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1. ______ argue that the criminal justice system anchors people in criminal careers.
*a. Labeling theorists
b. Strain theorists
c. Social control theorist
d. Classical theorists
Answer location: page 149
3. What scholar studied how affluent women “invented delinquency” through their successful
campaign to create a court exclusively for juveniles?
a. John Braithwaite
b. Kathleen Tierney
*c. Anthony Platt
d. Howard Becker
Answer location: page 151
5. According to labeling theory, the nature of ______ to crime and the reality it constructs, not
the nature of the act per se, determines whether a crime has occurred.
a. political perceptions
b. individual reactions
*c. societal reactions
d. criminal reactions
Answer location: page 150
6. According to labeling theorists, _____ created crime rather than halted crime.
a. social morality
b. religion
*c. state intervention
d. education
Answer location: page 153
Lilly, Criminological Theory 6e © 2015 SAGE Publications
7. ______ was perhaps the earliest scholar to state in general terms the principles that state
intervention is criminogenic because it dramatizes evil.
a. Lombroso
b. Bentham
c. Braithwaite
*d. Tannenbaum
Answer location: page 153-154
8. According to Edwin Lemert, ______ deviance occurs when the offender tries to rationalize the
behavior as a temporary aberration or sees it as part of a socially acceptable role.
*a. primary
b. secondary
c. tertiary
d. initial
Answer location: page 154
9. According to Edwin Lemert, _____ deviance occurs when social reaction intensifies
progressively with each act of primary deviance, and the offender becomes stigmatized.
a. primary
*b. secondary
c. tertiary
d. initial
Answer location: page 154
10. Which of the following scholars did not contribute to labeling theory’s ascendancy?
a. Howard Becker
*b. Travis Hirsch
c. Kai Erikson
d. John Kitsuse
Answer location: page 155
12. The abrogation of ties to conventional society is most probable when state intervention
involves what?
a. Community service
b. Community supervision
*c. Institutionalization
d. Probation
Answer location: page 156
Lilly, Criminological Theory 6e © 2015 SAGE Publications
13. For labeling theorists, _____ policies ultimately will prove self-defeating.
a. restorative
b. integrative
c. rehabilitative
*d. get-tough
Answer location: page 156
14. ______ scholars argued that the origins and application of criminal labels were influenced
fundamentally by inequities rooted in the very structure of capitalism
*a. Radical
b. Positivist
c. Strain
d. Life-course
Answer location: page 147
15. In a 1986 study, Robert Sampson found that even when he took into account the seriousness
of the offense, police were found to be more likely to make arrests in _____ neighborhoods than
in _____ neighborhoods.
a. more affluent; poor
b. African American; white
*c. poor; more affluent
d. heterogeneous; homogenous
Answer location: page 157
16. In a study conducted by Chiricos and his colleagues (2007), all of the following differential
labeling effects were detected for individuals with a felony status except for ______.
a. whites
b. women
c. individuals with no prior conviction before age 30
*d. individuals who were from a more affluent neighborhood
Answer location: page 161
18. _____ is defined as the removal of many forms of conduct from the scope of the criminal
law.
a. Diversion
b. Due Process
*c. Decriminalization
d. Deinstitutionalization
Answer location: page 164
Lilly, Criminological Theory 6e © 2015 SAGE Publications
19. What policy might entail taking youths from the province of the juvenile court and placing
them under the auspices of youth service bureaus, welfare agencies, or special schools?
a. Decriminalization
*b. Diversion
c. Due Process
d. Deinstitutionalization
Answer location: page 164-165
20. What policy has had the effect of increasing state intervention or “widening the net” of state
control?
a. Deinstitutionalization
b. Due process
c. Decriminalization
*d. Diversion
Answer location: page 164-165
21. What policy eliminated discretionary abuse and forced judges to sentence according to
written codes and not according to whim?
a. Diversion
*b. Due process
c. Decriminalization
d. Deinstitutionalization
Answer location: page 165-166
22. The policy of ______ refers to the lessening of prison populations and instead, placing
offenders in community programs
*a. deinstitutionalization
b. decriminalization
c. due process
d. diversion
Answer location: page 166
23. _____ shaming stigmatizes and excludes, thereby creating a class of outcasts.
a. Reintegrative
*b. Disintegrative
c. Criminal
d. Stigmatizing
Answer location: page 167
24. The underlying _____ determines the degree to which shaming will be reintegrative or
disintegrative
a. individual response
b. societal response
*c. social context
d. world view
Answer location: page 168
Lilly, Criminological Theory 6e © 2015 SAGE Publications
25. _____ is defined as the net increase in the prevalence, incidence, or seriousness of future
offending against a sanctioning community caused by a proud, shameless reaction to the
administration of a criminal sanction.
a. Reintegration
b. Coerced Mobility
c. Shaming
*d. Defiance
Answer location: page 169
26. ______ is defined as a practice that regularly takes large numbers of males out of inner-city
communities for prolonged absences
a. Defiance
*b. Coerced mobility
c. Reintegration
d. Shaming
Answer location: page 170
26. argues that police are more likely to arrest minorities because they are more
likely to be deployed in greater numbers to inner-city neighborhoods whose residents are
disproportionately people of color.
a. Patrol
b. Disproportionate
*c. Deployment
d. Dispatch
Answer location: page 158
27. Labeling theorists believe that pulling people into the system is better than allowing people to
roam the streets.
a. true
*b. false
Answer location: page 149
28. Nearly one in three African American males between 20 and 29 years of age are under some
form of control by the criminal justice system.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 149
29. A lawbreaker’s behavior is only one factor and maybe not even the most important factor in
determining whether a criminal label is conferred.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 152
30. Labeling theorists claim that state intervention created crime rather than halted crime.
*a. true
Lilly, Criminological Theory 6e © 2015 SAGE Publications
b. false
Answer location: page 153
31. The idea that criminal justice intervention can deepen criminality originated with the labeling
theorists of the 1960s.
a. true
*b. false
Answer location: page 153
32. According to labeling theorists, societal reaction is not very integral to the creation of crime
and deviance.
a. true
*b. false
Answer location: page 155
33. According to labeling theory, people who are stigmatized as criminal often are cut off from
previous prosocial relationships.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 156
34. Radical scholars assessed the premise that extralegal factors, such as an offender’s race,
class, and gender, are more important in regulating criminal justice labeling than are legal
factors, such as the seriousness of the offense or the offender’s past record.
a. true
*b. false
Answer location: page 157
35. Labeling theory in recent years is enjoying a resurgence of interest and growing empirical
support because recent literature claims that state intervention is a criminogenic risk factor,
rather than the major cause of crime.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 160
36. The policy of decriminalization has encouraged some significant legal changes over the last
several years. For example, abortion was legalized and possession of small amounts of marijuana
frequently was reduced to a minor violation during the 1960s.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 164
37. The policy of due process seeks to extend legal protections to offenders.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 165
Lilly, Criminological Theory 6e © 2015 SAGE Publications
38. Theorists who have made attempts to extend labeling theory have now recognized that under
certain circumstances, criminal justice sanctions might reduce recidivism—a possibility fully
discounted by earlier labeling theorists.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 167
39. Restorative justice suggests that the guiding principles of the criminal sanction should be to
decrease harm by reinstating the harm that was done to the victim and the offender to the
community.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 172
41. According to coerced mobility theory, offenders tend to return to their neighborhoods more
of a liability than when they left.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 171
42. Racial threat theory argues that the level of social control exercised by the majority group,
Whites, will increase as the number of minorities in an area, African Americans, grows.
*a. true
b. false
Answer location: page 158
Type: E
43. In general, what do labeling theorists argue?
*a. Rather than diminishing criminal involvement, state intervention— labeling and reacting to
offenders as “criminals” and “ex-felons”—can have the unanticipated and ironic consequence of
deepening the very behavior it was meant to halt.
Type: E
44. What oversight did labeling theorists seek to correct?
*a. Scholars failed to explore the social circumstances that determine which behaviors are made
criminal, why some people have the label of criminal applied to them, and what consequences
exist for those bearing a criminal label.
Type: E
45. Briefly explain the concept of the “self-fulfilling prophecy.”
Lilly, Criminological Theory 6e © 2015 SAGE Publications
*a. The self-fulfilling prophecy is, in the beginning, a false definition of the situation evoking a
new behavior which makes the originally false conception come true.”
Type: E
46. What are labeling theory’s two principal propositions?
*a. First, extra-legal factors, not behavior alone, shaped who was labeled; and second, labeling
increased criminal involvement.
Type: E
47. Explain the concept of a “legitimacy crisis” or a “confidence gap.”
*a. Citizens no longer trusted the motives or competence of government officials.
Type: E
48. Identify and briefly explain the two important attempts that have been made to develop a
theory of how the quality of sanctioning affects reoffending.
*a. Page 167-171
Type: E
49. What is defiance?
*a. The net increase in the prevalence, incidence, or seriousness of future offending against a
sanctioning community caused by a proud, shameless reaction to the administration of a criminal
sanction.
Type: E
50. What is coerced mobility?
*a. A practice that regularly takes large numbers of males out of inner-city communities for
prolonged absences.
Type: E
51. What principles are needed for an effective reentry program?
*a. Models or principles of how to develop an effective reentry program also are emerging,
generally emphasizing the need (1) to start reentry preparation while offenders are in prison, (2)
to focus on the challenges and crises that are faced immediately upon release (e.g., food, shelter,
job), and (3) to provide treatment services and support to facilitate long-term community
reintegration.
Type: E
52. What are the guiding principles of restorative justice?
*a. The guiding principle of the criminal sanction should be to decrease harm by restoring (1)
the victim to his or her prior unharmed status and (2) the offender to the community. Instead of a
traditional trial in which the state is an adversary prosecuting defendants, such advocates favor a
victim–offender conference in which the state functions more as a mediator.
Type: E
53. What is meant by the New Jim Crow?
Lilly, Criminological Theory 6e © 2015 SAGE Publications
*a. These are collateral consequences of conviction. During the Jim Crow era in the United
States (1876 until 1965), African Americans were excluded from voting in the South and from
full participation in American life through an array of poll taxes, legalized segregation, and
violent threats. Now, with so many Blacks pulled into the criminal justice system and having
criminal convictions, African Americans in particular experience legalized exclusion in voting,
government benefits, and employment requiring state licensure.
Type: E
54. According to labeling theorists, most offenders are defined falsely as criminal. Explain, in
detail what this means. Make sure to explain what this falseness is tied to and what it is not tied
to. What is the self-fulfilling prophecy and how is it fulfilled?
*a. answers vary
Answer location: page 150-156
Type: E
55. Labeling theorists argue that ties to conventional society are most likely to be severed when
state intervention involves institutionalization. Explain, in detail, what imprisonment entails for
an offender. How does it change an individual’s every day life once released or what limitations
are placed on an individual once they leave a facility?
*a. answers vary
Answer location: page 171-173
Type: E
56. Explain the criticisms of labeling theory’s two principal propositions. What are the two
propositions and what do critics have to say about them? Dos labeling theory have any
supporters? If so, who supports the theory and why?
*a. answers vary
Answer location: page 156-162
Type: E
57. List and explain the four policies, according to labeling theorists, which promised to reduce
the intrusion of the state into offender’s lives. Were the labeling theorists correct in their
assumption? Why or why not?
*a. answers vary
Answer location: page 163-166
Type: E
58. Explain Braithwaite’s theory of shaming and crime. How has Braithwaite’s theory enriched
labeling theory? Do you agree with this theory? Why or why not?
*a. answers vary
Answer location: page 167-168; 171-173
Type: E
59. Describe the three components of focal concerns theory.
*a. answers vary
Answer location: page 159
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païen s’est retiré. Il entend la clameur ; il voit les horribles traces de
sa cruauté ; il voit des membres humains épars de tous côtés. Mais
en voilà assez pour le moment ; que celui qui volontiers écoute cette
belle histoire revienne une autre fois.
CHANT XVII.