applied
sciences
Article
Experimental Investigation of the Fatigue Lifespan of Anchor
Bolts with Consideration of Loading History
Miroslav Pástor 1, * , Pavol Lengvarský 1 , Martin Hagara 1 , Alžbeta Sapietová 2






Citation: Pástor, M.; Lengvarský, P.;
Hagara, M.; Sapietová, A.; Šarga, P.
Experimental Investigation of the
Fatigue Lifespan of Anchor Bolts with
Consideration of Loading History.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399. https://
doi.org/10.3390/app112311399
Academic Editor: Michal Puškár
Received: 16 November 2021
Accepted: 28 November 2021
Published: 2 December 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311399
and Patrik Šarga 3
1 Department of Applied Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Technical University of Košice, Letná 9, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia; pavol.lengvarsky@tuke.sk (P.L.);
martin.hagara@tuke.sk (M.H.)
2 Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina,
Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia; alzbeta.sapietova@fstroj.uniza.sk
3 Department of Automation and Human Machine Interactions, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Technical University of Košice, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia; patrik.sarga@tuke.sk
* Correspondence: miroslav.pastor@tuke.sk
Abstract: Preloaded bolted connections are one of the most used approaches for anchoring steel
structures and equipment. Preload is induced by a mechanical tightening of the nut with the required
torque. In the case of anchor bolts embedded in a concrete base, the prescribed tightening procedure
has to be followed for safe and reliable operation. The present paper addresses the problem of
anchoring a new casting pedestal using the original anchor bolts. The aim was to verify the original
anchoring system’s reliable and safe operation, taking into account the current condition of the bolts.
The analysed anchoring bolts are subjected to cyclic (disappearing) stress during the rotation of the
casting pedestal. If the interplays between the anchor bolt and the concrete foundation were damaged,
production would shut down, resulting in high economic losses. For this reason, the authors used
a modified nut with a lightened first thread when investigating the actual state of the anchoring and
setting the required preload. The shape and dimensions of the nut were determined based on the
results of numerical modelling. The experimental measurements consisted of two phases. In the
first phase, the values of axial forces in the anchor bolts at the required preload were set using the
designed dynamometers. The second phase was focused on the operational measurements. The
methodology of measuring the axial forces and the interpretation of the results obtained, including
a comprehensive view of the anchoring safety, provides relevant evidence of the functionality and
effectiveness of the proposed solution. Based on the results of the operational measurement and
the prescribed handling of the casting pedestal, the lifespan of the anchoring was determined to be
3650 days under the loading cycles to date.
Keywords: fatigue; anchor bolt; casting pedestal; measurement
1. Introduction
The anchoring between a metallic component and a concrete foundation is an essential
point in the stability and durability of the structure. This joint has to transfer the self-weight
of the structure and tensile, compressive, and shearing loads created by the structure
in operation. Numerous standards [1–3] deal with the design and connection of bolts
(anchor bolts) with concrete. In recent years, anchor bolt failures have been studied
extensively in many ways, including experimental testing, numerical simulations, and
verifications. Delhomme et al. [4] studied the experimental behaviour of anchor bolts
under static tensile loading and also analysed the relaxation of these bolts. Li and Liu [5]
studied the shear behaviour of the fully grounded bolts through experimental testing,
during which the direct shear tests were carried out on three groups of specimens with
different bolting angles or grout strengths, measuring shear loads, shear displacements,
and strains in bolts. They observed that the bolts failed near the concrete foundation.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 2 of 15

Gong et al. [6] studied the failure analysis of anchor bolts used to fix a seawater booster
pump in a nuclear power plant. They concluded that the failure was due to screw corrosion.
The failure modes of anchor bolts under cyclic loading were investigated by Feng et al. [7].
They analysed the mechanical responses of bolts with different diameters and applied
different cyclic loads. The behaviour of the bolted joints is also affected by the preload
in the bolt. The preloaded anchor bolts were investigated and described in papers [8–10].
Liu et al. [11] proposed a stress reduction calculation method to calculate the actual stress of
the bolt from the measured value registered by the pulse pre-pumped Brillouin optical time
domain analysis (PPP-BOTDA) technology of different types of bolts embedded in concrete
with resin as an anchoring agent. To investigate the bolts’ inner force quantities and
displacement, Huang et al. [12] analysed the influence of the anchorage length using the
load transfer method. The obtained results confirmed that the increasing anchorage length
caused significant unevenness of the interfacial shear stress distribution, and a greater
bearing capacity of the anchoring bolt. Yang [13] investigated the mechanism of force
evolution in bolts and found that bolts with different anchorage lengths should be used
to support roadways with different deformation characteristics. His research concluded
that the bolts should be kept in the deformation phase of the anchoring force as much
as possible when the surrounding rock deforms. However, dynamic loading also affects
the lifespan of the bolt joint [14,15]. Trebuňa et al. [16] considered the possibilities of
reducing the vibration amplitudes of the converter base through design changes and
changes in the pre-stress of the screw connections. However, the high stress in anchoring
bolts, among other things, causes serious deformation and damage of equipment, as well as
steel constructions [17–19]. Miao [20] reviewed methodologies concerning bolt tightening
force measurements and monitoring for loose bolts.
Bocko et al. [21] accomplished a (finite element analysis) FEA-based numerical para-
metric analysis of grooves and corresponding stress states in bolted connections, with the
aim of providing a material for the better understanding of stress states inside various
joint assemblies, and consequently for the better design of bolted joints. Lin and Wu [22]
investigated the maximum axial force in bolts, employing conservative failure probability
assumptions made by the finite element software. Using numerical simulations performed
in Matlab, Zheng et al. [23] analysed the influence of different anchoring methods, changes
in surrounding rock properties, bolt properties, and pre-tightened forces on the pre-stress
distributions in the bolt body and surrounding rock.
In the presented case, the anchor bolts are embedded in concrete, part of the techno-
logical chain. For this reason, it is not possible to make laboratory measurements or to test
“other” bolts. This issue was solved with a modified nut with a groove to relieve the first
thread, which is the most stressed and is the primary cause of failure of the bolted joint.
The modification of the nut with the groove is primarily associated with an increase in the
dimensions of the nut, i.e., it increased its height and outer dimensions.

2. Introduction to the Anchoring of the Casting Pedestal

The continuous casting of slabs is currently the most widely used method, in which
the solidification of steel leads to the production of long steel products. Its fundamental
principle is that the liquid steel is first infused from a ladle into a tundish and then
distributed through many sprues in a vertical direction into water-cooled copper moulds.
The ladles, transported by an overhead bridge crane and a casting pedestal, are used to
bring the liquid steel from the converter to the tundish. The casting pedestal is used for
constraining the casting ladles and their rotation from the reserve (receiving, preparatory)
position to the casting (working) position, and vice versa (in the mode of individual melting
and in the mode of melting to melting). It also serves to drain the molten steel into the
emergency containers in case of a failure of the slide cap, and for lowering and lifting the
casting ladles during various technological operations. It is a two-position pedestal realised
as a lifting and rotating pedestal with a load cell. The supporting structure of the casting
pedestal is formed mainly by steel weldments. Their dimensions and shapes are designed
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 3 of 15

casting pedestal is formed mainly by steel weldments. Their dimensions and shapes are
designed in such a way that after the casting ladle filled with liquid steel is placed in the
in such aposition,
reserve way thatthe after the casting
casting pedestalladle filledits
ensures with liquidaround
transfer steel is the
placed
axisinofthe
thereserve
casting
position,
pedestal the casting
to the castingpedestal ensures
position. After its transfer
casting the around thethis
steel from axisladle
of theinto
casting pedestal
the tundish to
to the casting position. After casting the steel from this ladle into
about 25% of the liquid steel content, the second full pan can be placed on the the tundish to about
25% of the liquid
other/opposite steel content,
traverse side (in the
the second
reserve full pan can
position). be placed
If there is only onmolten
the other/opposite
slag left in the
traverse
casting ladle (approximately 7000 kg), the pedestal is rotated so that theinfull
side (in the reserve position). If there is only molten slag left theladle
casting ladle
is moved
(approximately
from the reserve7000 kg), the
position pedestal
to the castingisposition.
rotated so that the full ladle is moved from the
reserve position
Selected to the casting
technical position.of the assessed casting pedestal (Figure 1) are:
characteristics
Selected technical characteristics of the assessed casting pedestal (Figure 1) are:
• Maximum weight of the casting ladle with metal (steel) 260,000 kg;
•• Maximum
Weight of weight
empty of the casting ladle with metal (steel)
ladle 260,000
70,000kg kg;
• Weight of empty ladle 70,000 kg
• Ladle lift height 800 mm;
• Ladle lift height 800 mm
•• Pedestal
Pedestal angular velocity
angular velocity
1 rpm;
1 rpm
• Maximum angle
• Maximum angle of rotation of rotation 230°;
230 ◦
• Roller track mean
• Roller track mean diameter diameter 6400
6400 mm mm.

Figure1.
Figure 1. Basic
Basic parts
parts of
of the
the casting
casting pedestal:
pedestal: 1—hinging
1—hinging supporting
supporting baskets;
baskets; 2—traverse
2—traverse beams;
beams; 3—
3—
connecting rods; 4—bearing support pedestals; 5—roller bed; 6—supporting structure; 7—concrete
connecting rods; 4—bearing support pedestals; 5—roller bed; 6—supporting structure; 7—concrete
foundation; 8—casting ladles.
foundation; 8—casting ladles.

As part
As part ofof the
the overhaul
overhaul of of the
thecasting
castingpedestal,
pedestal, some
some supporting
supporting members
members were were
replaced,
replaced, but
but replacement
replacement of of the
theanchor
anchorbolts
boltsembedded
embeddedin inthe
theconcrete
concretefoundation
foundationwas was
not
not possible.
possible. When
When the the original
original structure
structure was
was disassembled,
disassembled, damage damage to to the
thefirst
firstthreads
threads
on
on the
the concrete
concrete foundation
foundation side side ofof some
some ofofthe
theanchor
anchorboltsboltswas wasfound.
found. As As already
already
mentioned, their replacement was not possible, or very difficult.
mentioned, their replacement was not possible, or very difficult. Therefore, it was Therefore, it was necessary
to design another
necessary to design solution
another to achieve
solutionsafe operation
to achieve safeatoperation
the required bolted
at the joint preload.
required By
bolted joint
numerical
preload. By modelling,
numerical a design modification
modelling, a designofmodification
the nut was of proposed
the nuttowas lighten the first
proposed to
threads. Subsequently,
lighten the first threads. experimental
Subsequently, measurements
experimental weremeasurements
carried out, takingwereinto account
carried out,
real operational
taking into accountconditions. Based onconditions.
real operational the results Based
obtained, conclusions
on the were drawn
results obtained, on the
conclusions
further operation of the casting pedestal. The value of the considered
were drawn on the further operation of the casting pedestal. The value of the considered preload of 180 kN in
the bolted joints was taken from the original static calculation.
preload of 180 kN in the bolted joints was taken from the original static calculation.
Figure
Figure22shows
showsthe thelayout
layoutof ofthree
threetypes
typesof ofanchor
anchorbolts
bolts(34
(34anchor
anchorbolts
boltsin intotal)
total)with
with
basic dimensions, which are used to fix the casting pedestal to the
basic dimensions, which are used to fix the casting pedestal to the concrete foundation. concrete foundation.
For
For this
this reason,
reason, ititwas
wasnecessary
necessaryto todesign
designthethemethodology
methodologyof ofre-anchoring
re-anchoringthe thecasting
casting
pedestal
pedestal so as not to damage the bolted connections (releasing the bolts in theconcrete
so as not to damage the bolted connections (releasing the bolts in the concrete
foundation),
foundation),the therepair
repairof which
of which would be not
would beonly
nottechnically and financially
only technically very difficult,
and financially very
but also time-consuming.
difficult, but also time-consuming.
In addition to the machining method, the lifespan of the anchor bolts under investiga-
tion is influenced, in particular, by the impact of notched effects, which is most significant
and unfavourable during the fatigue loading of machine parts and structures. In the
 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 4 of 15

case of the bolt and nut, according to Figure 3, the decisive design notches are in the
following places:
• Location 1—passage of the cylindrical part of the bolt to the head—this location is
absent from the anchor bolts;
• Location 2—thread runout;
•
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Location 3—thread; 4 of 16
• Location 4—bolt thread at the first nut’s support thread (the most common cause
of failure).

Figure 2. Layout of anchor bolts and their basic dimensions.

In addition to the machining method, the lifespan of the anchor bolts under
investigation is influenced, in particular, by the impact of notched effects, which is most
significant and unfavourable during the fatigue loading of machine parts and structures.
In the case of the bolt and nut, according to Figure 3, the decisive design notches are in
the following places:
• Location 1—passage of the cylindrical part of the bolt to the head—this location is
absent from the anchor bolts;
• Location 2—thread runout;
• Location 3—thread;
• Location 4—bolt thread at the first nut’s support thread (the most common cause of
Figure2.2.Layout
Layoutof
failure).
Figure ofanchor
anchorbolts
boltsand
andtheir
theirbasic
basicdimensions.
dimensions.

In addition to the machining method, the lifespan of the anchor bolts under
investigation is influenced, in particular, by the impact of notched effects, which is most
significant and unfavourable during the fatigue loading of machine parts and structures.
In the case of the bolt and nut, according to Figure 3, the decisive design notches are in
the following places:
•
FigureLocation 1—passage of the
bolt.cylindrical part of the bolt to the head—this location is
Figure 3.3.Notch
Notchlocations
locationson
onthe
thebolt.
absent from the anchor bolts;
• The Location
The fatigue
fatigue2—thread runout;
notch factor
factor is
is most
mostsignificant
significantininthethebolt
boltthread
thread at at
Location
Location 4. This fact
4. This
•
fact isLocation
related 3—thread;
is related to the stress distribution in the bolt thread, which changes significantly in the
to the stress distribution in the bolt thread, which changes significantly in
•
the Location
partpart of the
of the 4—bolt
thread
thread thread
bolted
bolted at
intointo the
thethefirst
nut.nut.nut’s
TheThe support
change
change thread
in stress
in stress (the most common
distribution
distribution cause
is caused
is caused by by of
the
the
uneven failure).
uneven force
force distribution
distribution in in
thethe boltononthe
bolt theindividual
individualthreads
threads (Figure
(Figure 4) due to to the
the
different
differentdeformations
deformations of the
of bolt
the andboltnut.
andThenut.
firstThe
thread of the
first nut and
thread of the
thecorresponding
nut and the
cross-section
corresponding of cross-section
the bolt are the of themost loaded.
bolt are theAsmosta result,
loaded.theAs first
a load-bearing thread
result, the first load-
exhibits the most significant notch effect, which is caused by the load
bearing thread exhibits the most significant notch effect, which is caused by the load from from the force flow
in
thethe shank
force flowandin the
the local
shankbending
and theoflocal
thisbending
most loaded thread.
of this most loaded thread.
The fatigue notch factor for the threaded part of the bolt depends on the mechanical
properties of the bolt, the technologies of its production, the shape of the thread profile,
its surface,
Figure andlocations
3. Notch the typeonand the height
bolt. of the nut. From the tests of bolted joints in which
the fracture occurs at Location 4 (Figure 3), it is possible to derive a four- to eight-fold
notchThe effect.
fatigue notch factor is most significant in the bolt thread at Location 4. This fact
is related to the stress distribution in the bolt thread, which changes significantly in the
part of the thread bolted into the nut. The change in stress distribution is caused by the
uneven force distribution in the bolt on the individual threads (Figure 4) due to the
different deformations of the bolt and nut. The first thread of the nut and the
corresponding cross-section of the bolt are the most loaded. As a result, the first load-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 5 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

Figure4.4. The
Figure The uneven
uneven force
forceFFdistribution
distributionin
inthe
thethreads.
threads.

In
Thethis paper,notch
fatigue a methodology forthreaded
factor for the achieving theofrequired
part the bolt bolted
depends joint
on preload is pro-
the mechanical
posed and experimentally verified, taking into account the damage to the threads
properties of the bolt, the technologies of its production, the shape of the thread profile, on
the bolt. The proposed design modification of the nut achieved the relieving of
its surface, and the type and height of the nut. From the tests of bolted joints in which the the first
(damaged) threads
fracture occurs on the bolt,
at Location thus ensuring
4 (Figure the safe and
3), it is possible reliable
to derive operation
a four- of the casting
to eight-fold notch
pedestal
effect. anchoring.
In this paper, a methodology for achieving the required bolted joint preload is
3. Materials and Methods
proposed and experimentally verified, taking into account the damage to the threads on
The aim
the bolt. The was to design
proposed designandmodification
experimentally verify
of the a methodology
nut achieved for applying
the relieving the
of the first
required preload in the anchor bolts of a casting pedestal that had been in operation for less
(damaged) threads on the bolt, thus ensuring the safe and reliable operation of the casting
than 30 years. The authors assumed real operational conditions where it was impossible
pedestal anchoring.
to perform the test tightening of nuts exceeding the allowable values of axial forces in
the bolts, as they
3. Materials and could
Methods not be released from the concrete foundation. In such a case, the
new casting pedestal, and thus the entire production, would be undesirably shut down.
WhenThe aim was
proposing thetomethodology,
design and experimentally verifyproven
the authors utilised a methodology
knowledge for applying
obtained fromthe
required
the failurepreload in joints,
of bolted the anchor
where bolts of a casting
in similar cases,pedestal that most
the damage had been
ofteninoccured
operationat thefor
less than 30 years. The authors assumed real operational conditions
place of the first load-bearing thread (see Figure 3). Nuts with notches were designed and where it was
impossible tofabricated
subsequently perform the testnumerical
using tighteningmodelling
of nuts exceeding
based on the allowable
the finite values
element of axial
method to
forces in the bolts, as they could not be released from the concrete foundation.
achieve the required preload. The notch was used to provide a relieving of the first threads In such a
case, the5b).
(Figure new A casting pedestal,
methodology forand thus the the
measuring entire production,
axial would
forces in the be undesirably
anchor bolts undershut the
down. When
operational loadproposing
was proposed the andmethodology,
experimentally the verified
authorsusing
utilised proven knowledge
dynamometers to verify
obtained
the from the
functionality failure
of the of bolted
bolted joints,
joint (set where
preload) and inassess
similar
thecases, the damage
safe operation most
of the often
casting
occured at the place of the first load-bearing thread (see Figure 3). Nuts with
pedestal. Before tightening the nuts, a strength calculation of the preloaded anchor bolts
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW notches 6 were
of 16
designed and subsequently fabricated using numerical modelling based
was performed to assess their safe operation, taking into account the loading history to on the finite
element
date method toA).
(see Appendix achieve the required preload. The notch was used to provide a
relieving of the first threads (Figure 5b). A methodology for measuring the axial forces in
the anchor bolts under the operational load was proposed and experimentally verified
using dynamometers to verify the functionality of the bolted joint (set preload) and assess
the safe operation of the casting pedestal. Before tightening the nuts, a strength calculation
of the preloaded anchor bolts was performed to assess their safe operation, taking into
account the loading history to date (see Appendix A).

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure5.5. Sections
Sectionsthrough
throughthe
theanalysed
analysedmatrices:
matrices:(a)
(a)normalised
normalisednut;
nut;(b)
(b)modified
modifiednut
nutwith
with the
the
designed
designednotch.
notch.

4. Proposal of Nuts Modification Using Finite Element Method (FEM)

To reduce the significant notch effect of the normalised thread as much as possible,
it was necessary to ensure the best possible quality of its surface at the root of the profile,
and to reduce the relative load on the first and second threads. This can be done through
 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 6 of 15

4. Proposal of Nuts Modification Using Finite Element Method (FEM)

To reduce the significant notch effect of the normalised thread as much as possible,
it was necessary to ensure the best possible quality of its surface at the root of the profile,
and to reduce the relative load on the first and second threads. This can be done through
structural modifications based on the idea of changing the deformation stiffness of the nut
around the first threads. By reducing the cross-sectional area of the nut (contact of the nut
with the washer), the conditions for the bending expansion of the nut were created. In
addition, when the normalised nut is tightened to higher torque, plastic deformations and
the compression of the first co-locking threads on the nut and bolt occur. Depending on the
magnitude of these undesirable phenomena, damage to the bolts occur, which in the case
of anchor bolts are extremely technically demanding to replace. Therefore, the authors’
attention was on achieving an optimum stress distribution of the co-collecting threads of
the nut and bolt. Figure 5a shows the model of the normalised nut M56, and Figure 5b
shows the nut with the notch formed. As the first threads were relieved, to create a notch
with the required dimensions, it was necessary to change the outer dimensions and the total
number of threads in the nut, as shown in Figure 5b. The proposal of the outer dimensions
was based on the dimensions of the torque wrench head (Enerpac HXD 120-CC1290).
Figure 6a,b show the bolted joint model with the finite element mesh formed and the
boundary conditions defined. By using symmetry, only 1/12 of the overall model was
modelled. The nut was simply supported and the bolt was loaded by the force equal to
15,000 N. The mesh of normalised nut M56 consisted of approximately 155,000 volume
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
finite elements with quadratic approximations, and approximately 230,000 nodes. 7 ofThe
16
mesh of the nut with the notch consisted of approximately 456,000 volume finite elements
with quadratic approximations, and approximately 668,000 nodes.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure6.6.1/12
1/12of of
thethe
overall model:
overall (a)(a)
model: normalised nut;
normalised (b)(b)
nut; designed nut.
designed nut.

TheFEM
The FEMwaswasa aqualitative
qualitativecomparison
comparisonofofstress
stresslevels
levelsforfordifferent
differentnut
nutshapes,
shapes,sosofor
for
this reason only
this reason only a static analysis with linear elastic material behaviour was performed.
analysis with linear elastic material behaviour was performed. The
material
The properties
material of the
properties boltbolt
of the andand
nut nut
were the same,
were i.e., i.e.,
the same, the yield strength
the yield was was
strength 355 MPa
355
and Young’s modulus was E = 2 · 10 5 MPa, respectively. Figure 7a,b show details of the
5
MPa and Young’s modulus was E = 2 ⋅ 10 MPa , respectively. Figure 7a,b show details of
equivalent stress fields around the first relieved threads. From comparing the values of the
the equivalent stress fields around the first relieved threads. From comparing the values
maximum equivalent stresses around the thread root, it is clear that the above modification
of the maximum equivalent stresses around the thread root, it is clear that the above
resulted in a reduction of equivalent stress by approximately 40%. When designing the
modification resulted in a reduction of equivalent stress by approximately 40%. When
dimensions and shape of the notch, the technological procedure of its production was
designing
taken intothe dimensions and shape of the notch, the technological procedure of its
account.
production was taken into account.
 MPa and Young’s modulus was E = 2 ⋅ 10 5 MPa , respectively. Figure 7a,b show details of
the equivalent stress fields around the first relieved threads. From comparing the values
of the maximum equivalent stresses around the thread root, it is clear that the above
modification resulted in a reduction of equivalent stress by approximately 40%. When
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 designing the dimensions and shape of the notch, the technological procedure of7 ofits15
production was taken into account.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure7.7.Fields
Fields of
of equivalent stress
stressaround
aroundthe
theroot
root
of of
thethe
firstfirst thread
thread on anchor
on the the anchor bolt when
bolt when using:
using: (a) normalised nut; (b) designed
(a) normalised nut; (b) designed nut. nut.

5. Experimental Analysis of the Interaction of Anchor Bolts and Concrete Foundation

For experimental measurements, special dynamometers were designed and manufac-
tured to register the magnitude of the axial force in the bolts during nut tightening. The
dynamometer is placed between the nut and the supporting structure. The value of the
tightening torque induced by the torque wrench is determined based on the appropriate
gearing supplied by its manufacturer. Since experimental measurement aimed to determine
the magnitude of axial force in the bolt, it was necessary to calibrate the dynamometers
and determine the dependence between the value of pressure in the device and the axial
force in the bolt prior to the measurement.

5.1. Measurement under Static Loading

This testing methodology consists of gradually increasing the pressure in the torque
wrench from 0 to 60 bar, then 110 bar, then 160 bar, and then finally 200 bar. At each
force corresponding to the pressure in the tightening device, a time delay of 5 min was
allowed, during which the reading on the strain gauge apparatus was not allowed to
increase, confirming the perfect interaction between the anchor bolt and the concrete
foundation. The axial forces corresponding to the respective pressures are given in Table 1.
At a maximum pressure of 200 bar, with cleaned and lubricated threads, an axial force of
350 kN was achieved according to the calibration diagram for the given state of the threads
and their lubrication, and the friction of the nut against the washer. In the testing of the
interaction of the anchor bolts with the concrete foundation, newly designed nuts were
used by the authors so as to prevent failure of the anchor bolts or plastic deformations at
the location of the first load-bearing thread.

Table 1. Axial forces at defined pressures.

Tightening Device Pressure [bar] Axial Force in Bolt [kN]

60 93
110 178
160 266
200 345
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 8 of 15

The testing of the interactions of the anchor bolts and foundations was carried out by
means of dynamometers and newly designed nuts by adjusting the pressure parameter on
the hydraulic tightening device, which corresponds to the respective preload. It should
be noted that, although there are some variations in the set preloads determined from the
calibration diagrams, these differences did not reach 5%.

5.2. Measurement at Operational Loading

After a detailed analysis of the condition of the anchor bolts, as well as of the measures
taken to relieve the first and the other three bolt threads at the nut location, and also taking
into account the previous history of the loading of the anchor bolts, the authors determined
the preload forces in the individual anchor bolts as follows:
• Anchor Bolts No. 1 to No. 24 should be preloaded to an axial force corresponding to
200 kN, which corresponds to a given state of bolts, nuts, and washers when defining
a pressure value of 120 bar;
• Anchor Bolts No. 25 to No. 34 should have a preload with regard to the passage of the
thread into the shank as well as the flexibility of the supporting structure, and a lower
range of operational axial forces of 180 kN, i.e., approximately 110 bar.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEWDynamometers 1 to 4 were used to measure the time changes of the axial forces in9 the
of 16
anchor bolts on the casting pedestal. When selecting the anchor bolts under consideration,
effort was made to remove the most, or nearly the most loaded bolts. Based on the above
requirements, anchor Bolts No. 8, No. 11, No. 19 and No. 24 were selected, which are
which are located on the outer contour of the supporting structure, therefore the preload
located on the outer contour of the supporting structure, therefore the preload value was
value was selected at 200 kN. The forces in the bolts was identified by dynamometers
selected at 200 kN. The forces in the bolts was identified by dynamometers according
according to Table 2.
to Table 2.
Table2.2.Assignment
Table Assignmentofofdynamometers
dynamometerstotoanchor
anchorbolts.
bolts.

AnchorBolt
Anchor Bolt Dynamometer
Dynamometer
19
19 1
1
24
24 22
88 33
11
11 44

Figure 8 shows the time record of the axial force registered by Dynamometer 3 when
Figure 8 shows the time record of the axial force registered by Dynamometer 3 when
tightening the nut to the required preload on Bolt No. 8, with a value of 200 kN.
tightening the nut to the required preload on Bolt No. 8, with a value of 200 kN.

Figure8.8.Tightening
Figure nut No.
Tightening nut 8No.
according to the required
8 according to thepreload of 200
required kN registered
preload of 200bykN
Dynamometer
registered 3.
by
Dynamometer 3.
After putting the casting pedestal into testing operation and balancing the strain gauge
apparatus
Afterconnected to the
putting the completed
casting pedestalmeasuring chain,
into testing the strainand
operation gauge measurement
balancing of
the strain
gauge apparatus connected to the completed measuring chain, the strain gauge
measurement of changes in the axial forces in the anchor bolts began. Unfortunately, the
first measurements showed that the cabling on Dynamometer 4 was damaged by the
operating personnel. Due to the time duration of the planned outage of the casting
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 9 of 15

changes in the axial forces in the anchor bolts began. Unfortunately, the first measurements
showed that the cabling on Dynamometer 4 was damaged by the operating personnel.
Due to the time duration of the planned outage of the casting pedestal, it was not possible
to perform its repair. Therefore, the operational measurement was continued by using only
three dynamometers.
The first measurements, which were performed only when rotating the casting
pedestal without the ladle in the first and second basket, showed that the changes in
the axial forces in the bolts did not exceed 6 kN in these measurements. Although these
are forces that cause stress in bolts below 3 MPa, i.e., absolutely negligible components in
terms of the resulting stress, they testify not only to the condition of the roller track but
also to the stiffness of the supporting structure of the casting pedestal. Figure 9 shows
the time courses of changes in the axial forces in Bolts No. 8, No. 19, and No. 24 when
rotating the casting pedestal without a ladle in Basket 1 and Basket 2, while the beginning
of rotation at approximately 2000 s is from the position of Basket 1 from the reserve to the
casting position. After a short interruption of the rotation, the rotation continues and the
traverse is lifted. It can be seen from the course that the axial force increments do not return
completely to zero after the return of Basket 1 to the reserve position (time 5000 s), 10
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW which
of 16
may be caused partly by inaccuracies in the return of the traverse to the same position, and
also by the changed geometry due to the position of the rollers on the roller track.

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Recording
Recordingofof
time changes
time of axial
changes forces
of axial when
forces rotating
when the casting
rotating pedestal
the casting with empty
pedestal with
baskets.
empty baskets.

The
The following
followingsection
sectionshows
showsthe theselected
selected time
time changes
changes of the axial
of the forces
axial in Bolts
forces No.
in Bolts
8,
No.No.8, 19,
No.and 19,No.
and24.No. The24.operator used ladles
The operator used weighing 70,300 kg
ladles weighing (empty)
70,300 and 241,600
kg (empty) and
kg (full/tare).
241,600 Figure 10Figure
kg (full/tare). shows 10 theshows
time changes
the timeofchanges
the axialofforces when
the axial loading
forces when theloading
empty
the empty
ladle ladle 1into
into Basket Basket
in the 1 inposition
reserve the reserve position
at about at about
50 s after 50 s of
the start after
thethe start of the
measurement.
measurement.
It can be seen that It can be seen that
a positive a positive
increase increase
in axial forcesinoccurred
axial forces occurred
in Bolts No. 19 in Bolts No.24,
and No. 19
and No. 24, which is caused by the fact that, after loading the empty
which is caused by the fact that, after loading the empty ladle, the preload in Bolts No. 19 ladle, the preload in
BoltsNo.
and No.2419isand No. 24and
reduced, is reduced, and thisby
this is reflected is reflected
an increase by an increase
in the in the deformation
deformation part of the
part of the dynamometer,
dynamometer, resulting in resulting
a positiveinreading
a positive
on thereading
strainon the strain
gauge gaugeSimply
apparatus. apparatus.
put,
Simply
if put, ifin
the preload the
thepreload in the
bolts were bolts
not set, were not not
it would set, be it would
possible nottobe possible
register to register
a decrease in
a decrease
the in the
axial force. Ataxial
a time force. At a 100
of about times,oftheabout 100 of
rotation s, the rotation of the casting
casting pedestal with an pedestal
empty
with an
ladle empty 1ladle
in Basket in Basket
started from the1 started
reserve from the reserve
position to the position to the casting
casting position, whichposition,
caused
which caused changes in the polarity of the force increments
changes in the polarity of the force increments in the bolts when Basket 1 was moved in the bolts when Basketto1
wascasting
the moved position.
to the casting
It is position.
evident fromIt is evident fromthat
the courses the courses that in thisthe
in this operation operation the
axial force
axial force
range rangeBolt
in Anchor in Anchor
No. 8 isBolt No.in
25 kN, 8 Anchor
is 25 kN,Bolt in Anchor
No. 19 itBolt
is 13No.kN,19andit isin13Anchor
kN, and in
Bolt
Anchor
No. 24 itBolt
is 19No.
kN.24 Atittheis 19
endkN. At the
of the timeend of the
period time period
(Figure (Figure
10), Basket 10),an
1 with Basket
empty1 ladle
with
an empty
was in theladle
casting was in the casting position.
position.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399
ladle in Basket 1 started from the reserve position to the casting position, which caused
changes in the polarity of the force increments in the bolts when Basket 1 was moved to
the casting position. It is evident from the courses that in this operation the axial force
range in Anchor Bolt No. 8 is 25 kN, in Anchor Bolt No. 19 it is 13 kN, and in Anchor Bolt
No. 24 it is 19 kN. At the end of the time period (Figure 10), Basket 1 with an empty
10 ladle
of 15
was in the casting position.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Figure10.
Figure 10.The
Thetime
timecourses
coursesof
ofaxial
axialforces
forcesininBolts
BoltsNo.
No.8,8,No.
No.19,
19,and
andNo.
No.24
24when
whenloading
loadingthe
theempty
empty
ladleinto
ladle intoBasket
Basket11and
androtating
rotatingthe
thepedestal
pedestaltotothe
thecasting
castingposition.
position.
Figure 11 shows the process of rotating the casting pedestal with an empty ladle in
Figure 11 shows the process of rotating the casting pedestal with an empty ladle in
Basket 1 to the reserve position, when the empty ladle was removed and the pedestal with
Basket 1 to the reserve position, when the empty ladle was removed and the pedestal with
a full ladle was rotated to the reserve position again.
a full ladle was rotated to the reserve position again.

Figure11.
Figure 11. The
The time
time courses
courses of ofthe
theaxial
axialforces
forceswhen
whenremoving
removingthe
theempty
emptyladle
ladleand
androtating
rotatingthe
the
pedestalwith
pedestal withthe
thefull
fullladle
ladletotothe
thereserve
reserveposition.
position.

Inorder
In orderto
toassess
assessthe
thesafe
safeoperation
operationof
ofthe
thecasting
castingpedestal,
pedestal,the
thefollowing
followingoperational
operational
modeswere
modes wereexamined:
examined:
•• Rotation
Rotationof ofthe
thepedestal
pedestalwithout
withoutaaladle
ladleininBaskets
Baskets11and
and2;2;
•• Loading
Loading thethe empty
empty ladle
ladle with
with subsequent
subsequent rotation,
rotation, and
and lifting
lifting ofof the
theladle
ladlein
inthe
the
casting
castingposition
positionin inBasket
Basket11and andsubsequently
subsequentlyininBasket
Basket2;2;
•• Loading
Loadingaafullfullladle
ladleweighing
weighing241,600
241,600kgkginto
intoBasket 1 and
Basket subsequently
1 and subsequently into Basket
into 2,
Basket
rotating the pedestal, and lifting and launching the basket with
2, rotating the pedestal, and lifting and launching the basket with the ladle; the ladle;
•• Loading
Loadingthetheempty
emptyand andfull
fullladle
ladleand
andhandling
handlingthe thepedestal,
pedestal,including
includingthe thereplaced
replaced
ladles
ladlesin
inbaskets.
baskets.
After
After analysing
analysing the the time
time records
records ofofchanges
changesininthe theaxial
axial forces
forces in in
thethe bolts
bolts in
in the
the above-mentioned
above-mentioned operational
operational modes modes of pedestal,
of the the pedestal, it was
it was found found
that that the max-
the maximum
imum
range range of changes
of changes in thein axial
the axial Δ N∆N
forces
forces i in the measured bolts is the following:
i in the measured bolts is the following:
∆N8 = 61 kN, ∆N19 = 60 kN, ∆N24 = 61 kN.
ΔN8 = 61 kN, ΔN19 = 60 kN, ΔN 24 = 61 kN.
6. Discussion
6. Discussion
As mentioned above, the operational measurements of the time changes of the axial
forcesAs mentioned
were above,
carried out withthe
an operational
empty ladlemeasurements
weight of 70,300of kg
theand
time changes
a full ladleof the axial
weight of
forces were carried out with an empty ladle weight of 70,300 kg and a full ladle weight of
241,600 kg. In the technical characteristics of the casting pedestal defined by the operator,
the values of an empty ladle at 70,000 kg and a full ladle at 260,000 kg were defined, which
represents a difference of 0.43% in the case of an empty ladle, but in the case of a full ladle
its maximum possible weight is 7.1% higher, thus the stress and strain fields in the elastic
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 11 of 15

241,600 kg. In the technical characteristics of the casting pedestal defined by the operator,
the values of an empty ladle at 70,000 kg and a full ladle at 260,000 kg were defined, which
represents a difference of 0.43% in the case of an empty ladle, but in the case of a full ladle
its maximum possible weight is 7.1% higher, thus the stress and strain fields in the elastic
behaviour of the structure will be higher according to the stated difference, including axial
forces. Therefore, in the subsequent analysis, it was necessary to consider their increase by
7.1% at the measured maximum values of an axial force range of 61 kN, i.e., with increased
range ∆Nmax = 65 kN.
Another particularly serious fact is that for the material of the bolt at S355JR, the
fatigue limits in an alternately symmetrical and disappearing cycle are defined by the value
of σc = 178.5 MPa and σHc = 305 MPa, and when determining the limiting upper stress
according to the simplified Haigh diagram already at the actual preload set (200 kN) and
the maximum increase in axial force increased by 7%, the maximum value of the upper
stress σhB in bolt will be:

(200 + 65) · 103

σhB = = 129.2 MPa (1)
2050.3
thus, the mean stress is:
σmB = 64.6 MPa. (2)
In accordance with the fatigue curve for the material values of the bolt (see Appendix A),
the number of cycles will be up to failure N ∗ = 124, 700, thus, in the implementation of
35 melts per day, the lifespan of the bolts of the casting pedestal will be approximately
3560 days.
From the analysis of the critical points on the anchor bolts, it can be seen that the
replacement of the original nuts with new nuts played a very important role, as the first
thread of the bolt in the nut is more than twice as sensitive to the occurrence of a failure as
the thread termination point. The anchor bolt’s failure limit is determined by a location
which, despite the frequent occurrence of the failure, is a much safer cross-section.
The experimental determination of axial force ranges has shown that the calculation of
the forces in the anchor bolts ensures a high value of anchor safety. On the other hand, the
force measurement methodology and the interpretation of the results achieved, including
a comprehensive view of anchoring safety, provides relevant evidence of the functionality
and effectiveness of the proposed solution.
In order to ensure safe operation of the anchoring during the lifespan of new parts for
the casting pedestal, and taking into account the accumulation of damage to the anchoring
bolts to date, it is necessary to apply the current recommendation of the authors that, when
placing a full ladle in the casting pedestal and when rotating it, there should always be
an empty ladle or a ladle with molten slag in the other basket. Otherwise, if a full ladle is
always loaded into the casting pedestal and there is not at least an empty ladle on the other
side, the lifespan of the anchoring will be reduced to about one third.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.P., A.S. and P.L.; methodology, M.P. and P.L.; validation,
M.P., P.L. and P.Š.; formal analysis, M.P., P.Š. and A.S.; investigation, M.P., P.L. and M.H.; resources,
P.L., M.H. and P.Š.; draft preparation, M.P. and P.L.; writing—review and editing, M.H. and M.P.;
visualization, M.H. and A.S.; project administration, M.P.; funding acquisition, M.P. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This paper was supported by the Ministry of Education of Slovakia Foundation under
grant projects VEGA No. 1/0141/20, VEGA No. 1/0500/20, and VEGA No. 1/0330/19.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 12 of 15

Appendix A
For the verification of the data about the mechanical properties of the anchoring bolts,
indicative measurements using Brinell hardness tests were carried out. The measured
values of the diameters of the impressions on the anchor bolt corresponded to a strength
Rm of approximately 510 MPa; according to the above, the material of the anchor bolts is
close to steel at S355JR. The yield strength is 355 MPa, ductility (reduction in area) 22%,
and Young’s modulus is E = 2 · 105 MPa.
The allowable tensile stress for anchor bolt σDB materials is

Re 355
σDB = = = 273 MPa (A1)
ke 1.3

where Re is yield strength and k e is the safety factor against yielding by tensile loading.
In the case of steel bolts according to [24] we chose safety factor against yielding in the
interval from k e = 1.3 ÷ 1.5 (the authors chose 1.3).
The bolt is loaded by normal tensile stress from the maximum force in the bolt and by
the shear stress from the frictional torque on the thread (torsion). For the most unfavourable
case of loading during operation, where there is a full ladle on one side and no ladle on the
other side, the maximum value of the force in the most loaded Bolts No. 9 and No. 10 (see
Figure 2) is equal to:
Fmax = 346 kN. (A2)
The value of the maximum normal tensile stress induced by the maximum force Fmax
in the bolt:
Fmax 346 · 106
σt,max = = = 168.8 MPa (A3)
Amin 2050.3
where Amin is the cross-section of the bolt core.
The maximum shear stress from the frictional torque in the thread of the anchor bolt
is equal to:
Mf
τmax = = 68.7 MPa (A4)
ZP
where M f is the torque required to overcome the friction on the thread from a preload force
of 180 kN, ZP is the polar modulus.
The principal stresses in the anchor bolt are:
s
 2
168.8 168.8
σ1,3 = ± + 68.72 , (A5)
2 2

where σ1 = 193.2 MPa and σ3 = −24.4 MPa.

The equivalent stress for the anchor bolt according to von Mises’ strength theory is
equal to:
von Mises
σeqv = 206.5 MPa (A6)
von Mises ≤ σ for the anchor bolt is met. On the other hand,
The strength condition σeqv D
it should be seen that the value of the equivalent stress is relatively high and the value of
the allowable stress at the chosen safety level 1.3 differs by 32%. With a chosen safety level
of 1.5, the maximum load would be only 14% lower than the allowable stress; therefore,
in such extremely loaded structures, it is necessary to reduce the stresses in the anchor
bolt, which can be achieved by reducing the shear stress from the frictional torque in the
thread through lubrication. With a lubricated thread on the anchor bolt, the maximum
shear stress from the frictional torque in the thread will be lower and the reserve will be
significantly higher.
The above calculation was performed under static loading. However, cycling (disap-
pearing) loading of the anchor bolts occurs when the casting pedestal is rotated. The most
loaded anchor bolt transmits a pulsating tensile axial force with a mean value FmB of:
 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 13 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16

− FFminB 346
FFmaxB + 346− +
0 0 = 173 kN
FaB== max B 2 min B ==
FmB
2 = 173 kN, (A7)
(A8)
2 2
with amplitude F :
where Fmax B and aB
Fmin B are the maximum and minimum value of the axial force in the
bolt during operation. F − FminB 346 − 0
FaB = maxB = = 173 kN, (A8)
The corresponding mean value 2of the normal2 stress σ mB = 84.4 MPa, amplitude
σwhere
aB = 84.4 MPaand
FmaxB , and maximum
FminB stress σ maxand
are the maximum B =minimum
168.8 MPa.value of the axial force in the bolt
during operation.
The anchor bolt is simultaneously loaded by a static shear stress τ max B = 68.7 MPa.
The corresponding mean value of the normal stress σmB = 84.4 MPa, amplitude
σaBA=simplified Haigh
84.4 MPa, and diagramstress
maximum (Figure A1)=has
σmaxB been
168.8 constructed to determine safety
MPa.
under The
the cycling
anchor bolt is simultaneously loaded by a staticvalues
tensile loading of the anchor bolt. The shear given
stress in the diagram
τmaxB for
= 68.7 MPa.
the anchor bolts are based on the data of the mechanical properties of the bolt,
A simplified Haigh diagram (Figure A1) has been constructed to determine safety as well as
other parameters reducing the fatigue strength of the material. Considered values:
under the cycling tensile loading of the anchor bolt. The values given in the diagram for
• theYield
anchor
strength Re = 355
bolts are based on the data of the mechanical properties
MPa; of the bolt, as well as
• other parameters
Tensile strengthreducing the fatigue strength of the material.
R = 510 MPa; Considered values:
m
• • Yield strength
Fatigue limit e = 355
σ c =R178.5 MPa;
MPa;
• Tensile strength Rm = 510 MPa;
• • Fatigue limit for the disappearing cycle
Fatigue limit σ Hc σ=c 305 MPa;
= 178.5 MPa;
• • Fatigue limit
Surface quality for factor
the disappearing cycle η p =σ0.87
Hc =MPa;
305 MPa;
• Surface quality factor η p = 0.87 MPa;
• • Fatigue notchfactor
Fatigue notch factorofof Notch
Notch 4 was
4 was set to
set to β = 4.
β=4
Thus,
Thus,the fatigue
the limit
fatigue ofof
limit the anchor
the anchorbolt
boltatatthe
thelocation
locationofofthe
thefirst
firstnut’s
nut’sthread
threadis:is:
σ c ⋅η p 178.5 ⋅ 0.87
∗ c =σc · η p = 178.5 · 0.87= 38.8 MPa.
σcσ
*
= = = 38.8 MPa. (A9)
(A9)
ββ 44

Figure A1.
Figure Simplified
A1. Haigh
Simplified diagram
Haigh forfor
diagram anan
anchor bolt.
anchor bolt.

Thefictitious
The strengthσσFF needed
fictitiousstrength needed forforthe
thesimplified
simplifiedHaigh
Haighdiagram
diagramisisdetermined
determinedon
the basis of the relationship:
on the basis of the relationship:
σσc⋅·σσHc = 1186 MPa.
σσFF =
= 2σc −Hc = 1186 MPa. (A10)
(A10)
2σ c − σσHc
c Hc

FromFigure
From FigureA2
A2ititcan
canbe
beseen
seenthat
thatthe
the operating
operating point (σmkmk, σ,σakak) lies
point PP(σ ) lies
outside thethe
outside safe
operating area for an unlimited number of load cycles. The value of σh∗ = 75 MPa required
safe
foroperating
the fatiguearea forisan
curve unlimitedfrom
determined number of load cycles.
the simplified SmithThe value of
diagram σ h* = 75
of Figure MPa
A2.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2021,
2021, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 15 of
15 of 16
16

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 14 of 15

required for
required for the
the fatigue
fatigue curve
curve is
is determined
determined from
from the
the simplified
simplified Smith
Smith diagram
diagram of
of Figure
Figure
A2.
A2.

Figure A2.
Figure A2. Simplified Smith
Smith diagram for
for an anchor
anchor bolt.
Figure A2.Simplified
Simplified Smithdiagram
diagram foran
an anchorbolt.
bolt.

Since the
Sincethe
Since anchor
theanchor bolt
anchorbolt has
hasaaalimited
bolthas limited lifespan,
limitedlifespan,
lifespan,itititis
isisnecessary
necessary to
necessaryto determine
todetermine
determinethe the number
thenumber
number
of
ofcycles
cycles to
tofailure
failure from
from the
the fatigue
fatigue curve
curve for
for the
the maximum
maximum value
value
of cycles to failure from the fatigue curve for the maximum value of stress in the of
of stress
stress in
in the bolt
thebolt
bolt
under
underaaadisappearing
under disappearing
disappearingload. load. InInFigure
load.In Figure A3,
FigureA3, the
A3,the fatigue
the fatigue
fatigue curve of of
curve
curve of thethe
the anchor
anchor
anchor bolt
bolt under
bolt aa
under
under
a disappearing
disappearing
disappearing load
load
load is shown.
is shown.
is shown.

Figure A3.
FigureA3.
Figure The fatigue
Thefatigue
A3.The curve
fatiguecurve ofofthe
curveof the anchor
theanchor bolt
anchorbolt under
underaaadisappearing
boltunder disappearing load.
disappearingload.
load.

From
Fromthe
From the fatigue
thefatigue curve
fatiguecurve shown
curveshown
shownin in Figure
inFigure A3,
FigureA3, the
A3,the number
thenumber
numberof of cycles
ofcycles
cyclesto to failure
tofailure can
failurecan be
canbebe
determined.The
determined.
determined. Thenumber
The numberof
number ofofcycles
cyclesto
cycles totofailure
failurefor
failure forthe
for themaximum
the maximumstress
maximum stresslevels
stress levels(168.8
levels (168.8MPa)
(168.8 MPa)in
MPa) in
in
the anchor
the
the anchor boltboltisis
bolt isNN= 32,000
N == 32,000
32,000cycles. The The
cycles.
cycles. results
The of theof
results
results calculation
of show that
the calculation
the calculation show
showwhen operating
that
that when
when
a casting apedestal
operating
operating castingwith
a casting pedestalthe most
pedestal with unfavourable
with the most
the combination
most unfavourable
unfavourable of loads (Basket
combination
combination of loads
of loads 1 with a full
(Basket
(Basket 11
ladle,
with a Basket
full 2
ladle,empty)
Basket assuming
2 empty) 35 melts
assuming per35 day,
meltsthe lifespan
per day,
with a full ladle, Basket 2 empty) assuming 35 melts per day, the lifespan of the anchor of
the the anchor
lifespan of bolts
the would
anchor
be approximately
bolts
bolts would be
would 910 working
be approximately
approximately 910
910days.
working
workingFor this
days.
days.reason, thereason,
For this
For this authors
reason, the
the recommend operating
authors recommend
authors recommend
the casting
operating the
operating pedestal
the casting in the
casting pedestal mode
pedestal in of
in the one
the mode basket
mode of full,
of one and
one basket in the
basket full, other
full, and
and in basket
in the an
the other empty
basketladle
other basket an
an
(without
empty liquid
ladle steel).
(without In
liquidthis case,
steel). with
In the
this same
case, calculation
with the same procedure,
calculation
empty ladle (without liquid steel). In this case, with the same calculation procedure, the the lifespan
procedure, of the
the
most loaded
lifespan
lifespan of the
of theanchor
most bolts
most loaded
loaded is increased
anchor bolts
anchor to approximately
bolts is increased
is increased to 107,000
to cycles, which
approximately
approximately corresponds
107,000
107,000 cycles,
cycles,
to a lifespan
which of approximately
corresponds to a lifespan 3060of working days for3060
approximately the casting
working pedestal
days at 35
for the melts per
casting
which corresponds to a lifespan of approximately 3060 working days for the casting
day. Since no other loading on the casting pedestal can occur, the safety of the anchor bolt
can only be ensured up to a specified number of cycles.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11399 15 of 15

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