with their bus driver, Ed Ray, were kidnapped—
bus and all—from a country road in Madera County in California. The abductors abandoned the bus,
hiding it in a drainage ditch nine miles west of the small town of Chowchilla. They drove the kidnap
victims (19 girls, 7 boys, and Ray) around for eleven hours in two vans, finally putting all of the children
and the driver into an 8’ x 16’ moving van that was buried in a rock quarry.
After 16 hours underground, the victims dug their way out and were eventually found and returned to their
homes in Chowchilla. Ed Ray was hypnotized and eventually was able to remember five of the six
numbers on the license plate on one of the vans used in the abduction, which led to the arrest of three
young men who were tried and found guilty. A draft of a ransom note had been found in the home of one
of the young men along with other evidence tying them to the crime (Terr, 1981, 1983).
This case sparked the increased interest of law enforcement personnel in the use of hypnosis as a tool
for helping witnesses to remember crime details. Unfortunately, this case is the exception to the rule:
17 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
Memories recovered under hypnosis cannot be assumed to be accurate without some other kind of
evidence that the memories are real. In the Chowchilla case, the ransom note and other things found in
one of the kidnapper’s homes were that evidence, but those items might not have been found if not for
Ray’s hypnotically aided recall. (In this instance, hypnosis helped Ray relax enough to recall the memory
of the number that he had actually tried to memorize. If he hadn’t made that initial effort to remember the
number, hypnosis would not have helped his recall.)
Paterline, B. A. (2016). Forensic hypnosis and the courts. Journal of Law and Criminal Justice, 4(2), 1-7.
Terr, L. C. (1981). Psychic trauma in children: Observations following the Chowchilla bus kidnapping. American Journal of
Psychiatry, 138, 14–19.
Terr, L. C. (1983). Chowchilla revisited: The effects of trauma four years after the school bus kidnapping. American Journal of
Psychiatry, 140, 1543–1550.

Lecture Launcher 6.12 – Hypnosis and Memory

Elizabeth Bowman has summarized the following points from research on hypnosis and memory:
• Hypnotized subjects report more accurate and inaccurate information than subjects who are not
hypnotized. Therefore, even though hypnosis makes it easier to recall some legitimate memories, it
also makes it easier to recall false ones.
• Hypnosis enhances the confidence subjects have in their memories, regardless of their accuracy or
inaccuracy.
• Subjects cannot always distinguish between memories that they have always had and new
“memories” recently recovered under hypnosis.
• False memories can be created when directly suggested by the hypnotist during age regression.
• Hypnotic age regression does not appear to increase the accuracy of childhood recall.
• The impact of hypnosis on the reliability of later memory depends on the type of question asked.
Open-ended questions cause less memory “contamination” than closed-ended, leading questions.
• Some pseudomemories (false memories) suggested by hypnosis do not persist after the hypnosis.
• Pseudomemories reported during hypnosis do not replace real memories; they are frequently not
believed by the subject.
• High hypnotizability is a more important factor in the production of pseudomemories than actually
being hypnotized.
• High hypnotizability and hypnosis together produce the highest rates of pseudomemories.
Clearly, memories obtained through hypnosis should not be considered as accurate without solid
evidence from other sources.
Bowman, E. S. (1996). Delayed memories of child abuse: Part II: An overview of research findings relevant to understand their
reliability and suggestibility. Dissociation: Progress in Dissociative Disorders, 9, 232–243.
Dell, P. F. (2017). What is the essence of hypnosis? International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 65(2), 162-
168.

18 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
Lecture Launcher 6.13 – Eyewitness Testimony

Many experts worry that juries in criminal cases overestimate the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. This
could lead to mistaken convictions based on false memories. On the other hand, if jurors disregarded
eyewitness testimony because it is potentially inaccurate, it is likely that many criminals would be found
innocent because of insufficient evidence.
After introducing this subject, ask students to discuss what steps, if any, courts should take to deal with
the issue of false eyewitness memories. In particular, students should consider whether juries should be
told before the trial that psychologists have discovered that memories for events are reconstructions, and
as such, subject to distortions. Or, should psychologists be allowed to testify in court about false
memories? Students should also discuss how likely they think it is that an innocent person is found guilty
based on false eyewitness memories. Is this a real problem? Would teaching jurors about false memories
lead to more miscarriages of justice than it would prevent? Finally, ask students to consider what the legal
standard “beyond a reasonable doubt” means with regard to eyewitness testimony given what they have
learned about memory. After the discussion has been concluded, ask students to respond to this writing
prompt: What does it mean to say that episodic memories are reconstructions? How is this different from
the way that many people feel that their long-term memory works?
Sample answer: Most people feel that their episodic memories act like video recorders. As we experience
an event, our conscious experiences are simply recorded into the brain so that we can play them back at
some later point in time. Psychologists, however, have discovered that episodic memories are not
“recordings.” Instead, it appears that only some information from an event is stored in long-term memory.
The brain then uses these pieces of information as a framework to rebuild or reconstruct the event when
we try to recall it at a later point in time.

19 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES

6.1 - Depth of Processing and Memory
6.2 - Demonstrating Simple Memory Principles
6.3 - Sensory Memory
6.4 - The Limits of Short-Term Memory
6.5 - The Value of Chunking
6.6 - Memories of 9/11
6.7 - Improving Memory
6.8 - Schemas and Memory
6.9 - The Self-Reference Effect
6.10 - Decay and Interference in Short-Term Memory
6.11 - Do We Make Accurate Copies of Events in Our Memories?
6.12 - “Pssst…Have You Heard About This Demonstration?”
Activity 6.1 – Depth of Processing and Memory

This activity reliably demonstrates that memory for information depends on the depth at which it is
processed. Conduct this exercise after you have introduced short- and long-term memory but before you
have discussed specific encoding strategies (e.g., encoding verbally, by visual images, by meaning, and
so on). Have students take out a clean sheet of paper and number it from 1 to 30. Tell students that you
are going to read aloud a list of words and that you would like them to make a judgment about each word.
(Do not mention that this is a memory experiment or that they will be asked to recall the words later.)
Explain that the letter that precedes each word will signal the particular judgment you would like them to
make. Specifically, if the letter "A" is presented before the word, you want them to write down the number
of syllables that are in the word. If the letter "B" is presented before the word, you want them to judge
whether it is pleasant or unpleasant (by writing "P" for pleasant and "U" for unpleasant). You should write
this information on the chalkboard as you give it, and you might also encourage students to write it at the
top of their papers as a reminder. Stress that they should make their judgments relatively quickly and
without hesitation (e.g., for the pleasantness judgment, they choose one or the other, and not something
in between).
Then, slowly and clearly read the following list of words at a rate of about 1 word every 4 seconds (you
can either count to yourself or use a stopwatch). For example, you would begin by saying, "A" (short
pause), "bike" (pause for 4 seconds), "B" (short pause), "month" (pause for 4 seconds), and so on.
1. A bike 11. B fire 21. B trunk

2. B month 12. B trail 22. A coal
3. A magic 13. A soap 23. B pipe
4. B foot 14. B pocket 24. A pitch
5. A monkey 15. A pencil 25. B coin
6. B clock 16. B train 26. A hammer
7. B paint 17. A grass 27. A door
8. B bureau 18. A story 28. B church
9. A bird 19. B belt 29. B travel
10. A lemon 20. A kitchen 30. A fish
Note that this is just one potential word list and one potential order. You can do this exercise with any set
of common nouns and you can easily generate a new order (with new judgment pairings) by doing the
following. Make notecards for each of the words, shuffle them, and then randomly sort them into two
boxes or bins (one for A, the other for B). After writing "A" or "B" on each card next to the word (according
to which box it landed in), place all the cards in a stack and then shuffle them thoroughly to get a new
order.
20 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
After you've read the entire list, ask students to quickly write down as many of the states in the United
States that they remember (give them about 2 minutes for this task). Then, ask students to turn their
papers over and to write down as many of the words that they can recall from the list you read, in any
order that they want. Give them about 3 or 4 minutes for this task, and then have them score their
answers by providing the word list (see Handout 6.1). Ask students to write an "A" or a "B" next to each
word they recalled according to the scoring sheet (they should cross out any words recalled that were not
on the list). Then, they should count the total number of A and B words recalled. You can tally the results
by making a frequency distribution on the board (i.e., writing down for each person the number of A and B
words remembered) and calculating (or eyeballing) average scores for each condition. If you're pressed
for time or have a large class, you can simply ask students to raise their hands if they remembered more
A than B words, and compare this to the number of students who remembered more B than A words.
Whichever way you score it, students should have recalled many more B than A words.
After scoring, ask students to explain the results. Most will intuitively be able to explain that the B words
were more memorable because they had to think more about the words (and their meaning) in order to
make the judgment of pleasantness. By contrast, making the A judgment (i.e., number of syllables)
required simply saying the word to themselves rather than thinking about what it meant. Thus, this
exercise demonstrates the superiority of coding semantically (i.e., by meaning) over coding
phonologically (i.e., by sound). That is, the deeper and more elaborate the processing of information, the
more likely it is to be recalled. At this point, if students don't already see it, you'll want to highlight the
implications of this experiment for their study habits. The importance of studying actively should now be
crystal clear, and students will no doubt realize that thinking deeply about—and attaching meaning to
(rather than merely rehearsing)—terms and concepts in their courses is the key to effective recall on
exams. Also, you might ask students to explain the purpose of the state-listing task (it was a distracter
task to prevent any of the words from being held in working memory, which lasts for about 20 seconds).
Finally, it wouldn't hurt to remind students of the forgetting assignment (if you did it) and how difficult it
was for them to forget something that was encoded as meaningful!
DeRosa, D. V. (1987). How to study actively. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook
for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 72–74). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Jenkins, J. (1981). Meaning enhances recall. In L. T. Benjamin & K. D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of
psychology (pp. 81–82). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Swinkels, A., & Giuliano, T. A. (in press). An effective project for teaching repeated-measures designs. Teaching of
Psychology.

◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises for Chapter 6
Activity 6.2 – Demonstrating Simple Memory Principles

Michael Wertheimer described an activity that can be used to demonstrate a number of principles related
to memory and forgetting, including the forgetting curve, the effect of meaningfulness, the effect of
distinctiveness (sometimes known as the von Restorff effect), the effect of repetition, and the serial
position effect. When you start the class, divide the students into four groups by assigning each person a
number from one to four. Explain that you are going to read a list of items to them twice and that they will
need to memorize the list. Make sure you tell them not to write the items down. Although you may want to
construct your own list, the following list is similar to that suggested by Wertheimer: Obama, ruj, fet,
textbook, nav, Bush, fulfill, GEF, mandate, fet, 47, tal. The items should be read slowly, clearly, and at a
uniform rate each time they are read. The nonsense syllables need to be both pronounced and spelled.
Finally, shout as loudly as possible the nonsense syllable "GEF." Immediately after completing the
second reading of the list, ask Group 1 to write down all of the items that they can remember. Continue
with your lecture, but after about 3 min ask Group 2 to write down the items. Then, after another 5 min,
ask Group 3 to remember the items. Finally, about 45 min after the initial list presentation, ask Group 4 to
write as many items as they can remember. Make sure that during and between each retrieval by a group
there is no discussion of the items. After you have scored the number of items correctly recalled by each
21 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
group and recorded them on the blackboard, you should be able to point out the negatively accelerated
forgetting curve. In addition, an examination of performance on particular items across groups will
indicate the effects of meaningfulness (recall of presidents should be superior to nonsense syllables),
distinctiveness (GEF should show superior recall), repetition (fet should be recalled with a higher
frequency), and the serial position effect.
Wertheimer, M. (1981). Memory and forgetting. In L. T. Benjamin, Jr. & K. D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the
teaching of psychology (pp. 75–76). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Activity 6.3 – Sensory Memory

Although most of us are unaware of it, many of our experiences are held very briefly in sensory memory.
This is why, even if we are not paying attention to something we see, we can often recall information
about it if asked within a few seconds.
Before class, find an image with 5 to 8 clearly identifiable animals in it. (This can be easily accomplished
by conducting an Internet image search for the keyword “animals.”) Next, create a slide in your
PowerPoint presentation with the image. Right-click on the image and select “Custom Animation.”
(PowerPoint instructions may vary slightly from computer to computer and across different versions of the
software.) Set the first animation effect to be “entrance: appear” and a second animation effect to be “exit:
disappear.” The setting for “appear” should be “start after click,” and the setting for “disappear” should be
“start after previous.” Set the timing for the second effect to 0.6. If done correctly, in slideshow mode
these steps should cause the image to appear following a mouse click, and then disappear after 600 ms.
When you’re ready to perform the demonstration in class, instruct students to watch the screen carefully,
and to be prepared to answer a question about the image that will briefly appear. When ready, click the
mouse to display the image. As soon as the image is no longer visible, ask students a question about
what they just saw. For example, “What animal was in the bottom left corner of the image?” If the
parameters are set correctly for the image, most students will be able to answer this question easily. Wait
approximately 5 seconds, and then ask the students a similar question about the animals in the image
they saw. Most students will be unable to answer this question correctly. Conclude the activity with a
discussion of how sensory memory for the image allowed students to answer the first question, but that
the sensory memory had already been lost by the time the second question was asked. Importantly,
make sure students understand that the image was only shown for 600 ms, because if it had been shown
for longer students could have studied the picture and transferred the resulting information to working
memory.

Activity 6.4 – The Limits of Working Memory

This demonstration reveals the limited capacity of working memory (approximately 7 ± 2 items by many
accounts) through the use of a digit-span test. Instruct students to take out a sheet of scratch paper and a
pencil. Tell them that you will read a string of unrelated numbers and their task is to memorize those digits
in the exact order presented. After reading the numbers, pause, then signal the students to record their
answers by saying “Go.” Here is a sample list. Read at an even pace and in a monotone voice.
Span of four “Ready? 2,8,3,1 Go.”

Span of five “Ready? 7,4,1,3,9 Go.”
Span of six “Ready? 4,9,7,2,1,5 Go.”
22 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
Span of seven “Ready? 5,1,8,3,9,2,6 Go.”

Span of eight “Ready? 1,9,5,6,3,4,7,2 Go.”
Span of nine “Ready? 3,6,2,5,1,9,7,4,8 Go.”
Span of ten “Ready? 6,1,5,4,9,8,3,2,8,7 Go.”
Span of eleven “Ready? 8,9,3,1,6,4,2,7,5,1,3 Go.”
Read the answers or display them on a screen so students can score their performance. Then ask for a
show of hands to indicate the largest memory span they successfully completed. The majority of students
should be successful up to and including the 6-digit span.

Activity 6.5 – The Value of Chunking

The purpose of this demonstration is to illustrate how working memory performance can be enhanced by
the use of “chunking” procedures; that is, by grouping items into larger, meaningful units. In the following
two-part demonstration, ask a student to volunteer. Inform the volunteer that he or she will be presented
with a set of items to be memorized in exact order. Then read the following list of letters:
XIBMCIAFBICBSMTV
After a short delay, ask the student to recall as many of the letters as possible.
In the second part of the demonstration, tell the student that you will improve his or her memory with a
little help. Then read the letters in the following “chunked format”:
X IBM CIA FBI CBS MTV
The student should have nearly perfect recall. Grouping the letters reduced the memory task from 16
items to 6 items.

Activity 6.6 – Memories of 9/11

Ask students to write a brief report about everything they remember when they first heard the news of the
terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, DC on September 11, 2001 (although bear in mind that
most of your students would have been elementary school children at the time). You can use this
exercise as a starting point for discussing Roger Brown and James Kulik's research on flashbulb
memories (and you may have to explain what a flashbulb is…”was?”).
A flashbulb memory refers to memory for a situation in which a person first learned of a very surprising
and emotionally arousing event, often of international significance. Examples of flashbulb memories (for
individuals of various vintage) include the assassination of John F. Kennedy, assassination of Martin
Luther King, the Challenger shuttle explosion, the O.J. Simpson verdict, the death of Princess Diana, the
death of Prince, the Columbine High School shooting, the terrorist attacks of 9/11, or the death of Michael
Jackson. Brown and Kulik (1977) examined flashbulb memory reports of the assassination of JFK and
derived six 'canonical' categories of information that are reported in flashbulb memory reports across
individuals: the location (remembering where you heard the news); the ongoing event (remembering what
you were doing at the time you heard the news); the informant (remembering who told you about the
event); emotional affect in others (noticing the emotional reactions of others); emotional affect in self
23 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
(noticing the emotional reactions of oneself); and aftermath/consequentiality (remembering what you did
after you heard the news).
Ask students to now analyze their own memory reports for the six categories of information typically
reported in flashbulb memories. As part of a homework assignment, you may want to have students
collect memory reports from a few of their friends, then analyze the data as a whole for the six categories.
Students will quickly notice that the details of the memory reports may differ, although all tend to report
the same general categories of events.
Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5, 73–99.

Activity 6.7 – Improving Memory

This exercise asks students to put what they've learned to practical use. For this assignment, students
should target some specific aspect of their memory that they would like to improve, and then apply one or
more memory principles from the text or lecture to make the improvement. Students might, for example,
strive to enhance their performance on exams, to recall important birthdates and anniversaries, to
remember people's names following introductions, or to reduce absentminded actions, such as
misplacing keys or a wallet. Potential memory strategies include the use of established (e.g., Pegword,
method of loci) or home-made mnemonics, eliminating distracters and paying careful attention when
studying, meeting new people, or putting keys down, trying to encode material deeply and by multiple
methods (e.g., by meaning, by self-referencing, and by encoding visually), making better use of retrieval
cues, engaging in active, elaborative rehearsal while reading, applying the SQ3R method, and so on.
Students might also be encouraged (but not required) to consult additional sources for ideas. One
potential resource for this assignment is an excellent book by Kenny Higbee. After implementing their
plan, students should write a short paper in which they report on their experiences. Specifically, students
should describe (a) the aspect of memory they targeted for improvement (and why), (b) the memory
principles or strategies they used (including the rationale behind them), and (c) any results (positive or
negative) from applying these techniques. After grading students' papers, you might want to devote some
class time to discussion so that students can share their successful experiences with others.
Higbee, K. L (1993). Your memory: How it works and how to improve it. New York: Paragon House.

Activity 6.8 – Schemas and Memory

Schemas (i.e., organized mental frameworks that we rely on to interpret and filter incoming information)
greatly influence the retrieval of information stored in long-term memory. To demonstrate this effect in
your classroom, replicate an exercise suggested by Drew Appleby. Tell students that you are going to
show them a list of 12 words and that they should try to remember them. Then, slowly display the
following words one at a time as you read them aloud:
REST, TIRED, AWAKE, DREAM, SNORE, BED, EAT, SLUMBER, SOUND, COMFORT, WAKE, NIGHT
After you've completed the list, distract your class for 30 seconds or so (to ensure that the words are no
longer held in working memory) and then give them 2 minutes to write down as many words as they can
recall. Ask for a show of hands from all those who recalled the word AARDVARK. Your students, none of
whom will have mistakenly recalled AARDVARK, will look at you as if you're crazy. Then ask for a show
of hands for those who remembered SLEEP. Drew Appleby reports that 80 to 95 percent of the students
typically recall the word SLEEP, and are astonished to discover that SLEEP was not on the list (prove it to
24 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
them). Asked to explain the effect, most students will intuitively understand that schemas influenced their
recall. That is, because all of the words were associated with each other and related to the topic of sleep,
their schema for "sleep" was invoked and it seemed only natural that it would be on the list. Thus, this
demonstration suggests that schemas can cause us to fabricate false memories that happen to be
consistent with our schemas. You might also want to discuss with students the following interesting
implication: If people sometimes mistakenly remember information because it is consistent with their
schemas, is it possible that they can mistakenly forget information that is inconsistent with their schemas?
Ask students to provide examples from their own lives or from cases they've heard about in the media.
Appleby, D. (1987). Producing a deja vu experience. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities
handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 78–79). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Activity 6.9 – The Self-Reference Effect

An activity described by Forsyth and Wibberly is effective in demonstrating the self-reference effect on
memory. They noted that, based upon studies of constructive processes in memory, schema theories
propose that information is arranged within a system of cognitive groupings or schemas such as event
schemas, which define and provide a structure for social situations, or self-schemas, which reflect one's
individual characteristics. The self-reference effect refers to retrieval superiority for information that is
related to a person's self-schema. Forsyth and Wibberly described how this effect can be demonstrated
using an incidental memory task. Explain to the class that you are gathering data about which adjectives
are most commonly used for self-descriptions. Ask the class to number a sheet of paper from 1 to 20. Tell
them that you will be reading a list of 20 adjectives and if they feel that an adjective is self-descriptive of
themselves, they are to circle the corresponding number of the adjective on their paper. Next, read the
following list of adjectives: forceful, quiet, generous, dominant, tender, loyal, independent,
compassionate, adaptable, courageous, cheerful, secretive, principled, romantic, responsible, dynamic,
forgiving, and careful. After completing the list, talk about some matters related to class for about a
minute, then ask the students to write down as many of the adjectives that they can recall. Then read the
original list of adjectives and have the students calculate the number of descriptive and non-descriptive
adjectives that they recalled. Forsyth and Wibberly reported that the results of this demonstration are
usually robust, with students consistently remembering a higher percentage of self-descriptive adjectives.
They indicated that the demonstration is effective in generating discussion of schema and depth-of-
processing theories of memory by noting that self-referent items tend to be processed at deeper levels.
Forsyth, D. R., & Wibberly, K. H. (1993). The self-reference effect: Demonstrating schematic processing in the classroom.
Teaching of Psychology, 20, 237–236.

Activity 6.10 – Decay and Interference in Short-Term Memory

This simple exercise uses the Brown-Peterson distracter technique to demonstrate the effects of delay
and interference on working memory. Tell students that you want them to remember a sequence of three
consonant letters while counting backwards from a number you provide them. When they're ready, say,
"W T K" and then say "701." They should then say "701, 698, 695, 692, 689, 686" and so on. After 15 to
18 seconds, say "write" as a signal to students to recall the three letters. According to Peterson and
Peterson, students should have a fairly difficult time accomplishing this because the counting task
prevents them from rehearsing the letters and thus allows the memory trace to decay. Keppel and
Underwood later argued that the forgetting in the Brown-Peterson task was primarily due to the buildup of
proactive interference. As evidence, they pointed to the fact that students could often remember the
letters during the first trial or two, but had much greater difficulty remembering letters on any subsequent
25 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
trials, when proactive interference would develop (i.e., they would have trouble distinguishing between
letters presented earlier and on the current trial). Verify this effect with your students by conducting
several trials. Examples of potential letter/number combinations might include PZX 317, BVQ 421, LFC
991, JHG 187, and SRN 275. Students will be astonished at their atrocious performance, which, if typical
of experiments of this type, should yield about 1 in 10 correct recalls after only 18 seconds of the
distracter task!
Keppel, G., & Underwood, B. J. (1962). Proactive inhibition in short-term retention of single items. Journal of Verbal Learning
and Verbal Behavior, 1, 153–161.
Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
58, 193–196.
Searleman, A., & Herrmann, D. (1994). Memory from a broader perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Activity 6.11 –
Do We Make Accurate Copies of Events in Our Memories?
It is relatively simple to demonstrate the inaccurate and incomplete nature of some memories. Read the
following story at the beginning of class, asking students to listen carefully because their memory of the
story will be tested later. Five to ten minutes before the end of class, ask students to recall the story
verbatim.
“Monday night, a 17-year-old suburban youth was shot in the abdomen by an unknown gunman.
Witnesses claimed the shot was fired from a blue Chevrolet van that moved down the street slowly
until after the shooting, when it turned a corner and disappeared before anyone could get more than
the first two letters from the license plate. The victim dropped out of school in the 10th grade and is
believed to be one of the ‘superior seven,’ a group of teenagers who sell marijuana on street corners
near several local high schools. A spokesperson for the police department declined to say whether the
police believe the shooting is related to the continuing war between rival gangs over territories for
selling drugs. The condition of the victim is described as stable.”
Read several of the recalled stories to the class, and note how memories are reconstructed to be
consistent with the cognitive schemas of the writer. For example, the incident occurred in a suburban area
and no mention is made of sex, race, or ethnicity of the victims, yet you may find such elements included
in the students’ reports. You could also check memory for particular words or phrases, like “suburban
youth,” “shot in the abdomen,” “selling marijuana,” and “letters of the license plate.”

Activity 6.12 – “Psssst…Have You Heard About This Demonstration?”

Doug Bernstein and Sandra Goss suggest an exercise to demonstrate how encoding and retrieval of
information from long-term memory can be disrupted by expectations, prior knowledge, and the
application of schemas. The exercise is a variation on the transmission of rumor, a game often played by
children and a phenomenon often studied by social psychologists (e.g., Allport & Postman, 1947).
Ask 3 to 5 volunteers to leave the classroom, then read a paragraph-length passage to a remaining
volunteer. The passage should be short enough to remember, but detailed enough that the volunteers are
unlikely to remember all the elements of it. Bernstein and Goss suggest the following passage as an
example, although you might want to construct a less nationally-sensitive scenario:
26 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
“A Boeing 747 had just taken off from Miami International Airport for Los Angeles when a
passenger near the rear of the aircraft announced that the plane was being taken over by the
People’s Revolutionary Army for the Liberation of the Oppressed. The hijacker held a .357
magnum to the head of Jack Swanson, a flight attendant, and forced him to open the cockpit
door. There, the hijacker confronted the pilot, Jane Randall, and ordered her to change
course for Cuba. The pilot radioed the Miami air traffic control center to report the situation
but then suddenly hurled the microphone at the hijacker. The hijacker fell backward through
the open cockpit door and onto the floor, where angry passengers took over from there. The
plane landed in Miami a few minutes later and the hijacker was arrested.”
The volunteer’s task is to repeat the story to the first newcomer who re-enters the classroom. That person
in turn repeats it to the next volunteer, and so on until the last volunteer hears the story and repeats it to
the class. Each retelling of the story should be loud enough so that all the remaining students in the class
can hear it.
Have students keep track of the errors made in each retelling and use them as a basis for discussing
reconstructive memory. The errors should be quite predictable; the story should get shorter as details are
omitted, some details (such as the female pilot or caliber of the gun) should remain sharp, and overall the
gist of the story should be retained while other details get blurred. Discuss with your students what this
exercise reveals about the operation of the memory system.
Allport, G. W., & Postman, L. (1947). The psychology of rumor. New York: Holt.
Bernstein, D. A., & Goss, S. S. (1999). Constructive memory/schemas: The rumor chain. In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M.
Ernst, and C. B. Broeker (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

27 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
HANDOUT MASTERS
6.1 – Depth of Processing Word List
28 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
Handout Master 6.1 Depth of Processing Word List
A B
bike belt
bird bureau
coal church
door clock
fish coin
grass foot
hammer fire
kitchen month
lemon paint
magic pipe
monkey pocket
pencil trail
pitch train
soap travel
story trunk
▼ Return to complete list of Handout Masters for Chapter 6

29 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
▼REVEL Multimedia Resources

More than 5,000 Revel instructors are connecting and sharing ideas. They’re energizing their classrooms
and brainstorming teaching challenges via Pearson’s growing network of faculty communities. The Revel
community is an open, online space where members come together to collaborate and learn from each
other. If you’re currently teaching with Revel or considering Revel for use in your class, we invite you to
join the Revel community.
If you are a Revel user, VIDEOS and ANIMATIONS are embedded in the interactive chapters, along with
JOURNAL PROMPTS and SHARED WRITING activities. All EXPERIMENT SIMULATIONS are in the
Appendix in your Revel course. Access your Revel course at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel.
Chapter 6 REVEL Multimedia Content available:

Video: When Memory Fails
Video: Memory and the Brain
Video: Neuroscience of Memory
Video: Leading Questions and Memory
Interactive: Memory Survey

Interactive: Rudolph and his Pals
Interactive: Three-Box Model of Memory
Interactive: Sensory Register
Interactive: Semantic Network
Interactive: Types of Long-Term Memories
Interactive: Memory and the Brain
Interactive: Brain Areas Involved in Memory
Interactive: Flashbulb Memories
Interactive: Pennies From Heaven
Interactive: Effects of Retrieval Practice
Interactive: Two Kinds of Forgetting Curves
Interactive: Retroactive Interference
Interactive: Proactive Interference
Interactive: Infant Memory Survey
Interactive: Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony
Additional Revel Videos: Neuroscience of Memory
Thinking Critically Journal Prompts 6.1 – 6.6
Shared Writing Prompt: Emotional events are also memorable events. So says the science; so say
animated movies. Why do you think this is? From an evolutionary standpoint, why would it be a good
thing that people are more likely to remember vividly the night of a terrorist attack (or otherwise
tragic, emotionally-charged events) than they are to remember an ordinary night with less emotional
impact?
30 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
▼MyPsychLab Multimedia Resources

MyPsychLab features a variety of content to enhance your course. To access these resources, go to
www.MyPsychLab.com, and select Videos, Simulations, or Writing Space.
Chapter 6 Videos
Video: The Basics: Do You Remember When? (7:39)

Learn how the brain is able to receive and retrieve information when we need it.
Video: The Big Picture: The Woman Who Cannot Forget (4:48)
Hear the story of Jill Price, a woman with a phenomenal ability to remember things.
Video: Special Topics: When Memory Fails (6:55)

Learn about the famous case of “H.M.,” the man whose memory only allowed him to live in 20-second-increments.
Video: Thinking Like a Psychologist: Police Line-Up (5:19)

Learn how stress can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
Video: What’s In It For Me? Making It Stick (5:30)

Perform well on tests by learning about study habits and whether “blocking” or “interleaving” is a better method for
remembering information long term.
Chapter 6 Simulations
Simulation: Digit Span
Use chunking to increase your working memory capacity and recall series of digits and letters.
Simulation: Serial Position Effect

Test the limits of your working memory with lists.
Survey: What Do You Remember?

Participate in a survey to discover how and what you remember and the strategies you use to aid long and short term
memory.
Writing Space
Writing Practice prompts within Writing Space offer immediate automated feedback. Each student
submission receives feedback based on the following characteristics: Development of Ideas,
Organization, Conventions, Voice, Focus and Coherence. Instructors can provide additional feedback and
can adjust the auto-generated grade.
31 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY
▼Practice Quizzes and Test Yourself Answer Keys
Quiz for Module 6.1

1. b; 2. c; 3. d; 4. a; 5. a.
Quiz for Module 6.2

1. d; 2. c; 3. d; 4. c; 5. a.
Quiz for Module 6.3

1. d; 2. a; 3. b; 4. b; 5. b.
Quiz for Module 6.4

1. d; 2. d; 3. b; 4. a; 5. b.
Quiz for Module 6.5

1. a; 2. b; 3. c; 4. b; 5. c.
Quiz for Module 6.6

1. a; 2. b; 3. b; 4. b; 5. c.
Chapter 6 Quiz
1. d; 2. b; 3. d; 4. c; 5. c; 6. a; 7. d; 8. b; 9. a; 10. c;
11. a; 12. a; 13. a; 14. d; 15. c.
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Invitation To Psychology 7Th Edition Wade Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

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Invitation to Psychology 7th Edition

Wade Solutions Manual

▼ FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

How We Remember Learning Objectives: 6.4a Interactive: Pennies From Heaven

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

II. THE THREE-BOX MODEL OF MEMORY

➢ Activity 6.3 - Sensory Memory

A. Sensory register: fleeting impressions

B. Working memory: memory’s notepad

C. Long-term memory: memory’s storage system

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

III. THE BIOLOGY OF MEMORY

➢ Activity 6.6 - Memories of 9/11

A. Changes in neurons and synapses

B. Where memories are made

C. Hormones, emotion, and memory

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

IV. HOW WE REMEMBER

➢ Activity 6.7 - Improving Memory

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

➢ Activity 6.10 - Decay and Interference in Short-Term Memory

E. The repression controversy

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

VI. RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST

➢ Activity 6.11 - Do We Make Accurate Copies of Events in Our Memories?

A. The manufacture of memory -- a reconstructive process

B. The conditions of confabulation (remembering something incorrectly)

C. The eyewitness on trial

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

LO 6.2.B - Explain the function and duration of working memory.

LO 6.3.A - Outline the process of long-term potentiation in the formation of memories.

LO 6.4.A - Describe and give examples of major memory retention strategies.

LO 6.6.A - Explain why memory is more reconstructive than people think.

LO 6.6.B - Describe conditions under which confabulation is especially likely to occur.

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.1 – The Inner Workings of Working Memory

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents

Lecture Launcher 6.2 – Working Memory

Support for the independent components of WM includes neuropsychological evidence using a

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.3 – Episodic  Semantic

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.4 – Reconsolidation

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.5 –

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.6 – The Role of Distinctiveness in Memory

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.7 – Mnemonics in Mind

• Rehearsal: Simple rote repetition

• Method of Loci: A physical setting is first memorized, then filled in

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.8 – Saving a Famous Brain

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.9 – How False Memories are Formed

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6

Lecture Launcher 6.10 – Culture and Memory

► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 6