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Ecommerce 2013 9th Edition Laudon

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E-commerce 2013, 9e (Laudon/Traver)
Chapter 7 E-commerce Marketing Communications

1) The sole purpose of marketing communications is sales.


Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 426
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

2) Online video advertising now accounts for the largest amount of the Internet advertising
spending.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 430
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

3) The growth rate of search engine advertising is slowing compared to other formats.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 427
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

4) The amount spent on online advertising in 2012 accounts for approximately 10 percent of the
total amount spent on all advertising.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 428
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

5) Online advertising methods include sponsorships, e-mail marketing, and referrals.


Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 429
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

6) Search engine marketing saves consumers cognitive energy and reduces search costs.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 444
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

7) Sending e-mail marketing messages is typically less costly than sending direct mail marketing
messages.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 449
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

8) A majority of states in the United States have laws regulating or prohibiting spam.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 450
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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9) The 2003 CAN-SPAM Act required that the Federal Trade Commission establish a "do not e-
mail" registry.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 451
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

10) Studies have shown that the most successful marketing campaigns concentrate efforts along
a single marketing channel.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 451
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

11) Spending on social advertising is less than 10 percent of spending on all online advertising.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 441
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

12) Research indicates that social network influence may not extend to distant friends.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 442-443
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

13) Interest-based advertising is another name for behavioral targeting.


Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 451
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

14) Display ads produce the highest click-through rates.


Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 464
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

15) In general, the costs for offline customer acquisition are lower than online, but more
effective.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 467
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

16) Which of the following is an example of "pull" advertising?


A) search engine ads
B) spam
C) pop-ups
D) interstitials
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 426
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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17) Which of the following is not one of the current trends in Internet advertising?
A) Spending on search engine advertising is overtaken by video ads.
B) Online ad spending grows as a share of the total advertising budget.
C) Mobile and local advertising expands.
D) Display ad marketing continues strong growth.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 427
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

18) Which of the following advertising messages is a branding communication?


A) Try Adobe Acrobat Professional 10 free for 30 days.
B) Free shipping on every item we sell. Buy two or more items to qualify.
C) Barnesandnoble.com: The Best Place to Buy Textbooks.
D) 50 percent off all calendars. Shop now while supplies last.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 428
AACSB: Analytic Skills

19) The amount spent on online advertising in 2012 was approximately:


A) $373 million.
B) $3.73 billion.
C) $37.3 billion.
D) $373 billion.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 428
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

20) Which of the following is not one of the advantages of online advertising?
A) The Internet is where the audience is moving.
B) Online ads provide for greater interactivity with the customer.
C) Online costs versus benefits are well established and understood.
D) Online advertising can target ads to narrow market segments.
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 429
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

21) Which of the following online advertising formats is the most effective?
A) banner ads
B) rich media ads
C) video ads
D) e-mail
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 433
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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22) Which of the following online advertising formats attracted the least amount of spending in
2012?
A) search
B) classifieds
C) rich media
D) e-mail
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 430
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

23) Which of the following forms of online advertising is growing the fastest?
A) paid search
B) sponsorships
C) video
D) rich media
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 430
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

24) The size of a leaderboard is:


A) 728 × 90 pixels.
B) 300 × 600 pixels.
C) 160 × 600 pixels.
D) 180 × 150 pixels.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 431
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

25) If you want to determine the size of your Web site's audience, the metric you will use for the
most accurate measurement will be:
A) page views.
B) unique visitors.
C) hits.
D) reach.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461
AACSB: Analytic Skills

26) Which of the following types of display ads is 160 × 600 pixels?
A) leaderboard
B) half-page ad
C) medium rectangle
D) wide skyscraper
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 431
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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27) All of the following statements about interstitials are true except:
A) Interstitials typically appear as a user moves from one page to another.
B) Interstitials typically last 30 seconds.
C) Interstitials are full-page messages.
D) Interstitials can be deployed over an advertising network.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 432
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

28) Which of the following is not one of the four main methods advertisers use to behaviorally
target ads?
A) Nielsen ratings
B) data collected from social networks
C) integration of offline data
D) clickstream data
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 452
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

29) Search engine advertising expenditures in 2012 were approximately:


A) $17 million.
B) $170 million.
C) $1.7 million.
D) $17 billion.
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 435
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

30) Which of the following is not true about search engine advertising?
A) Spending on search engine advertising constitutes around 46 percent of all online advertising
spending.
B) The top three search engine providers supply over 95 percent of all online searches.
C) The click-through rate for search engine marketing has been fairly steady over the years.
D) Search engine advertising is the fastest growing type of online advertising.
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 434
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

31) Research studies have shown that viewers scan search engine results pages:
A) in an "F" shaped pattern with greater attention to the left side of the page.
B) in an inverted "T" pattern with greater attention to the left side of the page.
C) from top to bottom, with little consideration for elements along either margin of the page.
D) from top to bottom, with the greatest attention to the right side of the page.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 436
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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32) Which of the following is not a practice that degrades the results and usefulness of search
engines?
A) social search
B) link farms
C) content farms
D) click fraud
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 439
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

33) A Crayola arts-and-crafts column on a parenting Web site is an example of what form of
advertising?
A) sponsorship
B) banner swapping
C) affiliate relationship
D) public relations
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 444
AACSB: Analytic Skills

34) A typical response rate for an e-mail campaign would be ________ percent.
A) 2
B) 5
C) 25
D) 50
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 448
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

35) Legitimate e-mail addresses based on a high-quality commercial opt-in e-mail list might cost
________ per thousand.
A) 50 cents to $1
B) $5 to $10
C) $50 to $100
D) $500 to $1000
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 449
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

36) The percentage of all e-mail that is spam was approximately ________ percent in 2012.
A) 30
B) 50
C) 70
D) 90
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 450
AACSB: Reflective Thinking
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37) All of the following statements about CAN-SPAM are true except:
A) CAN-SPAM went into effect in January 2004.
B) CAN-SPAM prohibits unsolicited e-mail (spam).
C) CAN-SPAM prohibits the use of deceptive subject lines and false headers.
D) Large spammers are among CAN-SPAM's biggest supporters.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 451
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

38) CAN-SPAM imposes fines of ________ for each unsolicited pornographic e-mail.
A) $1
B) $10
C) $100
D) $1000
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 451
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

39) Direct e-mail marketing refers to marketing e-mails sent to:


A) recipients who have expressed an interest in receiving messages from that advertiser.
B) any recipient from a verifiable company e-mail address.
C) recipients who have signed on to a company's e-mail list.
D) recipients with known names and addresses.
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 448
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

40) Promoted Trends is an example of which of the following types of online advertising?
A) blog advertising
B) interest-based advertising
C) game advertising
D) social network advertising
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 442
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

41) Which of the following generated the most social advertising revenues in 2012?
A) MySpace
B) YouTube
C) Twitter
D) Facebook
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 441-442
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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42) Axe's posting of video ads online that were subsequently forwarded and shared by millions
of Internet users is an example of:
A) referral marketing.
B) nonlinear video advertisement.
C) behavioral targeting.
D) viral marketing.
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 446
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

43) Impressions are a measure of the:


A) number of times an ad is clicked.
B) number of times an ad is served.
C) number of http requests.
D) number of pages viewed.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

44) View-through rate measures the ________ response rate to an ad.


A) 30-minute
B) 24-hour
C) 7-day
D) 30-day
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

45) Hits are a measure of the:


A) number of times an ad is clicked.
B) number of times an ad is served.
C) number of http requests.
D) number of pages viewed.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

46) CTR is a measure of the:


A) percentage of times an ad is clicked.
B) number of times an ad is served.
C) number of http requests.
D) number of pages viewed.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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47) Which of the following measures the average length of stay at a Web site?
A) loyalty
B) stickiness
C) recency
D) retention rate
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

48) Acquisition rate is a measure of the:


A) percentage of visitors who indicate an interest in a site's products by registering or visiting a
product's pages.
B) percentage of visitors who become customers.
C) percentage of existing customers who continue to buy on a regular basis.
D) percentage of shoppers who do not return within a year after their initial purchase.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

49) Recency refers to the:


A) percentage of customers who do not return during the next year after an initial purchase.
B) time elapsed since the last action taken by a customer.
C) percentage of existing customers who continue to buy on a regular basis.
D) percentage of customers who return to the site within a year to make additional purchases.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

50) Conversion rate is a measure of the:


A) percentage of visitors who indicate an interest in a site's products by registering or visiting a
product's pages.
B) percentage of visitors who become customers.
C) percentage of existing customers who continue to buy on a regular basis.
D) percentage of shoppers who do not return within a year after their initial purchase.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 461-462
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

51) Which of the following measures the ratio of items purchased to product views?
A) conversion rate
B) cart conversion rate
C) browse-to-buy ratio
D) view-to-cart ratio
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 462
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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52) Which of the following measures the ratio of actual orders to checkouts started?
A) checkout conversion rate
B) conversion rate
C) acquisition rate
D) cart conversion rate
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 462
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

53) In ________ advertising, companies pay for ads to be placed dynamically on any
participating Web site that the search engine determines is appropriate.
A) paid inclusion
B) network keyword
C) keyword
D) social
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 437
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

54) Typical click-through rates for an online display ad are:


A) .02%-.16%.
B) .03%-.30%.
C) 1.5%-2%.
D) 3%-6%.
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 464
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

55) Which of the following forms of online advertising typically has the highest click-through
rate?
A) e-mail marketing in-house list
B) interstitials
C) search engine keyword purchase
D) sponsorships
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 464
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

56) The typical dwell rate for rich media and video ads is:
A) 1%-2%.
B) 4%-5%.
C) 7%-8%.
D) 10%-12%.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 465
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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57) Purchasing an online ad on a CPA basis means that the advertiser:
A) pays for impressions in 1,000 unit lots.
B) pays a prenegotiated fee for each click an ad receives.
C) pays only for those users who perform a specific action, such as registering, purchasing, etc.
D) exchanges something of equal value for the ad space.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 466
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

58) Purchasing an online ad on a CPC basis means that the advertiser:


A) pays for impressions in 1,000 unit lots.
B) pays a prenegotiated fee for each click an ad receives.
C) pays only for those users who perform a specific action, such as registering, purchasing, etc.
D) exchanges something of equal value for the ad space.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 466
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

59) A typical banner ad might cost ________ per 1,000 impressions.


A) 5 cents
B) $5
C) $50
D) $500
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 468
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

60) The most expensive form of online advertising on a per thousand viewer basis is a(n):
A) exclusive sponsorship arrangement.
B) e-mail campaign.
C) banner ad.
D) rich media ad.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 468
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

61) All of the following are true statements about the choice of a domain name except:
A) A domain name should be short.
B) Domain names play an important role in reinforcing an existing brand and developing a new
brand.
C) Having a dot-com domain is no longer considered preferable, especially in the United States.
D) It is possible to buy domain names.
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 472-473
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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62) According to the Fogg et al. 2003 study, which of the following is the most important factor
in the credibility of a Web site?
A) information design/structure
B) information focus
C) design look
D) information usefulness
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 474-475
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

63) Amazon's "one-click" purchase capability is an example of using ________ to enhance sales.
A) advertising
B) search engine functionality
C) Web site functionality
D) offline communications
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 474, 477
AACSB: Analytic Skills

64) Frequency of Web site use is a function of four independent variables: Web site organization,
perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness of the Web site, and:
A) design look.
B) credibility.
C) content quality.
D) simple navigation.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 476
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

65) Which of the following is not a major Web design feature that impacts online purchasing?
A) redundant navigation
B) fast download times
C) easy product list navigation
D) responsiveness
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 476
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

66) ________ is the sending of marketing messages to specific subgroups in the population.
Answer: Ad targeting
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 429
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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67) ________ involves using the social graph to communicate brand images and to directly
promote sales of products and services.
Answer: Social advertising
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 441
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

68) A(n) ________ video ad runs when a user mouses over a section of text.
Answer: in-text
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 433
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

69) The industry organization called ________ has established standardized sizes for display ads.
Answer: -IAB, the Interactive Advertising Bureau
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 430
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

70) In a(n) ________ search, the inclusion and ranking of Web sites depends on a more or less
"unbiased" application of a set of rules (an algorithm) imposed by the search engine.
Answer: organic
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 434
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

71) Google's AdSense is an example of network keyword or ________ advertising.


Answer: context
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 434
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

72) A(n) ________ permits a firm to place its logo, banner ad, or text link on another firm's Web
site from which users of that site can click through to the originating site.
Answer: affiliate relationship
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 444
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

73) A common form of ________ is targeted content (or advertorials), in which editorial content
is combined with an ad message to make the message more valuable and attractive to its intended
audience.
Answer: sponsorship
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 444
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

74) ________ ads involves showing the same or similar ad to individuals across multiple Web
sites.
Answer: Retargeting
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 452
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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75) Adjustments to a Web site's programming and content in order to improve its rank in search
engine results is called search engine ________.
Answer: optimization
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 473
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

76) ________ rate measures the percentage of customers who purchase once but never return
within a year.
Answer: Attrition
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 462
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

77) The ________ rate is an e-mail campaign metric that measures the percentage of e-mails that
could not be delivered.
Answer: bounce-back
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 463
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

78) In the same way that spam reduces the effectiveness of e-mail marketing, ________ fraud
reduces the effectiveness of search engine marketing.
Answer: click
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 439
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

79) A(n) ________ is an HTML tag containing a list of words describing the Web site.
Answer: metatag
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 474
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

80) A(n) ________ ad opens beneath a user's browser window.


Answer: pop-under
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 431-432
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

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81) Identify and describe the various types of rich media ads and video ads and explain how each
one works.
Answer: Rich media ads employ Flash, HTML5, Java, JavaScript, and animation, sound, and
interactivity. These ads tend to be more about branding than sales. Two types of rich media ads
are interstitials and superstitials.

An interstitial ad places a full-page message between the current and destination pages of a user.
Interstitials are usually inserted within a single Web site and displayed as the user moves from
one page to the next. The interstitial typically lasts 10 seconds or less, then moving automatically
to the page the user requested. Interstitials can also be deployed over an advertising network and
appear as users move among Web sites.

There are four main types of video ads. Linear video ads take over the currently playing video
for a certain period of time. Nonlinear video ads run at the same time as currently playing video
content and do not take over the screen. In-banner video ads are triggered by the user mousing
over part of a banner ad and may expand to cover more area of the screen than the banner.
Finally, in-text video ads are delivered when the user mouses over relevant text.
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 432-433
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

82) What are the values or benefits of search engine advertising? Describe the types of search
engine advertising that exist.
Answer: Benefits or values to search engine advertising include the potential audience, the
strong click-through rates, and the targeting it enables. The search engine audience is huge. On
an average day in the United States, around 114 million Americans (about 59% of the adult
online population) will use a search engine. The click-through rate for search marketing
generally is 1%-5%. Additionally, search engine advertising is nearly an ideal targeted marketing
technique: at precisely the moment that a consumer is looking for a product, an advertisement for
that product is presented. Paid search engine inclusion and placement is one of the most effective
marketing communications tools on the Web.

There are at least three different types of search engine advertising: keyword paid inclusion,
advertising keywords, and search engine context ads. Most search engines offer paid inclusion
programs which, for a fee, guarantee a Web site's inclusion in its list of search results, more
frequent visits by its Web crawler, and suggestions for improving the results of organic
searching. In keyword advertising, merchants purchase keywords through a bidding process at
search sites, and whenever a consumer searches for that word, their advertisement shows up
somewhere on the page, usually as a small text-based advertisement on the right, but also as a
listing on the very top of the page. In context, or network keyword advertising, publishers (Web
site owners) join the network and allow the search engine to place "relevant" ads on their sites.
The ads are paid for by advertisers who want their messages to appear across the Web. Google-
like text messages are the most common. The revenue from the resulting clicks is split between
the search engine and the site publisher.
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 434-438
AACSB: Analytic Skills

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83) What are the issues to be aware of when using social advertising?
Answer: There are several issues to be aware of when using social advertising. User comments
can sometimes be negative and brand destruction can result. Corporate users should carefully
watch submissions to their social network sites. Social networks can be influential, but not under
all circumstances. For instance, research has shown social network influence may extend to
closest friends but not to distant friends (influence is inversely related to size of the friendship
group). Measuring the results of social advertising is also in its infancy and not well understood.
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 442-443
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

84) How would you determine if an online marketing campaign to drive customers to your Web
site has been successful?
Answer: The determination as to whether an online marketing campaign is effective depends on
the goals of the campaign (branding or sales), the nature of the product, and the quality of the
Web site you direct customers toward. The answers also depend on what you measure: the
metrics from Web site logs and customer browsing histories. Some types of metrics measure the
success of a Web site in achieving audience or market share by driving shoppers to the site.
Important metrics here are impressions, click-through rate, view-through rate, stickiness, unique
visitors, loyalty, and reach. Impressions are the number of times an ad is served. Click-through
rate (CTR) measures the percentage of people exposed to an online advertisement who actually
click on the advertisement. The view-through rate (VTR) measures the 30-day response rate to
an ad. Hits are the number of http requests received by a firm's server. Hits can be misleading as
a measure of Web site activity because a "hit" does not equal a page. A single page may account
for several hits if the page contains multiple images or graphics. Stickiness (sometimes called
duration) is the average length of time visitors remain at a Web site.

The measurement of unique visitors counts the number of distinct, unique visitors to a Web site,
regardless of how many pages they view. Loyalty measures the percentage of visitors who return
in a year. This can be a good indicator of a site's Web following, and perhaps the trust shoppers
place in a site. Reach is typically a percentage of the total number of consumers in a market who
visit a Web site.

In getting customers to your Web site, you would want to see average or above average click-
through rates for the types of ads you had run: For example, over .1% for display ads, over .5%
for rich media ads, over 5% for a targeted e-mail, as well as an increase in the total number of
unique visitors. However, ultimately it's the return on the investment in the ad campaign that
counts. One of the advantages of online marketing is that online sales can generally be directly
correlated with online marketing efforts. The online merchant can measure precisely just how
much revenue is generated by specific banners or e-mail messages sent to prospective customers.
One way to measure the effectiveness of online marketing is by looking at the ratio of additional
revenue received divided by the cost of the campaign (revenue/cost). Any positive whole number
means the campaign was worthwhile.
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 459-469
AACSB: Analytic Skills

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85) What does Web site functionality mean, and how important is this quality to online
marketing efforts? What other qualities of a Web site are important?
Answer: Web site functionality refers to how well, as a piece of software, the Web site works or
achieves its goal. For a retail store, the goal would be to sell goods, so it would be functional if
the Web site allows customers to easily and efficiently find and purchase the goods they want. In
general, people use software interfaces that they perceive to be useful and easy to use. Utility and
ease of use are, therefore, the main factors to focus on when designing a site. Other factors
involved are the credibility and trust that users place in a Web site. Research suggests that the top
factors in Web site credibility are design look, information design/structure, and information
focus.

Research on Web site utilization has found that the way information is organized on a Web site,
while important for first-time users, declines in importance over time. Gradually, information
content becomes the major factor attracting further visits. In this research, frequency of Web site
use is a function of four independent variables: content quality, Web site organization, perceived
usefulness of the Web site, and perceived ease of use. Over time, people get used to the
organization of a Web site and learn how to use it effectively to gather information. This
suggests that improving content and usefulness ought to be the first priority.

Overall, there are eight basic design features that have been found necessary, from a business
point of view, to attract and retain customers. The Web site must be functional, informative,
employ simple navigation (ease of use), use redundant navigation, make it easy for customers to
purchase, and feature multi-browser functionality, simple graphics, and legible text. Sites that
offer a "compelling experience" in the sense of providing entertainment with commerce or
interactivity, or that are perceived as "fun" to use, are more successful in attracting and keeping
visitors. Web sites with editorial content that informs users also increase the time users spend on
the Web site and increase the chance of them purchasing a product or service. While simplicity
of design is hard to define, researchers found that the most important factor in predicting
monthly sales was product list navigation and choice features that save consumers time.
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 474-477
AACSB: Analytic Skills

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86) Describe the steps you would take if you want to optimize your rankings in search engine
results.
Answer: The first step in improving a firm's search engine ranking is to register with as many
search engines as possible so that a user looking for similar Web sites has a chance of coming
across the firm's site. Nearly all search engines have registration pages, and some may charge an
"inclusion fee" of around $50 per year.

The second step to improve a firm's ranking is to ensure that keywords used in the Web site
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engines differ, but most search engines read home page title tags, metatags, and other text on the
home page in order to understand and index the content of the page.

Third, place keywords in a Web site's metatag and page title. Metatags are heavily used by
search engines to determine the relevance of Web sites to search terms used frequently by users.
The title tag provides a brief description of the Web site's content. The words in both the
metatags and the title tags should match words on the home page. In addition, it is wise to
include many references on the home page to the subject matter of likely consumer searches.
Most crawlers will index the text content of the home page and may not go deeper into the Web
site's secondary pages.

Fourth, link the Web site to as many other Web sites as possible, both incoming links and
outgoing links. Search engines evaluate both kinds of links and their quality to identify how
popular a page is and how linked it is to other content on the Web. Search engines such as
Google are guessing that when you enter a query for a product, chances are good that the product
is located at one of the highly connected Web sites. The assumption is that the more links there
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by placing banner ads that link to the site. You can also create hundreds of Web sites whose only
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changes their indexing methods in order to fool search engine optimizers.
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 473-474
AACSB: Reflective Thinking

18
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Title: Pompei e le sue rovine, Vol. 3 (of 3)

Author: Pier Ambrogio Curti

Release date: December 5, 2023 [eBook #72323]

Language: Italian

Original publication: Milano: Sanvito, 1872

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POMPEI E


LE SUE ROVINE, VOL. 3 (OF 3) ***
POMPEI
E LE SUE ROVINE
VOL. III
POMPEI
E LE
SUE ROVINE
PER L’AVVOCATO
PIER AMBROGIO CURTI
GIÀ DEPUTATO AL PARLAMENTO NAZIONALE
DIRETTORE DELLA SOCIETÀ ITALIANA DI ARCHEOLOGIA
E DI BELLE LETTERE DI MILANO

VOLUME TERZO
1874
MILANO — F. SANVITO, EDITORE.
NAPOLI — DETKEN E ROCHOLL.
Proprietà letteraria.
Legge 25 Giugno 1865. Tip. Guglielmini.
INDICE
CAPITOLO XIX.
Il quartiere de’ soldati e il Pagus Augustus
Felix.

Quartiere de’ soldati, o Ludo gladiatorio? — Pagus


Augustus Felix — Ordinamenti militari di Roma —
Inclinazioni agricole — Qualità militari — Valore personale
— Formazione della milizia — La leva — Refrattari —
Cause d’esenzione — Leva tumultuaria — Cavalleria —
Giuramento — Gli evocati e i conquisitori — Fanteria:
Veliti, Astati, Principi, Triarii — Centurie, manipoli, coorti,
legioni — Denominazione delle legioni — Ordini della
cavalleria: torme, decurie — Duci: propri e comuni —
Centurioni — Uragi, Succenturiones, Accenti,
Tergoductores, Decani — Signiferi — Primopilo — Tribuni
— Decurioni nella cavalleria — Prefetti dei Confederati —
Legati — Imperatore — Armi — Raccolta d’armi antiche
nel Museo Nazionale di Napoli — Catalogo del comm.
Fiorelli — Cenno storico — Armi trovate negli scavi
d’Ercolano e Pompei — Armi dei Veliti, degli Astati, dei
Principi, dei Triarii, della cavalleria — Maestri delle armi —
Esercizj: passo, palaria, lotta, nuoto, salto, marce —
Fardelli e loro peso — Bucellatum — Cavalleria numidica
— Accampamenti — Castra stativa — Forma del campo
— Principia — Banderuole — Insegne — Aquilifer —
Insegna del Manipolo — Bandiera delle Centurie —
Vessillo della Cavalleria — Guardie del campo —
Excubiæ e Vigiliæ — Tessera di consegna — Sentinelle —
Procubitores — Istrumenti militari: buccina, tuba, lituus,
cornu, timpanum — Tibicen, liticen, timpanotriba —
Stipendj militari — I Feciali, gli Auguri, gli Aruspici e i
pullarii — Sacrifici e preghiere — Dello schierarsi in
battaglia — Sistema di fortificazioni — Macchine
guerresche: Poliorcetiæ: terrapieno, torre mobile,
testuggine, ariete, balista, tollenone, altalena, elepoli,
terebra, galleria, vigna — Arringhe — La vittoria, inni e
sacrificj — Premj: asta pura, monili, braccialetti, catene —
Corone: civica, murale, castrense o vallare, navale o
rostrale, ossidionale, trionfale, ovale — Altre distinzioni —
Spoglia opima — Preda bellica — Il trionfo — Veste
palmata — Trionfo della veste palmata — In Campidoglio
— Banchetto pubblico — Trionfo navale — Ovazione —
Onori del trionfatore — Pene militari: decimazione,
vigesimazione e centesimazione, fustinarium, taglio della
mano, crocifissione, fustigazione leggiera, multa, censio
hastaria — Pene minori — Congedo.

Nel capitolo di quest’opera I Fori, dicendo del Foro nundinario o


venale, toccai dell’opinione manifestata da molti che anzi essere un
simile foro, quel luogo fosse invece un quartiere di soldati, e venni
osservando come da essi si avesse per avventura a scambiare la
parte per il tutto, riconoscendo io con altri come in tal foro si
ritrovasse un quartiere sia di soldati, sia di gladiatori, come forse
meglio sembrasse al Padre Garrucci.
Bréton, malgrado le dimostrazioni fatte da quest’ultimo scrittore, e
malgrado che sia tratto a riconoscere ch’egli abbia nella maniera la
più positiva stabilito in una dissertazione inserta nel numero
tredicesimo del Bollettino Archeologico napolitano del gennajo 1855,
che si trattasse in questo luogo di un di que’ Ludi gladiatorii, di cui
parla Giusto Lipsio [1], non sa risolversi ancora a non ritenerlo per un
quartiere di soldati.
«Io non so in verità, scrive egli, perchè siasi cercato di sostituire
questa denominazione di foro nundinario a quella di Quartiere de’
Soldati, che venne a siffatto luogo fin dall’origine assegnato. È
evidente che una città dell’importanza di Pompei, una città fortificata,
dovesse avere una guarnigione e, per alloggiarla, una caserma.
Perchè dunque cercare questa caserma altrove e non nel
monumento il più piano e così conforme alla sua destinazione? Le
porte strette e poco numerose sarebbero state incommodissime e
perfino dannose per un mercato dove una folla numerosa si sarebbe
pigiata in disordine, mentre che esse potevano perfettamente
bastare a soldati che marciavano per due e regolarmente. Una
bardatura di cavallo da sella, armi, cimieri, memidi o calzari di
bronzo vennero qui trovati, che a dir vero sono più proprii di
gladiatori, che non di soldati; ma che conchiuderne per ciò? Che
gladiatori di passaggio a Pompei presero alloggio nella caserma, ciò
che è più naturale che prender alloggio nel mercato. Nelle camere
non si rinvennero letti: ma si sa che i soldati giacevano per lo più
sulla paglia. Il solo grande appartamento che esiste dovette essere
destinato al capo della guarnigione. Una sola cucina sarebbe stata
insufficiente se il nutrimento di tutti non fosse stato ammanito in
comune, e noi vediamo che quella del quartiere de’ soldati era
evidentemente destinata alla preparazione degli alimenti d’una gran
quantità di persone. Finalmente, quale sarebbe stata in un mercato
la destinazione di una prigione così severa come quella che qui vi fu
riconosciuta? S’arroge che in nessun luogo della città si rinvenne
una così grande quantità di scheletri, non essendosene contati meno
di sessantatrè, ripartiti principalmente nelle camere del primo piano.
Non è egli quindi supponibile che taluni motivi di disciplina abbiano
ritenuto i soldati al loro posto troppo lungo tempo per permettere a
tutti di sottrarsi alla morte?» [2]
Questi sono gli speciosi argomenti di Bréton, che potrebbero ben
anco essere conformi a verità, se quelli addotti dal Garrucci non
fossero stati buoni del pari e convincenti, per conchiudere che
dovesse essere invece un ludo gladiatorio. Io non presumo di
mettere innanzi un perentorio giudizio; solo permettendomi di
ricordare che ho già esternato l’avviso mio che inclina all’ipotesi del
Garrucci. Se non che al mio presente argomento ciò che preme di
stabilire si è che alla vita romana in Pompei non potesse mancare
quanto aveva tratto alla vita militare, e quindi dovevan esistere e una
caserma, se forse non ve n’erano anche di più, e posti e stazioni;
che infatti alla Porta di Ercolano si trovò morta, l’alabarda in pugno,
la sentinella, che fida alla sua consegna, anzichè mancarvi, e
cercare come tutti gli altri cittadini lo scampo nella fuga, erasi
lasciata soffocare dall’aere graveolenta e seppellire sotto le ceneri e
i lapilli.
Ma se qui non erano alloggiati i soldati, se questa non era la
caserma, ma un ludo gladiatorio, o locali attinenti solo al foro venale,
e dove trovar dovevansi soldati, posto che Pompei, come non è
contraddetto, fosse città importante, e di una importanza ben anco
militare, avesse mura, saracinesche, opere di fortificazione, e se
anzi ben due volte vi furono dedotte colonie militari, l’una volta al
tempo e per gli ordini di Silla e l’altra per quelli di Augusto?
Potrebbesi rispondere a siffatta domanda con quei dati storici che
Bréton medesimo prepose all’opera sua: «Silla ordonna que Pompei
fût reduite en colonie militaire sous le double nom de Colonia
Veneria, Cornelia, emprunté aux noms du dictateur et de la divinité
protectrice de la ville. Il y envoya des troupes sous le
commandement de son neveu Publius Sylla: mais les Pompéiens,
regardant ces colons comme des étrangers, leur refusèrent les droits
de cité...»
E più sotto:
«Quoiqu’il en soit, les colons furent forcés d’habiter hors de la ville
dans un faubourg, qui, lorsque plus tard, Auguste eut envoyé une
nouvelle colonie de vétérans, prit le nom de Pagus Augusto-
Felix [3].»
Da queste nozioni di storia pompeiana, che sono conformi a quelle
che ho pur io date nei capitoli del primo volume di quest’opera,
inferisco: a che dunque cercar in città caserme e stazioni militari, se i
soldati dovevano rimanere fuori della città? Vero è che quanto è
scoperto del Pagus Augustus-Felix non ha rivelato quartiere di sorta,
ma solo quella parte che l’attraversa ed è la Via delle Tombe e che
percorreremo nell’ultimo capitolo di quest’opera; ma rammentiamoci
altresì che ancor molto rimane a trarre in luce e che gli scavi ulteriori
ponno co’ loro risultamenti diradare ogni dubbio e risolvere la
quistione.
Dopo ciò, dinnanzi al fatto delle sentinelle summentovate e dopo le
diverse guerre e fazioni guerresche narrate in quest’opera nei
capitoli della storia, a soddisfare agli intenti dell’opera ed a chiudere
di essa quanto ha riferimento alla vita publica romana, riprodotta in
Pompei, entrerò a dire degli ordinamenti militari e di quanto ha tratto
all’armamento; ben francando la spesa il conoscere siccome
fossero, perocchè non di poco avessero a contribuire a quei trionfali
successi ch’ebbero sempre le armi romane. Gli scavi di Ercolano e
di Pompei portarono discreto contributo all’archeologia per farci
conoscere armi ed attrezzi militari e guerreschi, ed io di questi più
innanzi ne tratterò il meglio che mi sarà dato.
Ho già provato, trattando del commercio de’ Romani, che lungi
costoro dall’essere, come si crede erroneamente dall’universale, un
popolo soldato per istinto, lo fosse invece costretto dalla necessità, e
conquistando l’universo non lo facesse che per proteggere la sua
indipendenza o per difendersi, che non pugnò insomma che
vagheggiando le dolcezze della pace, alla quale, appena il poteva, si
abbandonava. Orazio compendia le aspirazioni de’ Romani quando
esclama:

O rus quando ego te aspiciam [4]?

I Romani in fatti ebbero a preservarsi dai Sabini, dagli Etruschi, dai


Latini, dai Sanniti, in tutti i quali erano elementi di grandissima
resistenza; onde Properzio, che tutto abbracciava il sentimento
dell’antichità, era nel vero giudicando l’Italia in quel verso che già
m’avvenne di dover riferire:
Armis apta magis tellus quam commoda noxæ [5],

più propria, cioè, alle armi, che non alla aggressione e distruzione.
Se dunque al soldato romano si può rimproverare un sol vizio,
l’avarizia, perchè l’orgoglio è più spesso nel soldato una virtù; di
ricambio ebbe l’onor militare come noi l’intendiamo pure oggidì, il
rispetto al giuramento, la devozione al suo capo, il gusto della
disciplina. I Romani vinsero il mondo con la tattica, la disciplina, la
forza d’insieme, la costanza e il sentimento d’essere Romani. Gli altri
popoli usavano di armi straordinarie e di macchine, il popolo romano
della spada. Anche contro i Germani, individualmente sì bravi e sì
forti, era colla pugna corpo a corpo e colla spada che i Romani
avevano la vittoria; onde Germanico così poteva dire alle sue truppe:
Non enim immensa barbarorum scuta, enormes hastas inter truncos
arborum et enata humo virgulta, perinde haberi quam pila et gladios,
et hærentia corporis tegmina. Densarent ictus, ora mucronibus
quærerent [6]. Potrebbesi e vizio e virtù che ho mentovati,
comprovare coi fatti alla mano; ma la storia di Roma è troppo notoria
per avere d’uopo di ricorrere a ciò.
Piuttosto m’occuperò qui ad informare il lettore della formazione di
questa famosa milizia conquistatrice dell’universo.
E prima devesi portar l’attenzione sulla scelta, dilectus, che era il
raccogliere e l’iscrivere i soldati in codici o matricole. Tale scelta
veniva fatta tra cittadini e socj o confederati; — rado avvenne che si
ricorresse ai poveri ed agli schiavi, — e venivano poi ascritti o a’ fanti
o a’ cavalieri. Nella milizia navale si accoglievano anche le persone
più abbiette e i libertini.
Il principio della milizia era al diciassettesimo anno, la fine al
cinquantesimo. Chi per altro serviva di continuo, terminava i suoi
obblighi a’ trentasette anni; gli altri, dove non avessero compiuto il
lor servizio al quarantesimo sesto anno, non n’erano liberati e si
potevano costringere finchè non avessero compiuti i cinquant’anni.
Altro requisito della milizia era il censo, solo volendovisi i ricchi, gli
onesti e coloro i quali, avendo beni tutti proprii, in certo modo
presentassero solidarietà d’interessi colla cosa publica.
La leva, o coscrizione, delle truppe, testimonio Dionigio
d’Alicarnasso [7], si faceva ogni anno, designandosi all’uopo due
consoli, che alla loro volta, congiuntamente al popolo, creavano
ventiquattro tribuni per capi di quattro legioni.
La cernita si faceva, previa publicazione dell’editto a mezzo del
banditore, dai tribuni in Campidoglio, estraendo a sorte dalle tribù e
classi, alla presenza dei consoli assisi nelle sedie curuli. I refrattarj
che si sottraevano alla milizia, i consoli comandavano venissero
ricercati e tradotti in carcere, talvolta puniti di verghe, venduti i loro
beni e qualche volta benanco multati dell’estremo supplizio o della
morte civile, venduti cioè pubblicamente schiavi o notati d’infamia.
Tre giuste cause sottrar potevano al servizio: la prima era la
dispensa, vacatio, per l’età, se già raggiunto il cinquantesimo anno;
per onore, se fosse taluno nella magistratura o nel sacerdozio; per
beneficio se il Senato e il Popolo consentivano: la seconda causa
dicevasi emeritum, ed era per chi aveva compiuti venti stipendj: la
terza era vizio o malattia, come i mancini, i gracili, chi mancasse di
pollici o altre dita, gli inetti a reggere scudo o gladio.
Nella leva così detta tumultuaria, od anche subitaria [8], che seguiva
nell’imminenza di qualche pericolo, non si osservavano grandi
formalità, esentandosi soltanto quelli ch’erano gravemente infermi od
inabili affatto.
Per ciò che riguardava la cavalleria, spettava ai censori il
determinare chi vi dovesse appartenere. Duplice poi era il corpo da’
cavalieri, l’uno costituivasi di quelli che ottenevano dal publico il
cavallo e il suo mantenimento, ed erano i soli che una volta
dicevansi cavalieri, equites; l’altro di coloro che non l’ottenevano.
Costoro potevano allora servire tra i pedoni, pedites. Riguardavasi
molto a’ costumi per concedersi il cavallo, e però spettavane la
decisione al censore. Dopo, tal facoltà si arrogarono i principi.
Finita la coscrizione, i tribuni congregavano i militi delle rispettive
legioni e lor facevano prestare giuramento. Ignorasi però se
giurassero uno per uno, o se insieme. Consisteva la formula nel
giurare: sarebbero per seguire i consoli a qualunque guerra fossero
essi per chiamarli, non mai tentar cosa contraria al popolo, non
disertar mai le bandiere, raccogliersi al cenno de’ consoli, nè partir
mai senza l’ordine loro.
Eranvi poi gli evocati, che formavano spesso la forza degli eserciti,
quasi assunti dietro preghiera o domanda, ed erano per lo più
veterani, esperti e prudenti della milizia, che comunque avessero
assolti i loro servizj, li riassumevano tuttavia in grazia de’ consoli o
de’ capitani. Gli evocati venivano dispensati da certe opere faticose,
come del vallo e degli accampamenti e tenuti in maggior onore,
spesso considerati quasi centurioni.
I conquisitori erano coloro che si mandavano nelle campagne ad
ingaggiare la gioventù per la milizia od a scoprire i refrattarj che vi si
tenevan nascosti ed a persuaderli di costituirsi.
Toccato fin qui della cernita, veggiamo dell’ordine della milizia.
Vario era esso sia ne’ militi che ne’ duci: Giusto Lipsio lo considera e
distingue, rispetto ai primi, in generi e in parti.
Generi dei pedoni erano i Veliti, gli Astati, i Principi e i Triarj. Veliti
coloro che per poca età e ricchezza venivano assegnati a questo
infimo genere, e quasi inermi venivano esposti di fronte al nemico;
astati perchè dapprima combattevano colle aste, dopo poi, serbando
sempre lo stesso nome, combattevano coi pili, specie di giavellotti, e
coi gladii; principi, perchè nello schierarsi dell’esercito venivano nel
terzo ordine. Parrebbe tuttavia dal loro nome dovessero trovarsi
invece nella prima.
Parti della fanteria erano poi queste, nelle quali i generi si dividevano
dai tribuni e dai centurioni i militi pedoni, eccettuati i veliti: la
Centuria, che si componeva di sessanta militi ed era assegnata ad
un centurione; il Manipolo, che si costituiva di due centurie; la
Coorte, composta di tre manipoli ed aveva astati, principi o triarii, ed
anche per consueto i veliti. Scipione Africano istituì anche la Coorte
Pretoria, nella quale s’ascrivevano i volontarii e gli amici e che mai si
dipartiva dal Pretore, ad imitazione della Coorte Regia presso i
Macedoni; finalmente la Legione, perchè comprendeva tutti gli altri
ordini. Romolo l’istituì di tremila uomini; cacciati i Re, crebbe a
quattromila; a cinquemila montò nella guerra contro Annibale ed a
seimila la portò Scipione quando passò in Africa.
Essendo molte le legioni, — perchè se prima sotto i consoli furono
quattro, nella seconda guerra Punica ascesero a venticinque, nella
guerra civile fra Cesare e Pompeo se ne contarono quaranta e
nell’assedio di Modena cinquanta — ebbero diversa denominazione:
il più spesso si distinsero col numero progressivo come prima,
secunda, tertia; talvolta col nome del fondatore, come Augusta,
Claudiana; alcune dal nome degli Dei, di Marte, di Minerva, di
Apollo; altre dalle provincie trionfate, come Italica, Gallica, Cirenaica;
ed altre finalmente da qualche onorifica qualità, come la Vittrice, la
Fulminante, la Valente, la Ferrea, la Pudica, la Fedele [9].
Gli ordini della cavalleria, erano le torme e le decurie. Dividevansi in
dieci corpi. Ogni legione aveva dieci torme tricenarie, ossia tremila
cavalieri. Le ale, erano così chiamate a motivo della loro posizione
nella battaglia; onde dicevasi ala destra ed ala sinistra,
componevansi di soci e di confederati; le torme o compagnie
suddividevansi in tre decurie o brigate di dieci uomini.
Tito Livio ne fa sapere, come nel principio della seconda guerra
Punica, i Romani, veduta l’inferiorità della loro cavalleria rimpetto a
quella de’ Cartaginesi, usassero dei veliti come arcieri e frombolieri
per appiccar zuffa avanti le linee e spazzar la via all’esercito [10].
Questa era, per usare del linguaggio militare, la bassa forza: essa
per altro si completava coi suonatori di militari strumenti, con operai
armajuoli e costruttori di macchine guerresche, tormenta bellica et
impedimenta, e conduttori di bagagli, pel trasporto de’ quali non si
faceva uso, come di presente, di carriaggi, ma di bestie da soma,
perchè di minor impaccio e di servizio più pronto.
Ora dei duci.
Questi pure erano di due generi: proprii, quelli che erano preposti ad
una o a qualche parte dell’esercito, come i centurioni, e i tribuni;
comuni, coloro che erano preposti a tutti, come i legati e il
comandante in capo, imperator.
I centurioni venivan, d’ordine o consenso dei consoli, eletti dai tribuni
fra quelli della loro classe: sovente però si toglievano anche da
classi superiori, ma per segnalati meriti, massime per militari, distinti.
L’elezione dei centurioni era duplice. Nella prima se ne eleggevano
trenta, ed altrettanti nella seconda. Il primo eletto denominavasi
Primopilo ed era nel suo diritto di intervenire nei consigli militari, in
un coi tribuni e coi legati. Talvolta accadde, più per qualche
occasione e volontà del duce, che per diritto o costume, che tutti i
centurioni venissero ammessi nel consiglio. Insegna poi dei
centurioni era un baston di vite, di cui si valevano a punizione de’
soldati.
I centurioni già eletti si eleggono pure alla loro volta gli uffiziali, uragi,
o più veramente chiamati optiones. Quando venivano creati dai
tribuni, dicevansi accensi; ma quando la loro nomina fu devoluta ai
centurioni, ebbero quel nome di optiones ed anche di
sottocenturioni, succenturiones. Tergoductores erano que’
sott’uffiziali che compivano le funzioni che or sarebbero de’ sargenti;
decani quelli che or si direbbero caporali.
In mezzo a’ centurioni si trasceglievano due, prestanti per vigoria
d’animo e di corpo, per essere signiferi, o portatori del vessillo;
perocchè quantunque un solo fosse il vessillo, due tuttavia erano i
vessillarii o signiferi, acciò l’uno succedesse all’altro in caso di fatica,
essendo i vessilli pesanti, od anche all’evenienza di malattia.
Il Primopilo, primopilus ed anche primipilus, era il capo di tutti i
centurioni, come il prefetto e principe delle legioni. Egli aveva
autorità anche sul collega suo Primopilo sinistro e la tutela
dell’aquila, che era lo stendardo principale della legione [11], tanto
così che si dicesse aquila come sinonimo di primopilato.
Come i centurioni eran preposti ai manipoli, così i tribuni della milizia
erano a tutta la legione che ne aveva sei. Li istituì Romolo, li
mantennero i Re ed i Consoli; ma il popolo se ne avocò il diritto e il
suffragio, poi esclusa ancora la facoltà nel popolo, e questi volendola
rivendicare, restò convenuto che parte ne avesse il popolo e un
numero eguale i consoli; i primi detti anche comitiati, avuti in maggior
onore; gli altri detti Rutili o Rufuli. I tribuni erano eziandio di due
sorta, cavalieri e plebei. Spettava ai tribuni render giustizia e
conoscere delle cause capitali, dare il segnale alle guardie e
sentinelle, curare le veglie, vigilare le munizioni, provvedere agli
esercizi tutti. Portavano l’anello d’oro, gli altri militi non potendolo
portar che di ferro.
La cavalleria dividendosi in dieci turme, si pigliavano tre cavalieri per
ciascuna turma, e così si avevano trenta duci. Erano insomma tante
turme nella cavalleria quante erano nella fanteria le coorti; tante le
decurie quanti i manipoli: e per conseguenza altrettanti i duci; con
questo solo divario che nella turma ve ne era un solo, mentre nel
manipolo ve n’erano due. Nella turma erano tre le decurie e l’uffiziale
che comandava la decuria appellavasi decurione. Ciascuna turma
aveva un solo vessillo. Spettava ai duci delle turme la nomina degli
uragi od optiones; come nella fanteria.
I soci o confederati, in luogo dei tribuni, che solo spettavano ai militi
cittadini, avevano i prefetti e venivano costituiti dai consoli, pari nel
resto nei diritti e nella podestà ai tribuni. I Legati erano applicati agli
imperatori o comandanti in capo, non tanto per comandare, quanto
per giovar di consiglio, ed era il Senato che li destinava come pratici
della milizia presso del capo. Era grande dignità codesta, perocchè
col potere dell’imperatore avesse altresì diritto alla venerazione
dovuta ai sacerdoti. Cicerone li chiamava numi di pace e di guerra,
curatori, interpreti, autori di bellici consigli, ministri del provinciale
interesse. Il loro potere per altro era subordinato a quello del
comandante. Incerto era il numero loro, talvolta destinato uno per
legione, sempre come sembrava conveniente al Senato. Quelli
ch’eran preposti a tutto l’esercito, dicevansi consolari: pretorii quelli
assegnati alle legioni.

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