Discovering the Scientist Within

Research Methods in Psychology 1st

Edition Lewandowski Test Bank
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1. Developing a research question to determine what a person feels, thinks, or does would
be best suited for:
A) descriptive research.
B) experimental research.
C) correlational research.
D) quasi-experimental research.

2. Developing a research question to explore why a person feels, thinks, or behaves in a

particular way is best addressed by:
A) descriptive research.
B) experimental research.
C) correlational research.
D) observational research.

3. Gershoff and colleagues (2010) found that:

A) the implementation of corporal punishment was significantly related to less
anxiety.
B) the implementation of time-out was significantly related to less anxiety.
C) the expression of disappointment was not significantly related to child aggression.
D) the implementation of corporal punishment was significantly related to greater
anxiety.

4. In the study examining parental discipline practices associations with child behaviors in
an international sample, the results indicated that:
A) the implementation of corporal punishment was significantly related to less
anxiety.
B) the implementation of time-out was significant related to less anxiety.
C) the implementation of time-out was significantly related to greater anxiety.
D) the implementation of corporal punishment was significant related to less anxiety.

5. The deliberate infliction of pain by physical force for the purpose of discipline best
describes:
A) disappointment.
B) corporal punishment.
C) time-out.
D) shaming.

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 6. Corporal punishment results in:
A) immediate compliance.
B) less aggression.
C) higher levels of moral internalization.
D) improved parent-child relationships.

7. Corporal punishment results in:

A) delayed compliance.
B) less aggression.
C) lower levels of moral internalization.
D) improved parent-child relationships.

8. When a parent communicates the rationale for a rule and the subsequent consequences
of the child's actions, the parent is most likely using what form of discipline?
A) nonaggressive power assertion
B) induction
C) aggressive power assertion
D) aggression power compliance

9. Sarah's mother does not communicate the reasons behind her actions, but rather uses
corporal punishment or another immediate punishment to discipline Sarah. Sarah's
mother most likely falls into what category of discipline?
A) nonaggressive power assertion
B) induction
C) aggressive power assertion
D) aggression power compliance

10. Choose which description would be best termed authoritative parenting.

A) Samantha's parents are warm and affectionate, but have high expectations for
Samantha.
B) Tony's parents are warm and affectionate, but have very few, if any, expectations
for Tony.
C) Sylvia's parents are neither warm nor affectionate and have very few, if any,
expectations for Sylvia.
D) Taylor's parents are not warm and affectionate, but have very high expectations for
Taylor.

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11. When devising your research question, it is important to have clear:
A) differentiation of authorship.
B) conceptual definitions of terms.
C) designation of duties of lab assistants.
D) grant funding.

12. Which describes the common and accepted practice of conceptually defining terms for
research?
A) making up new definitions not based on the literature
B) not checking literature for existing definitions
C) using previously existing definitions from the literature
D) developing a vague and broad definition of terms

13. One of the biggest advantages of self-report measures is:

A) real-time interval sampling.
B) accurate predictions of future behaviors.
C) introspection.
D) limited impact of social desirability.

14. Which of the following scenarios would be best suited for descriptive research?
A) providing positive feedback to one group of students and negative feedback to
another group of students to observe their subsequent behaviors
B) conducting home visit observations and in-depth parent interviews to determine
why certain behavior problems exist for students
C) dividing students in classrooms based on their IQ and then implementing a certain
teaching style
D) interviewing teachers regarding problem behaviors in their classrooms

15. Social desirability is:

A) the tendency for individuals to overreport socially acceptable qualities and
underreport undesirable qualities to look better.
B) the tendency for individuals to underreport socially acceptable qualities and
overreport undesirable qualities to look better.
C) the tendency to overreport undesirable qualities in an effort to look worse.
D) the tendency to restrict behavior.

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16. Research practices that utilize behavioral choice may inflate a(n):
A) ecological validity.
B) artificial environment.
C) behavioral traces.
D) introspection.

17. Research practices that utilize behavioral choice may introduce:

A) multiple options.
B) behavioral traces.
C) introspection.
D) restriction of options.

18. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of observational research?

A) increase in Cohen's d
B) identify key factors related to phenomenon
C) identify connections between variables of interest
D) assist in formulation of theories

19. Loretta and her friend Simon sat on a bench in the food court at the mall all day on
Saturday to observe communication and eating patterns of different ages, sexes, and
ethnicities. Loretta and her friend Simon needed this information to complete a paper for
their sociology class and had decided on what behaviors they were going to focus on
prior to their observation on Saturday. This is an example of:
A) laboratory observation.
B) systematic observation.
C) analogue study.
D) participant observation.

20. Euna is a 22-year-old college student. Given the principle of social desirability she is
likely to _____ the number of alcoholic beverages she consumed at a party this past
weekend.
A) underreport
B) overreport
C) to not report
D) to challenge

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21. Luella has a 2-year-old son and a 4-year-old daughter. When in the presence of her
parents she is likely to _____ the number of problematic behaviors of her children
according to the principle of social desirability.
A) underreport
B) overreport
C) not report
D) challenge

22. Deliberately making children misbehave to observe parental reactions would be a(n)
_____ research behavior.
A) ethical
B) unethical
C) moral
D) fitting

23. Tiana wants to see if individuals react differently to negative feedback from men than
from women. This would be an example of a(n):
A) analogue study.
B) laboratory observation.
C) systematic observation.
D) participant observation.

24. Gemma is studying young White women between the ages of 18 and 25 years. Choose a
limitation of her study based on this provided information.
A) internal validity
B) concurrent validity
C) content validity
D) external validity

25. Alden goes to his sociology professor for advice regarding a research question. Alden
wants to have complete control of his participants and their environment and he asks his
professor which observational method would be most appropriate. What is his
professor's answer?
A) systematic observation
B) laboratory observation
C) naturalistic observation
D) participant observation

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26. Dr. Keefer is skeptical of using laboratory observation designs as he knows they are
susceptible to both _____ and social desirability.
A) demand characteristics
B) natural behaviors
C) artificiality
D) personality characteristics

27. Which of the following would improves ecological validity?

A) artificiality of setting
B) computer-based programming
C) demand characteristics
D) real-time responses by participants

28. Researchers may experience several difficulties when engaging in participant

observation. Which of the following is NOT a problem associated with participant
observation?
A) systematic underestimation of events
B) systematic overestimation of events
C) impartiality
D) erroneous conclusions

29. You are socializing with your friends Rolanda and Zackary. Another couple who you
don't know, Alyse and Tyn, joins the gathering. You see Rolanda and Zackary discipline
their son with a tap on the hand for sticking his fingers in the potato salad and you see
Alyse and Tyn discipline their daughter by tapping her bottom for throwing the potato
salad. You react with harsher judgment to the punishment by Alyse and Tyn than to the
punishment by Rolanda and Zackary. One potential reason for this discrepancy could
be:
A) social desirability.
B) observer bias.
C) artificiality.
D) external validity.

30. Demarco is initiating a naturalistic observation of children and their parents. Which of
the following is NOT absolutely necessary to continue with naturalistic observation
study?
A) informed consent
B) coding system
C) research protocol
D) approval from the institutional review board

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31. In most nonconcealment observations it is best to use _____ disclosure.
A) full
B) partial
C) nonexistent
D) comprehensive

32. Donna enlisted to be a part of a psychological study at her university for extra credit.
She read the informed consent form and knew she was going to be observed in the
classroom during her next course exam. Donna became uncomfortable and starting
putting more thought into your typical exam behavior knowing that someone was
observing her. This is an example of:
A) perception.
B) bias.
C) ecological validity.
D) reactivity.

33. Evangelina was part of a summer reality television show and it is finally starting to air
on TV. She watched the first several episodes and noticed that she appeared very timid
initially, but then began to exhibit some embarrassing drinking and dating behaviors.
What happened?
A) Evangelina's reactivity decreased.
B) Evangelina's reactivity increased.
C) Evangelina's bias increased.
D) Evangelina became aware of active deception.

34. Concealment studies tend to drastically reduce issues with all of the following,
EXCEPT:
A) ecological validity.
B) reactivity.
C) deception.
D) social desirability.

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35. Dr. Reef wanted to study relationship break-ups in natural settings. She enlisted several
of her research assistants to recruit couples for the study. She fully disclosed the goals of
the study to one of the individuals in the couple and only told the other individual that
the study was focused on relationships. Dr. Reef devised “natural” scenarios where a
break-up would occur and gained permission from both parties to observe. Dr. Reef was
not fully honest with both participants for the sake of her research question, but the
deception may not have been justifiable. Which of the following is true?
A) Dr. Reef's research used active deception ethically.
B) Dr. Reef's research used active deception unethically.
C) Dr. Reef's research used nonconcealment efforts ethically.
D) Dr. Reef's research used concealment efforts ethically.

36. If concealment efforts are deemed justifiable and acceptable for the purposes of the
specific research question, which setting would be considered an ethical medium for
obtaining the data?
A) hiding under someone's bed in their dorm room
B) sitting on a bench in a community park
C) installing hidden cameras in a bathroom
D) audio recording conversations in retail store fitting rooms

37. Dr. Daneker has been reading through the last 10 years of literature on the topic of
veterans, mental health, and deployments to develop a representative and accurate list of
terms and to make sure she is appropriately and clearly describing her study variables in
her upcoming research study. Dr. Daneker was:
A) developing a coding system.
B) debunking previous literature.
C) developing research protocols.
D) developing operational definitions.

38. Which would likely be considered the most accepted operational definition for the term
“child”?
A) someone younger than 18 years still living at home
B) someone between the ages of 2 years and 17 years old
C) someone between the ages of 13 years and 17 years old
D) someone younger than 25 years still living at home

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39. In a 2008 study examining discipline practices among mothers and fathers suggests:
A) discipline practices of mothers do not influence how the father disciplines the
children.
B) discipline practices of single mothers do not influence discipline practices of single
fathers.
C) discipline practices of mothers influence how the father disciplines the children.
D) discipline practices of single fathers influence discipline practices of single
mothers.

40. In a 2010 study examining reasons for parental discipline it was found that the two main
reasons to change a child's behavior are:
A) parental embarrassment and safety.
B) safety and model social norms.
C) model social norms and teach perfection.
D) punishment and reinforcement.

41. According to the famous Asch (1951) study individuals feel:

A) pressure to display unique behaviors.
B) pressure to draw lines the same as the person next to them.
C) pressure to be just like their peers.
D) pressure to correct behavior to align more with expectations.

42. In a 2000 study investigating the relation between socioeconomic status and discipline,
the researchers found that:
A) higher-income parents tended to endorse harsher discipline practices overall.
B) lower-income parents tended to endorse harsher discipline practices overall.
C) lower-income parents tended to endorse more lenient discipline practices overall.
D) higher-income parents tended to endorse more monetary discipline practices.

43. In early research it has been found that the presence of others negatively influences:
A) performance on complex and simple tasks.
B) performance on an athletic activity.
C) performance on a task and the decision to help someone in need.
D) naturalistic observations.

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44. A set of rules that helps guide how a researcher classifies and records observations
refers to:
A) a coding system.
B) an action plan.
C) a research protocol.
D) descriptive statistics.

45. Mr. Gregory and Dr. Eszpara are researching eating habits in various different types of
restaurants. They have several different research questions they would like answered by
these observations. One research question focuses on how long between the first bite of
the entrée before alcohol is ordered by either party. This research question would best
be addressed by:
A) frequency count recording.
B) duration recording.
C) interval recording.
D) variable schedule recording.

46. Mrs. Sommer and Dr. Elston are researching eating habits in various different types of
restaurants. They have several different research questions they would like answered by
these observations. One research question focuses on how many different times couples
ate at different eating establishments to help determine any patterns in behavior. This
research question would best be addressed by:
A) frequency count recording.
B) duration recording.
C) interval recording.
D) variable schedule recording.

47. Dr. Lorns is examining snoring patterns in males and females. He is interested to see if
men snore more frequently than women and has developed a sleep lab to help answer
this research question. He will most likely use:
A) frequency count recording.
B) duration recording.
C) interval recording.
D) variable schedule recording.

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48. Dr. Timmons is investigating criminal behavior trajectories, specifically the length of
time between the first criminal act committed and the first criminal act that resulted with
incarceration in prison. Dr. Timmons is interviewing hundreds of prisoners for his data
collection. Dr. Timmons will be playing close attention to:
A) frequency count recording.
B) variable schedule recording.
C) interval recording.
D) duration recording.

49. Dr. Pryor is continuing previous research on suicidality by interviewing families as to

the occurrence of completed and attempted suicides in the last four generations. Dr.
Pryor will most likely use:
A) frequency count recording.
B) variable schedule recording.
C) interval recording.
D) duration recording.

50. There are multiple considerations Tessa must make when thinking about her sociology
homework. She has been given the task to observe diverse children interact. She has
decided to go to a neighborhood park near her parents' home. Her parents live in an
upper-middle-class, predominantly White neighborhood. Which of the following would
be an issue with her sample at the park?
A) low ecological validity
B) high external validity
C) lack of representativeness
D) observer bias

51. Dr. Yanira is an education specialist and has begun observing various schools
throughout the county. Dr. Yanira randomly selected a private school in the area with
the highest per-capita income to be her first school observation. She decided to base her
request for budget, school supplies, school lunches, among many other things on that
single observation. What is the main issue with her results from that single observation?
A) low ecological validity
B) low external validity
C) lack of representativeness
D) observer bias

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52. Dr. Izmen decided to conduct research multiple nights at the county fair. He decided to
observe patrons on both weeknights and weekends, as well as in the afternoon, early
evening, and late evening. He had research assistants throughout the fair, at different
booths, noting observations about parenting behaviors and romantic relationship
behaviors. He was able to collect data on a diverse sample in age, ethnicity, sex, and
socioeconomic status. Dr. Izmen's study has:
A) high external validity.
B) low external validity.
C) lack of representativeness.
D) observer bias.

53. A study in which an observer must make accurate decisions as to the relationship an
individual has with another person (e.g., friend, parent, sibling, romantic partner)
without being able to question the individuals being observed would rely heavily on:
A) subjective reasoning.
B) research protocol.
C) observer training.
D) blind observations.

54. As discussed in the text, most child discipline research focuses on:
A) fathers.
B) mothers.
C) grandparents.
D) stepparents.

55. Who is the worst candidate to be an observer in a study?

A) a trained unbiased observer who was not involved in the development of the study
B) a trained college student who has moderate understanding of coding systems
C) the researcher who is responsible for the inception and development of the study
D) a trained research assistant from another research lab

56. Observer training teaches all of the following, EXCEPT how to:
A) minimize potential biases.
B) identify and define appropriate situations.
C) properly record behaviors.
D) use personal judgment in coding.

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57. Dr. Peltier wants his research assistants to be as unbiased as possible when coding
observations of participants in an upcoming study on gender identity. One of the most
effective means of ensuring limited biases is to conduct:
A) intra-observer reliability.
B) blind observations.
C) external validity.
D) duration recording.

58. Blind observations mean that trained observers do not know:

A) how to code behaviors.
B) what behaviors to code.
C) what the study is about.
D) the individuals they are observing.

59. The goals of training observers include all of the following, EXCEPT how to:
A) conduct ambiguous observations.
B) conduct consistent observations.
C) conduct accurate observations.
D) conduct objective observations.

60. Herschel and Lynn were trained observers in Dr. Pettier's research lab. Herschel was
known for being consistent in his coding and observations of a rat named Perry, and
although Lynn was trained at the same time as Herschel, her observations of Perry were
not as dependable as Herschel's observations. Herschel had:
A) high intra-observer reliability.
B) high inter-observer reliability.
C) low inter-observer reliability.
D) low intra-observer reliability.

61. Herschel and Lynn were trained observers in Dr. Pettier's research lab. Herschel was
known for being consistent in his coding and observations of a rat named Perry, and
although Lynn was trained at the same time as Herschel, her observations of Perry were
not as dependable as Herschel's observations. Lynn had:
A) high intra-observer reliability.
B) high inter-observer reliability.
C) low inter-observer reliability.
D) low intra-observer reliability.

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62. An example of intra-observer reliability would be:
A) When compared with each other Dell and Trinity's observations of the local food
fair are consistent and accurate.
B) Kenneth provides consistent and accurate observations of the primates in his
assigned habitat at the zoo.
C) Margo and Tarah's observations of a daycare center classroom have a high degree
of consensus.
D) Fawn and Altha's observations of the local soccer match have a low degree of
consensus.

63. An example of inter-rater reliability would be:

A) Marlon has been stable and precise in his observations of mating behaviors among
fruit flies.
B) Donovan provides dependable and uniform observations of harvesting behaviors
on a local farm.
C) Babette provides repeatedly consistent and accurate observations of the lunar cycle.
D) Ronaldo's and Frank's observations of altruistic behaviors at a local homeless
shelter have a high degree of consensus.

64. Pilot studies are important in order to do all of the following, EXCEPT:
A) refine the study design.
B) provide clarity in the coding system.
C) refine methodology.
D) promote subjectivity.

65. When evaluating the observations of two research trainees using a new coding system
you notice that there is little consensus among their ratings. This lack of consensus may
illuminate issues with all of the following, EXCEPT:
A) potential biases.
B) reactivity.
C) problems with coding system.
D) effectiveness of training.

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66. Dr. Marcus developed a study examining verbal arguments in movie theaters. His
research protocol and coding systems specified that trained observers were only
supposed to observe theater goers for a specific period. The trained observers were
supposed to observe whether a verbal argument did or did not occur for 15 minutes and
then not observe for 10 minutes and then observe again for 15 minutes and so on until
the movie ended. This would be an example of:
A) continuous recording.
B) duration recording.
C) interval recording.
D) frequency-count recording.

67. Dr. Haltyn was conducting a case studying on an adolescent male in the school setting.
She attended all of his classes and sat in the back of the room and recorded all of the
adolescent male's behaviors in each class throughout the day. This would be an example
of:
A) continuous recording.
B) duration recording.
C) interval recording.
D) frequency-count recording.

68. Dr. Flores studies primate behavior during the day and at night. She spends a 24-hour
period observing and coding all of the primate's behaviors in the captivity habitat. This
would be an example of:
A) interval recording.
B) duration recording.
C) continuous recording.
D) frequency-count recording.

69. Dr. Lansing was interested in children's real-time reactions to loss. He had a party and
invited all of the participants and their parents. He gave each child a puppy at the
beginning of the party. At the end of the party he made an announcement that the
puppies needed to be returned to him before they left the party. Dr. Lansing had
research assistants throughout the grounds recording the real-time reactions of the
children upon news of the loss of their new puppy. The best description for this would
be a(n):
A) blind observation.
B) contrived observation.
C) continuous observation.
D) interval observation.

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70. Dr. Poppins wanted to study adolescents' reaction to disappointment. At the beginning
of a local concert, Dr. Poppins had the announcer broadcast that the musicians would be
available immediately following the concert for autographs and photographs. At the end
of the concert all of the youth crowded into the autograph area. The announcer then
stated that the musicians had to leave unexpectedly and would be unable to stay.
Trained observers were planted throughout the arena recording the attendees' reactions
to the news. The best description for this would be a(n):
A) blind observation.
B) interval observation.
C) continuous observation.
D) contrived observation.

71. The 2007 study that focused on how individuals react to insult took place on a local
train in:
A) Canada.
B) United States.
C) England.
D) the Netherlands.

72. In a 2007 study in a local train in the Netherlands researchers were interested in how
individuals reacted to insults. The results indicated:
A) insulted participants with a strong belief in honor displayed more anger, less joy,
and less fear than those with a weak belief.
B) insulted participants with a strong belief in manners displayed more anger, more
joy, and more fear than those with a weak belief.
C) insulted participants with a weak belief in honor displayed more anger, less joy,
and less fear than those with a strong belief.
D) insulted participants with a weak belief in manner displayed more anger, more joy,
and more fear than those with a strong belief.

73. Data for a given participant is likely to be represented in a statistical dataset within a(n):
A) column.
B) row.
C) cell.
D) observation.

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74. A researcher is interested in what behaviors are common among individuals during
summers of intense and atypical heat waves. This would be indicative of a(n):
A) inferential statistic.
B) multiple regression.
C) descriptive statistic.
D) summative evaluation.

75. Researchers at a local advocacy center are interested in the types of behaviors foster
children engage in when in the presence of their foster family in comparison with their
biological family. This would be indicative of:
A) descriptive statistics.
B) multiple regressions.
C) summative evaluations.
D) inferential statistics.

76. Admissions counselors use _____ to determine whether GPA is predictive of success
during a student's freshmen year in college.
A) descriptive statistics
B) inferential statistics
C) summative evaluations
D) formative evaluations

77. Dr. Juni is organizing data from his recent study on aggression. He decided to classify
participants based on their self-reported hair color: blond, brown, red, and black. Dr.
Juni then runs analyses using these groupings. Dr. Juni is grouping the participants
based on a(n):
A) categorical variable.
B) continuous variable.
C) ordinal variable.
D) interval variable.

78. McGuire is classifying and arranging data from his recent park observations. He has
grouped participants into three classifications: parents, children, and youth. McGuire is
grouping the participants based on a(n):
A) interval variable.
B) continuous variable.
C) ordinal variable.
D) categorical variable.

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79. Dr. Alier is examining psychopathic tendencies among prisoners and nurses. He decided
to provide a self-report questionnaire to prisoners and nurses and asked them to
complete it. Dr. Alier and his research assistants then followed up with individual
interviews for all of the participants. Scores on the self-report scale ranged from 0 to
106. In this example psychopathic tendencies are a(n):
A) interval variable.
B) continuous variable.
C) ordinal variable.
D) categorical variable.

80. Mr. Chapman is a local scientist studying germ incubation times for varying fungi. He
records the incubation times to the second, minute, and hour. This would be an example
of a(n):
A) nominal variable.
B) ordinal variable.
C) continuous variable.
D) categorical variable.

81. Charlese creates charts showing her teacher the number of times she referred to her
notes, PowerPoint slides, textbook, flashcards, and classmates to study for the last three
exams in the class. Charlese has unknowingly developed a(n):
A) continuous variable.
B) frequency distribution.
C) interval recording.
D) duration recording.

82. Dante had to complete a project for his statistics class. He was tasked with going to a
nursing home and recording the various types of physical activity and how often
residents engaged in each activity on a given day. Dante then had to organize the
information in a clear and concise manner. Dante probably displayed his information in
a(n):
A) observation schedule.
B) coding system.
C) frequency distribution.
D) mode.

83. Which of the following is the appropriate symbol for mode?

A) M
B) Mdn
C) Mn
D) Mo

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84. Which of the following is the appropriate symbol for mean?
A) M
B) Mdn
C) Mn
D) Mo

85. Which of the following is the appropriate symbol for median?

A) M
B) Mdn
C) Mn
D) Mo

86. Which of the following is NOT a measure of central tendency?

A) M
B) R2
C) Mo
D) Mdn

87. Dr. Regent was evaluating the inter-rater reliability between Trisha and Fitz's study
observations. Which would be the most appropriate statistic to measure agreement
between their observations?
A) Cohen's d
B) Cohen's f
C) Cohen's kappa
D) Cohen's alpha

88. Which of the following is the most appropriate calculation to determine the level of
agreement between two observers coding categorical items?
A) Cohen's kappa
B) Cohen's f
C) Cohen's d
D) Cohen's alpha

89. LaQuila's dance team scored the following at the last 10 dance competitions: 6, 6, 9, 3,
10, 9, 9, 5, 8, 8. The mode for these scores would be:
A) 6.
B) 8.
C) 9.
D) 10.

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90. Olive has been tracking her progress in training for a triathlon. Here is the list of the
miles she ran for the last 15 days: 2, 1, 6, 5, 8, 9, 2, 4, 7, 6, 6, 8, 9, 2, 2. The approximate
mean for this set of data would be:
A) 4.
B) 5.
C) 6.
D) 7.

91. Olive has been tracking her progress in training for a triathlon. Here is the list of the
miles she ran for the last 15 days: 2, 1, 6, 5, 8, 9, 2, 4, 7, 6, 6, 8, 9, 2, 2. The median for
this set of data would be:
A) 4.
B) 5.
C) 6.
D) 8.

92. Triny has been recording the number of times she says “um” for the last 7 days to help
improve her public-speaking grade. She recorded the following data for the last 7 days:
23, 27, 12, 10, 5, 5, 5. What is the approximate average number of times she says “um”
over the 7-day period?
A) 12
B) 15
C) 17
D) 22

93. Inter-observer reliability calculations can range from:

A) –1 to –2.
B) –1 to 1.
C) 0 to 1.
D) 0 to 2.

94. Research suggests that a value of _____ or higher indicates high inter-observer
reliability.
A) .05
B) .5
C) .7
D) 1.2

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95. Categorical data is best visually represented by a:
A) bar chart.
B) regression line.
C) polygon.
D) flow chart.

96. According to the text and recent studies, spanking remain a common practice in the
United States, with approximately _____ of parents still using this form of discipline.
A) 62%
B) 76%
C) 80%
D) 87%

97. Catrina wants to determine which book on the summer reading list is most preferred by
her students. She has collected data at the beginning of the school year for the last 3
years. What statistic should she use to show the most frequently reported preferred
book?
A) the mode
B) the median
C) the mean
D) the range

98. Kiyoko is wondering which friend sends and receives the most text messages, on
average, during a 1-week period. Kiyoko records the number of text messages received
and sent for each friend at the end of each day. Which measure of central tendency
would most accurately answer Kiyoko's question?
A) the mode
B) the median
C) the mean
D) the range

99. Chanelle needs to choose a measure of central tendency that is less influenced by
outliers. Which measure of central tendency would be most appropriate?
A) the mode
B) the median
C) the mean
D) the range

Page 21
100. Kyra wanted to determine what types of monetary currency was used to pay for
merchandise at a local bargain store. She noted there was an assorted use of currency
including, but not limited to, dimes, quarters, $5 bills, $20 bills, and $100 bills. To
easily explain the selection of currency taken by the bargain store Kyra should use_____
to describe the data collected.
A) the mode
B) the median
C) the mean
D) the range

Page 22
Answer Key
1. A
2. B
3. D
4. C
5. B
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. C
10. A
11. B
12. C
13. C
14. D
15. A
16. B
17. D
18. A
19. B
20. B
21. A
22. B
23. C
24. D
25. B
26. A
27. D
28. C
29. B
30. A
31. B
32. D
33. A
34. C
35. B
36. B
37. D
38. B
39. C
40. B
41. D
42. B
43. C
44. A

Page 23
45. B
46. A
47. A
48. D
49. A
50. C
51. B
52. A
53. C
54. B
55. C
56. D
57. B
58. C
59. A
60. A
61. D
62. B
63. D
64. D
65. B
66. C
67. A
68. C
69. B
70. B
71. D
72. A
73. B
74. C
75. A
76. B
77. A
78. D
79. B
80. C
81. B
82. C
83. D
84. A
85. B
86. B
87. C
88. A
89. C
90. B

Page 24
 91. C
92. A
93. C
94. C
95. A
96. C
97. A
98. A
99. B
100. D

Page 25
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 FIRST ORDER: CHONDROPTERYGII.
Skeleton cartilaginous. Body with medial and paired fins, the
hinder pair abdominal. Vertebral column generally heterocercal, the
upper lobe of the caudal fin produced. Gills attached to the skin by
the outer margin, with several intervening gill-openings: rarely one
external gill-opening only. No gill-cover. No air-bladder. Two, three,
or more series of valves in the conus arteriosus. Ova large and few
in number,[33] impregnated and, in some species, developed within a
uterine cavity. Embryo with deciduous external gills.[34] Males with
intromittent organs attached to the ventral fins.[35]
This order, for which, also, the name Elasmobranchii has been
proposed (by Bonaparte), comprises the Sharks and Rays and
Chimæras, and is divided into two suborders: Plagiostomata and
Holocephala.

FIRST SUB-ORDER: PLAGIOSTOMATA.

From five to seven gill-openings. Skull with a suspensorium and
the palatal apparatus detached. Teeth numerous.
The Plagiostomes differ greatly among each other with regard to
the general form of their body: in the Sharks or Selachoidei the body
is elongate, more or less cylindrical, gradually passing into the tail;
their gill-openings are lateral. In the Rays, or Batoidei, the gill-
openings are always placed on the abdominal aspect of the fish; the
body is depressed, and the trunk, which is surrounded by the
immensely developed pectoral fins, forms a broad flat disk, of which
the tail appears as a thin and slender appendage. Spiracles are
always present; the number of gill-openings is constantly five; no
anal fin; dorsal fins, if present, situated on the tail. However, some of
the Rays approach the Sharks in having the caudal portion less
abruptly contracted behind the trunk.
Fossil Plagiostomes are very numerous in all formations. Some
of the earliest determinable fish remains are believed to be, or are,
derived from Plagiostomes. Those which can be referred to any of
the following families will be mentioned subsequently: but there are
others, especially fin-spines, which leave us in doubt to which group
of Plagiostomes their owners had any affinity, thus Onchus from the
upper Silurian, continuing to carboniferous formations;
Dimeracanthus, Homocanthus, from the Devonian; Oracanthus,
Gyracanthus, Tristychius, Astroptychius, Ptychacanthus,
Sphenacanthus, etc., from carboniferous formations; Leptacanthus,
from the coal to the Oolite; Cladacanthus, Cricacanthus, Gyropristis,
and Lepracanthus, from the coal measures; Nemacanthus,
Liacanthus, from the Trias; Astracanthus, Myriacanthus,
Pristacanthus, from the Jurassic group.

A. Selachoidei: Sharks.
The elongate cylindrical body, generally terminating in a more or
less pointed snout, and passing into a powerful and flexible tail,
blade-like at its extremity, gives to the Sharks a most extraordinary
power of swimming, with regard to endurance as well as rapidity of
motion. Many, especially the larger kinds, inhabit the open ocean,
following ships for weeks, or pursuing shoals of fishes in their
periodical migrations. Other large-sized sharks frequent such parts
of the coast as offer them abundance of food; whilst the majority of
the smaller kinds are shore fishes, rarely leaving the bottom, and
sometimes congregating in immense numbers. The movements of
sharks resemble in some measure those of snakes, their flexible
body being bent in more than one curve when moving.
Sharks are most numerous in the seas between the Tropics, and
become scarcer beyond, a few only reaching the Arctic circle; it is
not known how far they advance southwards towards the Antarctic
region. Some species enter fresh waters, and ascend large rivers,
like the Tigris or Ganges, to a considerable distance. The pelagic as
well as the shore species have a wide geographical range. Very few
descend to a considerable depth, probably not exceeding 500
fathoms. There are about 140 different species known.
Sharks have no scales like those of other fishes; their
integuments are covered with calcified papillæ which, under the
microscope, show a structure similar to that of teeth. If the papillæ
are small, pointed, and close set, the skin is called “shagreen;” rarely
they are larger, appearing as bucklers or spines, of various sizes.
These fishes are exclusively carnivorous, and those armed with
powerful cutting teeth are the most formidable tyrants of the ocean.
They have been known to divide the body of a man in two at one
bite, as if by the sweep of a sword. Some of the largest sharks,
however, which are provided with very small teeth, are almost
harmless, feeding on small fishes only or marine invertebrates.
Others, particularly of the smaller kinds, commonly called “Dog-
fishes,” have short or obtuse teeth, and feed on shells or any other
animal substance. Sharks scent their food from a distance, being
readily attracted by the smell of blood or decomposing bodies.
In China and Japan, and many other eastern countries, the
smaller kinds of sharks are eaten. Sharks’ fins form in India and
China a very important article of trade, the Chinese preparing from
them gelatine, and using the better sorts for culinary purposes. The
fins are obtained not exclusively from Sharks but also from Rays,
and assorted in two kinds, viz. “white and black.” The white consist
exclusively of the dorsal fins, which are on both sides of the same
uniform light colour, and reputed to yield more gelatine than the other
fins. The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins pass under the
denomination of black fins; the caudal fin is not used. One of the
principal places where shark fishery is practised as a profession is
Kurrachee. Dr. Buist, writing in 1850 (“Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1850, p.
100), states that there are thirteen large boats, with crews of twelve
men each, constantly employed in this pursuit; that the value of the
fins sent to the market varies from 15,000 to 18,000 rupees; that one
boat will sometimes capture at a draught as many as one hundred
sharks of various sizes; and that the number total of sharks captured
during the year amounts probably to not less than 40,000. Large
quantities are imported from the African coast and the Arabian Gulf,
and various ports on the coast of India. In the year 1845–46, 8770
cwt. of sharks’ fins were exported from Bombay to China.

First Family—Carchariidæ.
 Eye with a nictitating membrane. Mouth crescent-shaped, inferior.
Anal fin present. Two dorsal fins, the first opposite to the space
between pectoral and ventral fins, without spine in front.
Carcharias.—Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body;
mouth armed with a series of large flat triangular teeth, which have a
smooth cutting or serrated edge. Spiracles absent. A transverse pit on
the back of the tail, at the root of the caudal fin.
This genus comprises the true Sharks, common in the tropical,
but less so in the temperate seas. Between thirty and forty different
species have been distinguished, of which one of the most common
is the “Blue Shark” (Carcharias glaucus). Individuals of from twelve
to fifteen feet are of very common occurrence, but some of the
species attain a much larger size, and a length of 25 and more feet.
Fishes of this genus or of closely allied genera (Corax, Hemipristis)
are not uncommon in the chalk and tertiary formations.
Galeocerdo.—Teeth large, flat, triangular, oblique, serrated on
both edges, with a deep notch on the outer margin. Spiracles small. A
pit on the tail, above and below, at the root of the caudal fin. Two
notches on the under caudal border, one of them at the end of the
spine.
 Fig. 112.—Dentition of the Blue Shark
(Carcharias glaucus); the single teeth are of the
natural size.
Three species, of which one (G. arcticus) is confined to the arctic
and sub-arctic oceans. The others inhabit temperate and tropical
seas, and all attain to a very large size.
Galeus.—Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body;
teeth equal in both jaws, rather small, flat, triangular, oblique, serrated
and with a notch. Spiracles small. No pit at the commencement of the
caudal fin, which has a single notch on its lower margin.
These are small sharks, commonly called “Tope.” The species
found on the British coast is spread over nearly all the temperate and
tropical seas, and is common in California and Tasmania. It lives on
the bottom, and is very troublesome to fishermen by constantly
taking away bait or driving away the fishes which they desire to
catch.
Zygæna.—The anterior part of the head is broad, flattened, and
produced into a lobe on each side, the extremity of which is occupied
 by the eye. Caudal fin with a single notch at its lower margin. A pit at
the root of the caudal fin. Spiracles none. Nostrils situated on the front
edge of the head.
The “Hammerheads,” or Hammerheaded Sharks, have a
dentition very similar to that of Carcharias, and although they do not
attain to the same large size, they belong to the most formidable
fishes of the ocean. The peculiar form of their head is quite unique
among fishes; young examples have the lateral extension of the skull
much less developed than adults. Five species are known, which are
most abundant in the tropics. By far the most common is Zygæna
malleus, which occurs in nearly all tropical and sub-tropical seas.
Specimens of this species may be often seen ascending from the
clear blue depths of the ocean like a great cloud. Cantor found in a
female, nearly 11 feet long, thirty-seven embryons.—Hammerheads
have lived from the cretaceous epoch.
Mustelus.—The second dorsal fin is not much smaller than the
first. No pit at the root of the caudal, which is without distinct lower
lobe. Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body. Spiracles
small, behind the eyes. Teeth small, numerous, similar in both jaws,
obtuse, or with very indistinct cusps, arranged like pavement.
The “Hounds” are small Sharks, abundant on the coasts of all the
temperate and tropical seas; two of the five species known occur on
the coasts of Europe, viz. M. lævis and M. vulgaris. Closely allied as
these two species are, they yet show a most singular difference, viz.
that a placenta is developed in the uterus for the attachment of the
embryo in M. lævis (the Γαλεὁς λεȋος of Aristotle, to whom this fact
was already known); whilst the embryons of M. vulgaris are
developed without such placenta (see J. Müller, “Abhandl. Ak. Wiss.”
Berl. 1840). The Hounds are bottom fish, which feed principally on
shells, crustaceans, and decomposing animal substances.

Several other genera belong to the family Carchariidæ, but it will

be sufficient to mention their names:—Hemigaleus, Loxodon,
Thalassorhinus, Triænodon, Leptocarcharias, and Triacis.
 Second Family—Lamnidæ.
Eye without nictitating membrane. Anal fin present. Two dorsal
fins; the first opposite to the space between pectoral and ventral fins,
without spine in front. Nostrils not confluent with the mouth which is
inferior. Spiracles absent or minute.
All the fishes of this family attain to a very large size, and are
pelagic. But little is known of their reproduction. The first appearance
of this family is indicated by Carcharopsis, a genus from
carboniferous formations, the teeth of which differ from those of
Carcharodon only by having a broad fold at the base. In the chalk
and tertiary formations almost all the existing genera are
represented; and, besides, Oxytes, Sphenodus, Gomphodus, and
Ancistrodon, which are known from teeth only, have been considered
generically distinct from the living Porbeagles.
Lamna (Oxyrhina).—The second dorsal and anal are very small.
A pit at the root of the caudal, which has the lower lobe much
developed. Side of the tail with a prominent longitudinal keel. Mouth
wide. Teeth large, lanceolate, not serrated, sometimes with additional
basal cusps. On each side of the upper jaw, at some distance from the
symphysis, there is one or two teeth conspicuously smaller than the
others. Gill-openings very wide. Spiracles minute.

Fig. 113.—Upper and lower

tooth of Lamna.

Of the “Porbeagles,” three species have been described, of which

the one occurring in the North Atlantic, and frequently straying to the
British coasts (L. cornubica), is best known. It attains to a length of
ten feet, and feeds chiefly on fishes; its lanceolate teeth are not
adapted for cutting, but rather for seizing and holding its prey, which
it appears to swallow whole. According to Pennant it is viviparous;
only two embryoes were found in the female which came under his
observation. Haast has found this species also off the coast of New
Zealand.
Carcharodon.—The second dorsal and anal are very small. Pit
at the root of the caudal, which has the lower lobe well developed.
Side of the tail with a prominent longitudinal keel. Mouth wide. Teeth
large, flat, erect, regularly triangular, serrated. On each side of the
upper jaw, at some distance from the symphysis, there is one or two
teeth conspicuously smaller than the others. Gill-openings wide.
One species only is known (C. rondeletii), which is the most
formidable of all Sharks. It is strictly pelagic; and appears to occur in
all tropical and sub-tropical seas. It is known to attain to a length of
40 feet. The tooth figured here, of the natural size, is taken from a
jaw 20 inches wide in its transverse diameter (inside measure), each
half of the mandible measuring 22 inches.[36] The whole length of
the fish was 36½ feet.
Carcharodon teeth are of very common occurrence in various
tertiary strata, and have been referred to several species, affording
ample evidence that this type was much more numerously
represented in that geological epoch than in the recent fauna. Some
individuals attained to an immense size, as we may judge from teeth
found in the Crag, which are 4 inches wide at the base, and 5 inches
long, measured along their lateral margin. The naturalists of the
“Challenger” expedition have made the highly interesting discovery
that teeth of similar size are of common occurrence in the ooze of
the Pacific, between Polynesia and the west coast of America. As we
have no record of living individuals of that bulk having been
observed, the gigantic species to which these teeth belonged must
have become extinct within a comparatively recent period. Nothing is
known of the anatomy, habits, and reproduction of the surviving
species, and no opportunity should be lost of obtaining information
on this Shark.
 Fig. 114.—Tooth of
Carcharodon rondeletii.
Odontaspis.—The second dorsal and anal are not much smaller
than the first dorsal. No pit at the root of the caudal. Side of the tail
without keel. Mouth wide. Teeth large, awl-shaped, with one or two
small cusps at the base. Gill-openings of moderate width.

Large Sharks from tropical and temperate seas; two species.

Alopecias.—The second dorsal and anal very small. Caudal fin of
extraordinary length, with a pit at its root. No keel on the side of the
tail. Mouth and gill-openings of moderate width. Teeth equal in both
jaws, of moderate size, flat, triangular, not serrated.
This genus consists of one species only, which is known by the
name of “Fox-shark” or “Thresher.” It is the most common of the
larger kinds of Sharks which occur on the British coasts; and seems
to be equally common in other parts of the Atlantic and
Mediterranean, as well as on the coasts of California and New
Zealand. It attains to a length of fifteen feet, of which the tail takes
more than one half; and is quite harmless to man. It follows the
shoals of Herrings, Pilchards, and Sprats in their migrations,
destroying incredible numbers. When feeding it uses the long tail in
splashing the surface of the water, whilst it swims in gradually
decreasing circles round a shoal of fishes, which are thus kept
crowded together, falling an easy prey to their enemy. Statements
that it has been seen to attack Whales and other large Cetaceans,
rest upon erroneous observations.
Selache.—The second dorsal and anal very small. A pit at the
root of the caudal fin, which is provided with a lower lobe. Side of the
tail with a keel. Gill-openings extremely wide. Teeth very small,
numerous, conical, without serrature or lateral cusps.
 Also this genus consists of one species only, the “Basking Shark”
(Pélerin of the French). It is the largest Shark of the North Atlantic,
growing to a length of more than thirty feet. It is quite harmless if not
attacked; its food consisting of small fishes, and other small marine
animals swimming in shoals. On the west coast of Ireland it is
chased for the sake of the oil which is extracted from the liver, one
fish yielding from a ton to a ton and a-half. Its capture is not
unattended with danger, as one blow from the enormously strong tail
is sufficient to stave in the sides of a large boat. At certain seasons it
is gregarious, and many specimens may be seen in calm weather
lying together motionless, with the upper part of the back raised
above the surface of the water; a habit from which this Shark has
derived its name. The buccal and branchial cavities are of
extraordinary width, and, in consequence of the flabby condition of
those parts, the head presents a variable and singular appearance in
specimens lying dead on the ground. This peculiarity, as well as the
circumstance that young specimens have a much longer and more
pointed snout than adult ones, has led to the erroneous opinion that
several different genera and species of Basking Shark occur in the
European seas. The branchial arches of Selache are provided with a
very broad fringe of long (five to six inches) and thin gill-rakers,
possessing the same microscopical structure as the teeth and
dermal productions of Sharks. Similar gill-rakers have been found in
a fossil state in the Crag of Anvers in Belgium, proving the existence
of this Selachian type in the tertiary epoch. Nothing is known of the
reproduction of this fish. The latest contributions to its history are by
Steenstrup in “Overs. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk., Forhandl.” 1873, and
by Pavesi in “Annal. Mus. Civ. Geneva,” 1874 and 1878.

Third Family—Rhinodontidæ.
No nictitating membrane. Anal fin present. Two dorsal fins, the
first nearly opposite to the ventrals, without spine in front. Mouth and
nostril near the extremity of the snout.
This small family comprises one species only, Rhinodon typicus,
a gigantic Shark, which is known to exceed a length of fifty feet, but
is stated to attain that of seventy. It does not appear to be rare in the
western parts of the Indian Ocean, and possibly occurs also in the
Pacific. It is one of the most interesting forms, not unlike the Basking
Shark of the Northern Seas, having gill-rakers like that species; but
very little is known of its structure and mode of life. It is perfectly
harmless, its teeth being extremely small and numerous, placed in
broad bands; it has been stated to feed on tang, an observation
which requires confirmation. The snout is very broad, short, and flat;
the eyes are very small. A pit at the root of the caudal fin which has
the lower lobe well developed; side of the tail with a keel. A
characteristic figure of this fish has been given by A. Smith in his
“Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa,” Plate 26, from a
specimen which came ashore at the Cape of Good Hope.

Fig. 115.—Dentition of Notidanus indicus. a,

teeth in function; b, teeth in reserve; u, upper, and l,
lower, tooth, of natural size.

Fourth Family—Notidanidæ.
 No nictitating membrane. One dorsal fin only, without spine,
opposite to the anal.
Notidanus.—Dentition unequal in the jaws: in the upper jaw one
or two pairs of awl-shaped teeth, the following six being broader, and
provided with several cusps, one of which is much the strongest.
Lower jaw with six large comb-like teeth on each side, beside the
smaller posterior teeth. Spiracles small, on the side of the neck. No pit
at the root of the caudal fin. Gill-openings wide, six in number in
Hexanchus, seven in Heptanchus.
Four species are known, distributed over nearly all the tropical
and sub-tropical seas; they attain to a length of about fifteen feet.
Fossil teeth belonging to this type have been found in Jurassic and
later formations (Notidanus and Aellopos).

Fifth Family—Scylliidæ.
Two dorsal fins, without spine: the first above or behind the
ventrals; anal fin present. No nictitating membrane. Spiracle always
distinct. Mouth inferior. Teeth small, several series generally being in
function.
Scyllium.—The origin of the anal fin is always in advance of that
of the second dorsal. Nasal cavity separate from the mouth. Teeth
small, with a middle longer cusp, and generally one or two small
lateral cusps arranged in numerous series. Eggs similar to those of
the Rays (Fig. 79, p. 167).
The fishes of this genus are of small size, and commonly called
“Dog-fishes.” They are coast fishes, living on the bottom, and feeding
on Crustaceans, dead fishes, etc. None of the eight species known
have a very wide distribution, but where they occur they are
generally sufficiently abundant to prove troublesome to fishermen.
They inhabit most parts of the temperate and tropical seas. On the
British coasts two species are found, the “Larger” and “Lesser
spotted Dog-fish,” Scyllium canicula and Scyllium catulus, which are
said to be more plentiful among the Orkney Islands than elsewhere.
They are scarcely ever brought to market; but the fishermen of some
localities do not disdain to eat them. Their flesh is remarkably white,
a little fibrous, and dry. In the Orkneys they are skinned, split up,
cleaned, and then spread out on the rocks to dry for home
consumption. The skins are used for smoothing down cabinet-work.
It would be worth while to apply the fins of these and other Sharks,
which are so extensively used in China for making gelatine soups, to
the same purpose in this country, or to dry them for exportation to
the East. Most of the species of Dog-fishes are spotted, and those of
the allied genera, Parascyllium and Chiloscyllium, very handsomely
ornamented.
Closely allied to Scyllium is Pristiurus, from the coasts of Europe,
which is provided with a series of small flat spines on each side of
the upper edge of the caudal fin.
Fossil forms of Dog-fishes are not scarce in the Lias and Chalk:
Scylliodus, Palæoscyllium, Thyellina, Pristiurus.
Ginglymostoma.—The second dorsal fin opposite to, and
somewhat in advance of, the anal. Eyes very small; spiracle minute
and behind the eye. Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. The nasal
valves of both sides form one quadrangular flap in front of the mouth,
each being provided with a free cylindrical cirrhus. The fourth and fifth
gill-openings are close together. The teeth stand either in many series,
each having a strong median cusp and one or two smaller ones on
each side (Ginglymostoma), or they stand in a few (three) series only,
the foremost only being in function, and each tooth having a convex,
finely and equally serrated margin (Nebrius).
Four species from the tropical parts of the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans, attaining to a length of some 12 feet. Pelagic.
Stegostoma.—The first dorsal above the ventrals, the second in
advance of the anal, which is very close to the caudal. Tail, with the
caudal fin, exceedingly long, measuring one-half of the total length.
Eyes very small, spiracle as wide as, and situated behind, the orbit.
Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. Snout very obtuse; upper lip very
thick, like a pad, bent downwards over the mouth, with a free
cylindrical cirrhus on each side. Teeth small, trilobed, in many series,
occupying in both jaws a transverse flat subquadrangular patch. The
fourth and fifth gill-openings are close together.
The single species (St. tigrinum) for which this genus has been
formed, is one of the commonest and handsomest sharks of the
Indian Ocean. Young individuals keep generally close to the coasts,
whilst the adult, which are from 10 to 15 feet long, are not rarely met
in the open ocean. The colour is a brownish yellow, ornamented with
black or brown transverse bands, or with snuff-coloured rounded
spots; hence this shark is frequently mentioned by the names of
“Zebra-Shark” or “Tiger-Shark.”

Fig. 116.—Chiloscyllium trispeculare, from North-western Australia.

Chiloscyllium.—The first dorsal fin above or behind the ventrals.
Anal fin placed far behind the second dorsal, and very close to the
caudal. Spiracle very distinct, below the eye. Nasal and buccal
cavities confluent. Nasal valve folded, with a cirrhus. Teeth small,
triangular, with or without lateral cusps. The two last gill-openings
close together.

“Dog-fishes,” from the Indian Ocean, of small size. Four species

are known, of which one, Ch. indicum, is one of the commonest
shore-fishes on the coasts of this region, extending from the
southern extremity of the African Continent to Japan.
 Fig. 117.—Confluent nasal and buccal cavities of the
same fish.
Crossorhinus.—The first dorsal behind the ventrals, the second
in advance of the anal, which is very close to the caudal. Tail rather
short. Eyes small. Spiracle a wide oblique slit, behind and below the
eye. Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. Head broad, flat, with the
snout very obtuse; mouth wide, nearly anterior. A free nasal cirrhus;
sides of the head with skinny appendages. Anterior teeth rather large,
long and slender, without lateral lobes, the lateral tricuspid, smaller,
forming a few series only. The fourth and fifth gill-openings close
together.
Three species are known from the Australian and Japanese
coasts. They are evidently ground-sharks, which lie concealed on
the bottom watching for their prey. In accordance with this habit their
colour closely assimilates that of a rock or stone covered with short
vegetable and coralline growth—a resemblance increased by the
frond-like tentacles on the side of the head. This peculiarity of the
integuments, which is developed in a yet higher degree in Pediculati
and Lophobranchs, is not met with in any other Selachian. These
Sharks grow to a length of 10 feet.

Sixth Family—Hybodontidæ.
Two dorsal fins, each with a serrated spine. Teeth rounded,
longitudinally striated, with one larger, and from two to four smaller
lateral cusps. Skin covered with shagreen.
Extinct. From carboniferous, liassic, and triassic formations.
Several genera have been distinguished; and if Cladodus belongs to
this family, it would have been represented even in the Devonian.

Fig. 118.—Spine of Hybodus

subcarinatus.

Seventh Family—Cestraciontidæ.
 No nictitating membrane. Two dorsal fins, the first opposite to the
space between pectoral and ventral fins; anal fin present. Nasal and
buccal cavities confluent. Teeth obtuse, several series being in
function.

Fig. 119.—Jaws of Port Jackson Shark,

Cestracion philippi.
 Fig. 120.—Upper jaw of the same, half natural
size.
This family is one of particular interest, because representatives
of it occur in numerous modifications in primary and secondary
strata. Their dentition is uniformly adapted for the prehension and
mastication of crustaceous and hard-shelled animals. The fossil
forms far exceeded in size the species of the only surviving genus;
they make, their appearance with Ctenoptychius in the Devonian;
this is succeeded in the coal-measures by Psammodus,
Chomatodus, Petrodus, Cochliodus, Polyrhizodus, etc.; in the Trias
and Chalk by Strophodus, Acrodus, Thectodus, and Ptychodus. Of
the 25 genera known, 22 have lived in the periods preceding the
Oolitic.
Cestracion (Heterodontus).—Each dorsal fin armed with a
spine in front; the second in advance of the anal. Mouth rather narrow.
Spiracles small, below the posterior part of the eye. Gill-openings
rather narrow. Dentition similar in both jaws, viz. small obtuse teeth in
front, which in young individuals are pointed and provided with from
three to five cusps. The lateral teeth are large, padlike, twice as broad
as long, arranged in oblique series, one series being formed by much
larger teeth than those in the other series.
 Fig. 121.—Cochliodus contortus.

Fig. 122.—Cestracion galeatus, Australia.

Four species are known from Japan, Amboyna, Australia, the
Galapagoes Islands, and California; none exceed a length of 5 feet.
The egg has been figured on p. 168 (Fig. 80).

Eighth Family—Spinacidæ.
No membrana nictitans. Two dorsal fins; no anal. Mouth but
slightly arched; a long, deep, straight, oblique groove on each side of
the mouth. Spiracles present; gill-openings narrow. Pectoral fins not
notched at their origin.
The oldest representative of this family (Palæospinax) occurs at
Lyme Regis; its skin is granular; each dorsal fin possesses a spine;
the teeth in the jaws are dissimilar—the upper being multicuspid,
longitudinally ribbed as in Hybodus, the lower smooth and tricuspid.
Drepanophorus and Spinax primævus occur in Cretaceous
formations of England and the Lebanon.
Centrina.—Each dorsal fin with a strong spine. Trunk rather
elevated, trihedral, with a fold of the skin running along each side of
the belly. Teeth of the lower jaw erect, triangular, finely serrated; those
of the upper slender, conical, forming a group in front of the jaw.
Spiracles wide, behind the eye.
One species, Centrina salviani, from the Mediterranean and
neighbouring parts of the Atlantic; of small size.
Acanthias.—Each dorsal fin with a spine. Teeth equal in both
jaws, rather small; their point is so much turned aside that the inner
margin of the tooth forms the cutting edge. Spiracles rather wide,
immediately behind the eye.
The two species of “Spiny Dog-fishes,” A. vulgaris and A.
blainvillii, have a very remarkable distribution, being found in the
temperate seas of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, but not
in the intermediate tropical zone. They are of small size, but occur at
times in incredible numbers, 20,000 having been taken in one scene
on the Cornish coast. They do much injury to the fishermen by
cutting their lines and carrying off their hooks.
Centrophorus.—Each dorsal fin with a spine which, however, is
sometimes so small as to be hidden below the skin. Mouth wide.
Teeth of the lower jaw with the point more or less inclined backwards
and outwards. Upper teeth erect, triangular, or narrow, lanceolate, with
a single cusp. Spiracles wide, behind the eye.
Eight species are known from the southern parts of the European
seas, and one from the Moluccas; they do not appear to exceed a
length of five feet. According to the observations of E. P. Wright,
some of the species at least live at a considerable depth, perhaps at
a greater depth than any of the other known Sharks. The Portuguese