Environmental Science 14th Edition Miller Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Environmental Science 14th Edition
Miller Solutions Manual

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CHAPTER 9
SUSTAINING BIODIVERSITY: THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH
Outline
9-1 What are the major threats to forest ecosystems?
A. Forests vary in their age, make-up, and origins.
1. Natural and planted forests occupy about 30% of the earth’s land surface (excluding
Greenland and Antarctica).
2. Two major types based on their age and structure:
a. An old growth forest is an uncut or regenerated primary forest that has not been
seriously disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for several hundred years or
more.
b. A second-growth forest is a stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological
succession that develops after the trees in an area have been removed by human
activities such as clear-cutting for timber or cropland or by natural forces such as fire,
hurricanes, or volcanic eruption.
3. A tree plantation, also called a tree farm or commercial forest, is a managed tract with
uniformly aged trees of one or two genetically uniform species that usually are harvested by
clear-cutting as soon as they become commercially valuable.
4. Forests provide important economic and ecological services.
a. Forests remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in organic compounds (biomass)
through photosynthesis.
b. Forests help to stabilize the earth’s temperature and slow projected climate change.
B. Unsustainable logging is a major threat to forest ecosystems.
1. The first step in harvesting trees is to build roads for access and timber removal, but they can
cause the following problems:
a. Increased erosion and sediment runoff into waterways.
b. Habitat fragmentation.
c. Loss of biodiversity.
d. Forest exposure to invasion by nonnative pests, diseases, and wildlife species.
2. Methods of harvesting trees:
a. Selective cutting.
b. Clear-cut.
c. Strip cutting.
3. SCIENCE FOCUS: Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecological Services.
a. Market tools such as regulations, taxes, and subsidies can encourage protection of
biodiversity.
b. The world’s forests and other ecosystems will continue to be degraded with current
prices of goods and services.
C. Fire can threaten or benefit forest ecosystems.
1. Surface fires usually burn only undergrowth and leaf litter on the forest floor.
a. Kills seedlings and small trees but spares most mature trees and allows most wild
animals to escape.
b. Burns away flammable ground material and may help to prevent more destructive
fires.
c. Frees valuable mineral nutrients tied up in slowly decomposing litter and
undergrowth.
d. Releases seeds from the cones of lodgepole pines.
e. Stimulates the germination of certain tree seeds, such as those of the giant sequoia
and jack pine.
f. Helps to control tree diseases and insects.
© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

150 Instructor’s Manual for Environmental Science, 14th edition
2. Crown fires are extremely hot fires that leap from treetop to treetop, burning whole trees.
a. Can destroy most vegetation, kill wildlife, increase soil erosion, and burn or damage
human structures in their paths.
3. CONNECTIONS: Climate Change and Forest Fires.
a. Rising temperatures and increased drought from projected climate change will likely
make many forest areas more suitable for insect pests, which would then multiply
and kill more trees.
b. Drying forests will probably experience more fires, producing increases in the
greenhouse gas CO2, which then increases atmospheric temperatures.
D. Almost half of the world’s forests have been cut down.
1. Deforestation is the temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for
agriculture, settlements, or other uses.
2. Human activities have reduced the earth’s original forest cover by about 46%, with most of
this loss occurring in the last 60 years.
3. If current deforestation rates continue, about 40% of the world’s remaining intact forests will
have been logged or converted to other uses within two decades, if not sooner.
4. Clearing large areas of forests, especially old-growth forests, has important short-term
economic benefits, but it also has a number of harmful environmental effects.
5. The net total forest cover in several countries changed very little or even increased between
2000 and 2007. Some of the increases resulted from natural reforestation by secondary
ecological succession on cleared forest areas and abandoned croplands. Other increases in
forest cover were due to the spread of commercial tree plantations.
6. Some scientists are concerned about the growing amount of land occupied by commercial tree
plantations, because replacement of old-growth forests by these biologically simplified tree
farms represents a loss of biodiversity, and possibly of stability, in some forest ecosystems.
7. CASE STUDY: Many Cleared Forests in the United States Have Grown Back.
a. Forests that cover about 30% of the U.S. land area provide habitats for more than 80%
of the country’s wildlife species and supply about two-thirds of the nation’s surface
water.
b. Today, forests in the United States (including tree plantations) cover more area than they
did in 1920, primarily due to secondary succession.
c. Every year, more wood is grown in the United States than is cut and the total area
planted with trees increases.
d. Protected forests make up about 40% of the country’s total forest area.
e. Since the mid-1960s, an increasing area of the nation’s remaining old-growth and fairly
diverse second-growth forests has been cut down and replaced with biologically
simplified tree plantations.
E. Tropical forests are disappearing rapidly.
1. Tropical forests cover about 6% of the earth’s land area.
2. At least half of the world’s known species of terrestrial plants and animals live in tropical
forests.
3. Brazil has more than 30% of the world’s remaining tropical rain forest in its vast Amazon
basin.
4. At the current rate of global deforestation, 50% of the world’s remaining old-growth tropical
forests will be gone or severely degraded by the end of this century.
F. Causes of tropical deforestation are varied and complex.
1. Tropical deforestation results from a number of interconnected underlying and direct causes.
a. Pressures from population growth and poverty, push subsistence farmers and the
landless poor into tropical forests, where they try to grow enough food to survive.
b. Government subsidies can accelerate the direct causes such as logging and ranching by
reducing the costs of timber harvesting, cattle grazing, and the creation of vast
plantations of crops such as soybeans.
c. Tropical forests in the Amazon and other South American countries are cleared or
burned mostly for cattle grazing and large soybean plantations.

Chapter 9: Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach 151
d. In Indonesia, Malaysia, and other areas of Southeast Asia, tropical forests are being
replaced with vast plantations of oil palm, whose oil is used in cooking, cosmetics, and
biodiesel fuel for motor vehicles (especially in Europe).
e. In Africa, people struggle to survive by clearing plots for small-scale farming and by
harvesting wood for fuel, which is causing deforestation on that continent.
2. CONNECTIONS: Burning Tropical Forests and Climate Change.
a. The burning of tropical forests releases CO2 into the atmosphere, which is projected to
warm the atmosphere and change the global climate at an increasing rate during this
century.
b. These fires account for at least 17% of all human-created greenhouse gas emissions.
9-2 How should we manage and sustain forests?
A. We can manage forests more sustainably.
1. Certification of sustainably grown timber and of sustainably produced forest products can
help consumers.
2. Removing government subsidies and tax breaks that encourage deforestation would also help.
B. We can improve the management of forest fires.
1. In the United States, the Smokey Bear educational campaign has:
prevented countless forest fires, saved many lives and prevented billions of dollars in loss
of trees, wildlife, and human structures.
a. convinced the public that all forest fires are bad and should be prevented or put out.
2. Trying to prevent all forest fires can make matters worse by increasing the likelihood of
destructive crown fires due to the accumulation of highly flammable underbrush and smaller
trees in some forests.
3. There are several strategies for reducing fire-related harm to forests and people.
a. Prescribed burns are small, contained surface fires to remove flammable small trees and
underbrush in the highest-risk forest areas.
b. Allow some fires on public lands to burn, thereby removing flammable underbrush and
smaller trees, as long as the fires do not threaten human structures and life. Protect
houses and other buildings in fire-prone areas by thinning a zone of about 60 meters
(200 feet) around them and eliminating the use of flammable building materials such as
wooden shingles.
c. Thin forest areas vulnerable to fire by clearing away small fire-prone trees and
underbrush under careful environmental controls.
4. SCIENCE FOCUS: Certifying Sustainably Grown Timber and Products Such as the Paper
Used in This Book.
a. The nonprofit Forest Stewardship Council has developed environmentally sound and
sustainable practices for use in certifying timber and timber products.
b. To be certified, a timber company must show that cutting of trees has not exceeded
long-term forest regeneration; roads and harvesting systems have not caused
unreasonable ecological damage; topsoil has not been damaged; and downed wood
(boles) and standing dead trees (snags) are left to provide wildlife habitat.
c. The FSC reported that, by 2009, about 5% of the world’s forest area in 82 countries had
been certified according to FSC standards. The countries with the largest areas of FSC-
certified forests are, in order, Canada, Russia, Sweden, the United States, Poland, and
Brazil.
d. FSC also certifies 5,400 manufacturers and distributors of wood products. The paper
used in this book was produced with the use of sustainably grown timber, as certified by
the FSC, and contains recycled paper fibers.
C. We can reduce the demand for harvested trees.
1. Reduce inefficient use of construction materials, excess packaging, overuse of junk mail,
inadequate paper recycling, and failure to reuse or find substitutes for wooden shipping
containers.
2. Paper can be made from fiber that does not come from trees.
D. Ways to reduce tropical deforestation.
1. Debt-for-nature swap can make it financially attractive for countries to protect their tropical
forests.

2.Conservation concessions occur when governments or private conservation organizations pay

nations for agreeing to preserve their natural resources.
3. Consumers can reduce the demand for products that are supplied through illegal and
unsustainable logging in tropical forests.
a. For building projects, use recycled waste lumber. Substitutes for wood, such as recycled
plastic building materials and bamboo, are also available.
b. Reduce the use of throwaway paper products and replace them with reusable plates,
cups, and cloth napkins and handkerchiefs.
4. Individuals can plant trees.
5. CONNECTIONS: Good and Bad Bamboo
a. Growing bamboo, which is increasingly used for hardwood flooring, added to an
environmental problem while trying to be part of the solution.
b. Bamboo can be a highly sustainable building material if it is raised on degraded lands.
c. Some bamboo suppliers have cleared natural forests to plant rapidly growing bamboo.
d. Consumers should look for bamboo products that are certified as sustainably produced
by the Forest Stewardship Council.
9-3 How should we manage and sustain grasslands?
A. Some rangelands are overgrazed.
1. Grasslands provide many important ecological services, including soil formation, erosion control,
nutrient cycling, storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide in biomass, and maintenance of
biodiversity.
2. Rangelands are unfenced grasslands in temperate and tropical climates that supply forage, or
vegetation, for grazing (grass-eating) and browsing (shrub-eating) animals.
3. Livestock also graze in pastures, which are managed grasslands or enclosed meadows usually
planted with domesticated grasses or other forage.
4. Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of
a rangeland area.
5. Limited data from surveys in various countries indicate that overgrazing by livestock has caused a
loss in productivity in as much as 20% of the world’s rangeland.
B. We can manage rangelands more sustainably.
1. Control the number of grazing animals and the duration of their grazing in a given area so the
carrying capacity of the area is not exceeded.
a. Rotational grazing in which cattle are confined by portable fencing to one area for a short
time (often only 1–2days) and then moved.
b. Livestock tend to aggregate around natural water sources with strips of lush vegetation known
as riparian zones, so providing supplemental feed at selected sites and strategically locating
water holes and tanks and salt blocks may reduce overgrazing.
c. Suppressing the growth of unwanted invader plants by use of herbicides, mechanical removal,
or controlled burning may help, as can controlled, short-term trampling by large numbers of
livestock.
9-4 How should we manage and sustain parks and nature reserves?
A. National parks face many environmental threats.
1. More than 1,100 major national parks are located in more than 120 countries.
2. Most too small to sustain many large animal species.
3. Many parks suffer from invasions by nonnative species that compete with and reduce the
populations of native species.
4. Some parks are so popular that large numbers of visitors are degrading the natural features that
make them attractive.
5. Parks in less-developed countries have the greatest biodiversity of all parks, but only about 1% of
these parklands are protected.
6. CASE STUDY: Stresses on U.S. Public Parks:
a. The U.S. national park system, established in 1912, includes 58 major national parks, along
with 335 monuments and historic sites. States, counties, and cities also operate public parks.
b. Popularity is one of the biggest problems. Noisy and polluting dirt bikes, dune buggies, jet
skis, snowmobiles, and off-road vehicles degrade the aesthetic experience for many visitors,
destroy or damage fragile vegetation, and disturb wildlife.

c. Many suffer damage from the migration or deliberate introduction of nonnative species.
d. Native species—some of them threatened or endangered—are killed or removed illegally.
7. CONNECTIONS: National Parks and Climate Change.
a. Low-lying U.S. park properties in places such as Key West, Florida, Ellis Island in New York
Harbor, and Florida’s Everglades National Park will likely be underwater later in this century
if sea levels rise as projected.
b. As climate zones shift in a warmer world, by 2030, Glacier National Park may not have any
glaciers and the saguaro cactus may disappear from Saguaro National Park.
B. Nature reserves occupy only a small part of the earth’s land.
1. As of 2010, less than 13% of the earth’s land area was strictly or partially protected in nature
reserves, parks, wildlife refuges, wilderness, and other areas.
2. No more than 5% of the earth’s land is strictly protected from potentially harmful human
activities.
3. Conservation biologists call for full protection of at least 20% of the earth’s land area in a global
system of biodiversity.
4. Developers and resource extractors oppose protection and contend that these areas might contain
valuable resources that would add to current economic growth.
5. Ecologists and conservation biologists view protected areas as islands of biodiversity and natural
capital that help to sustain all life and economies and serve as centers of evolution.
6. The buffer zone concept strictly protects an inner core of a reserve and establishes buffer zones in
which local people can extract resources sustainably without harming the inner core.
7. By 2010, the United Nations had used this principle to create a global network of 553 biosphere
reserves in 109 countries.
8. SCIENCE FOCUS: Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park.
a. Yellowstone reintroduced the wolf as an experiment in ecosystem restoration.
b. Project appears successful but decades of research will be needed to better understand the
wolves and to unravel many other interacting factors in this complex ecosystem.
9. CASE STUDY: Costa Rica—A Global Conservation Leader.
a. Tropical forests once completely covered Central America’s Costa Rica, but between 1963
and 1983 much of the country’s forests were cleared to graze cattle.
b. Costa Rica is a superpower of biodiversity, with an estimated 500,000 plant and animal
species.
c. Costa Rica now has a system of nature reserves and national parks that, by 2010, included
about a quarter of its land.
d. Costa Rica now devotes a larger proportion of its land to biodiversity conservation than does
any other country
e. The country’s largest source of income is its $1-billion-a-year tourism industry, almost two-
thirds of which involves ecotourism.
f. To reduce deforestation, the government has eliminated subsidies for converting forest to
rangeland.
g. The government pays landowners to maintain or restore tree cover.
h. Between 2007 and 2008, the government planted nearly 14 million trees.
i. Costa Rica has gone from having one of the world’s highest deforestation rates to having one
of the lowest.
C. Protecting wilderness is an important way to preserve biodiversity.
a. One way to protect undeveloped lands is to set them aside as wilderness, land officially
designated as an area where natural communities have not been seriously disturbed by
humans and where human activities are limited by law.
b. Some critics oppose protecting large areas for their scenic and recreational value for a
relatively small number of people.
c. Conservation biologists support protecting wilderness in order to preserve biodiversity and as
centers for evolution.
1. CASE STUDY: Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the United States.
a. In the United States, conservationists have been trying to save wild areas from development
since 1900.

b.The Wilderness Act (1964) allowed the government to protect undeveloped tracts of public
land from development as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System.
c. Only about 2% of the land area of the lower 48 states is protected, most of it in the West.
9-5 What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity?
A. Here are four ways to protect ecosystems.
1. Most biologists and wildlife conservationists believe that the best way to keep from hastening the
extinction of wild species through human activities is the ecosystems approach, which protects
threatened habitats and ecosystem services.
2. Four-point plan of the ecosystems approach:
a. Map the world’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and create an inventory of the species
contained in each of them and the ecosystem services they provide.
b. Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species, with emphasis on protecting
plant biodiversity and ecosystem services.
c. Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible.
B. Protecting global biodiversity hotspots is an urgent priority.
1. Some biodiversity scientists urge adoption of an emergency action strategy to identify and quickly
protect biodiversity hotspots, areas especially rich in plant species that are found nowhere else and
are in great danger of extinction .
2. These hotspots cover only a little more than 2% of the earth’s land surface, they contain an
estimated 50% of the world’s flowering plant species and 42% of all terrestrial species.
3. These hotspots are home for a large majority of the world’s endangered or critically endangered
species, and one-fifth of the world’s population.
C. We can rehabilitate and restore ecosystems that we have damaged.
1. Almost every natural place on the earth has been affected or degraded to some degree by human
activities.
2. We can at least partially reverse much of this harm through ecological restoration: the process of
repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and dynamics of natural ecosystems.
3. Examples of restoration include:
a. replanting forests
b. restoring grasslands
c. restoring coral reefs
d. restoring wetlands and stream banks
e. reintroducing native species
f. removing invasive species
g. freeing river flows by removing dams.
4. Four steps to speed up repair operations include the following:
a. Restoration.
b. Rehabilitation.
c. Replacement.
d. Creating artificial ecosystems.
5. Researchers have suggested a science-based, four-step strategy for carrying out most forms of
ecological restoration and rehabilitation:
a. Identify the causes of the degradation.
b. Stop the abuse by eliminating or sharply reducing these factors.
c. If necessary, reintroduce key species to help restore natural ecological processes.
d. Protect the area from further degradation and allow secondary ecological succession to occur.
6. SCIENCE FOCUS: Ecological Restoration of a Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica.
a. One of the world’s largest ecological restoration projects.
b. Small, tropical dry forest was burned, degraded, and fragmented for large-scale conversion of
the area to cattle ranches and farms.
c. The forest is being restored and reconnected to a rain forest on nearby mountain slopes, with
the goal of reestablishing a tropical dry-forest ecosystem over the next 100–300 years.
d. The project serves as a training ground in tropical forest restoration for scientists from all over
the world.
D. We can share areas we dominate with other species.

1.
Reconciliation ecology is the science that focuses on inventing, establishing, and maintaining new
habitats to conserve species diversity in places where people live, work, or play.
2. Examples include:
a. Protecting local wildlife and ecosystems can provide economic resources for their
communities by encouraging sustainable forms of ecotourism.
b. Protecting vital insect pollinators such as native butterflies and bees by reducing the use of
pesticides, planting flowering plants as a source of food for pollinating insect species, and
building structures which serve as hives for pollinating bees.
c. Protecting bluebirds within human-dominated habitats where most of the bluebirds’ nesting
trees have been cut down by using nesting boxes and keeping house cats away from nesting
bluebirds.
9-6 How can we help to sustain aquatic biodiversity?
A. Human activities are destroying and degrading aquatic biodiversity.
1. Human activities have destroyed or degraded a large portion of the world’s coastal wetlands,
coral reefs, mangroves, and ocean bottom, and disrupted many of the world’s freshwater
ecosystems.
2. Rising sea levels are likely to destroy many coral reefs and flood some low-lying islands
along with their protective coastal mangrove forests.
3. Loss and degradation of many sea-bottom habitats caused by dredging operations and trawler
fishing boats.
4. In freshwater aquatic zones, dam building and excessive water withdrawal from rivers for
irrigation and urban water supplies destroy aquatic habitats, degrade water flows, and disrupt
freshwater biodiversity.
5. The deliberate or accidental introduction of hundreds of harmful invasive species threatens
aquatic biodiversity.
6. Thirty-four percent of the world’s known marine fish species and 71% of the world’s
freshwater fish species face premature extinction.
B. Overfishing: gone fishing; fish gone.
1. A fishery is a concentration of a particular wild aquatic species suitable for commercial
harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water.
2. The fishprint is defined as the area of ocean needed to sustain the consumption of an average
person, a nation, or the world.
3. Fifty-two percent of the world’s fisheries are fully exploited, 20% are moderately
overexploited, and 28% are overexploited or depleted.
4. Overharvesting has led to the collapse of some of the world’s major fisheries.
5. When overharvesting causes larger predatory species to dwindle, rapidly reproducing invasive
species can more easily take over and disrupt ocean food webs.
6. CASE STUDY: Industrial Fish Harvesting Methods.
a. Industrial fishing fleets dominate the world’s marine fishing industry, using global
satellite positioning equipment, sonar fish-finding devices, huge nets and long fishing
lines, spotter planes, and gigantic refrigerated factory ships that can process and freeze
their catches.
b. Trawler fishing is used to catch fish and shellfish by dragging a funnel-shaped net held
open at the neck along the ocean bottom.
c. Purse-seine fishing, is used to catch surface-dwelling fish by using a spotter plane to
locate a school; the fishing vessel then encloses it with a large net called a purse seine.
d. Longlining involves lines up to 130 kilometers (80 miles) long, hung with thousands of
baited hooks to catch open-ocean fish species or bottom fishes.
e. Drift-net fishing catches fish with huge drifting nets that can hang as deep as 15 meters
(50 feet) below the surface and extend to 64 kilometers (40 miles) long.
f. Drift-nets can trap and kill large quantities of unwanted fish, called bycatch, along with
marine mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds.
g. Almost one-third of the world’s annual fish catch by weight consists of bycatch species,
which are mostly thrown overboard dead or dying.
C. We can protect and sustain marine biodiversity.
1. Protecting marine biodiversity is difficult for several reasons.

a. The human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding so rapidly into aquatic areas
that it is difficult to monitor the impacts.
b. Much of the damage to the oceans and other bodies of water is not visible to most
people.
c. Many people incorrectly view the seas as an inexhaustible resource that can absorb an
almost infinite amount of waste and pollution and still produce all the seafood we want.
d. Most of the world’s ocean area lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country and is
thus an open-access resource and subject to overexploitation.
2. Several ways to protect and sustain marine biodiversity:
a. Protect endangered and threatened aquatic species.
b. Establish protected marine sanctuaries.
c. Protect whole marine ecosystems within a global network of fully protected marine
reserves.
3. INDIVIDUALS MATTER: Sylvia Earle—Champion of the Oceans
a. Sylvia Earle is an oceanographer, explorer, author, and lecturer. For decades, she has
been a global leader in publicizing the urgent need to increase our understanding of the
global ocean that helps support all life and to protect much more of it from harmful
human activities.
b. Earle’s research has focused on the ecology and conservation of marine ecosystems,
with an emphasis on developing deep-sea exploration technology.
c. She has been the Chief Scientist of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and founded three companies devoted to developing
submarines and other devices for deep-sea exploration and research.
d. She has received more than 100 major international and national honors, including a
place in the National Women’s Hall of Fame.
e. Earle is currently leading a campaign to ignite public support for a global network of
marine protected areas, which she dubs “hope spots.” Her goal is to help save and
restore the oceans.
D. Taking an Ecosystem Approach to Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity
1. Strategies for applying the ecosystem approach to aquatic biodiversity include:
a. Complete the mapping of the world’s aquatic biodiversity, identifying and locating as
many plant and animal species as possible.
b. Identify and preserve the world’s aquatic biodiversity hotspots and areas where
deteriorating ecosystem services threaten people and other forms of life.
c. Create large and fully protected marine reserves to allow damaged marine ecosystems to
recover and to allow fish stocks to be replenished.
d. Protect and restore the world’s lakes and river systems, which are the most threatened
ecosystems of all.
e. Initiate worldwide ecological restoration projects in systems such as coral reefs and
inland and coastal wetlands.
f. Find ways to raise the incomes of people who live in or near protected lands and waters
so that they can become partners in the protection and sustainable use of ecosystems.
2. The harmful effects of human activities on aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem services could
be reversed over the next 2 decades if an ecosystem approach is implemented, at a cost one of
penny per cup of coffee consumed in the world each year.
3. This chapter’s three big ideas are:
a. The economic values of the important ecological services provided by the world’s
ecosystems are far greater than the value of raw materials obtained from those systems.
b. We can sustain terrestrial biodiversity by protecting severely threatened areas,
protecting remaining undisturbed areas, restoring damaged ecosystems, and sharing with
other species much of the land we dominate.
c. We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing
coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

Objectives
9-1 What are the major threats to forest ecosystems?
CONCEPT 9-1 Ecologically valuable forest ecosystems are being cut and burned at unsustainable rates in
many parts of the world.
1. Distinguish between old-growth and second-growth forests. Briefly describe the commercial and
ecological significance of forests, and the economic and ecological services that forests provide.
2. Describe several ways to harvest trees and list the problems associated with deforestation.
3. Describe the threats and benefits of fire to forest ecosystems, and the link between climate change and
forest fires.
4. Define deforestation, its economic and environmental effects, and changed that have occurred in the
forest area of the United States.
5. Describe causes and effects of deforestation of tropical forests.
9-2 How should we manage and sustain forests?

CONCEPT 9-2 We can sustain forests by emphasizing the economic value of their ecological services,
removing government subsidies that hasten their destruction, protecting old-growth forests, harvesting trees no
faster than they are replenished, and planting trees.
1. Describe methods to manage forests more sustainably and to improve the management of forest fires.
2. Describe efforts to certify sustainably grown timber and products such as paper.
3. List ways to reduce the demand for harvested trees and tropical deforestation.
9-3 How should we manage and sustain grasslands?

CONCEPT 9-3 We can sustain the productivity of grasslands by controlling the number and distribution of
grazing livestock and by restoring degraded grasslands.
1. Distinguish among grassland, rangeland and pasture. Define overgrazing.
2. List ways to manage rangelands more sustainably.
9-4 How should we manage and sustain parks and nature reserves?
CONCEPT 9-4 We need to put more resources into sustaining existing parks and nature reserves and into
protecting much more of the earth’s remaining undisturbed land area.
1. Describe the challenges to our natural parks.
2. Compare the percentage of the earth that is currently protected by nature reserves to the percentage
recommended by conservation biologists. Discuss the controversy over protecting land through nature
reserves.
3. Define wilderness and describe the controversy over wilderness protection in the United States.
9-5 What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity?

CONCEPT 9-5 We can help to sustain terrestrial biodiversity by identifying and protecting severely threatened
areas (biodiversity hotspots), restoring damaged ecosystems (using restoration ecology), and sharing with other
species much of the land we dominate (using reconciliation ecology).
1. List the steps of the four-point plan for implementing the ecosystems approach.
2. Define biodiversity hotspot and discuss the distribution of endangered or critically endangered species
and the human population in relation to hotspots.
3. Define ecological restoration and give 7 examples. List the four steps for carrying out most forms of
ecological restoration and rehabilitation.
4. Define reconciliation ecology and give three examples.

9-6 How can we help to sustain aquatic biodiversity?

CONCEPT 9-6 We can help to sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing
coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.
1. Discuss the issues involved in protecting the marine environment.
2. List factors that threaten the marine and freshewater aquatic zones.
3. Define fishery and fishprint. Describe threats to ocean fisheries, including industrial methods of
harvesting fish.
4. Discuss ways to protect marine biodiversity and the difficulties involved.
5. List strategies for applying the ecosystem approach to aquatic biodiversity.
Key Terms
biodiversity hotspots (p. 195) old-growth forest (p. 179) second-growth
commercial forest (p. 179) overgrazing (p. 190) forest (p. 179)
ecological restoration (p. 196) pastures (p. 190) tree plantation
fishprint (p. 199) rangelands (p. 190) (farm) (p. 179)
fishery (p. 199) reconciliation ecology (p. 197) wilderness (p. 195)
Teaching Tips
Use the case study to introduce the idea of human affect on, and management of, ecosystems. Begin this
discussion by reminding students that the area they lived in was once untouched by human civilization.
• Ask them what that area was like before humans settled there—species and forests or grasslands
present. Coax them to tell you how human history has carved its impact into the land and sea.
• Use this as a bridge to the discussion about whether humans have an ethical responsibility to
preserve and manage ecosystems, or whether ecosystems are present simply to provide for species,
such as ourselves.
• Furthermore, an introduction to the National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services, etc.
with particular attention to your local parks and refuges helps illustrate how local ecosystems are
being preserved or managed.
• The rather young science of restoration ecology is presented as one of the main strategies for
protecting Earth’s biodiversity. Lastly, suggested priorities are presented for protecting such
biodiversity.
Maintaining a high level of biodiversity is one of the text’s primary goals in maintaining a sustainable
world. Ask your students to think of a park or refuge that they have visited. They can present or write about
the following items specific to their park or refuge.
• Park name, location, size, and biome; describe the climate and habitat(s); list as many species as
possible that you remember seeing.
• Discuss the economic value of that park to the local economy then discuss the environmental
value.
• How was the park helping to maintain or increase biodiversity?
Discussion Topics
1. Why are tropical rain forests important for U.S. imports and biodiversity?
2. What are the different types of public land in the United States? How are these public lands used to
increase biodiversity? What are the environmental values derived from these lands?
3. What is the difference between the National Parks System and the National Wilderness System?

4. What type of wilderness preservation is happening in developing countries?
5. Should fires be allowed to burn in forests on public lands? What are some of the benefits and
detriments of forest fires?
6. Should products that result in destruction of tropical forests be banned in the United States?
7. What types of activities (such as mining) should be allowed in national wildlife refuges?
8. Should parts of the wilderness areas be set aside for wildlife only?
Activities and Projects

1. Invite a National Park Service or state official to your class to discuss park problems and future
management plans.
2. As a class field trip, visit a forest managed for pulp and paper production or industrial timbering. What
specific methods are used to maximize economic returns and to curb ecosystem damage? Contrast the
appearance of commercial forestland and relatively undisturbed forestland. Which do you like best?
Why?
3. As a class project, compile a list of commodities for sale in your community whose production or
harvesting contributes to the destructive exploitation of tropical forests. Are vendors and consumers
aware of the consequences? Do they care about the consequences?
4. If there are rangelands in your locale, try to schedule a class visit to examples of well- and poorly-
managed grazing lands. Compare the quantity and quality of vegetation present.
5. Look at maps with the different parks on them. Use a map to mark all the parks your students have
visited.
6. If possible, visit a national park or wilderness area. Assess its current problems and analyze plans to
address those problems.
Attitudes and Values Assessment

1. What wildlife is most common in your area?
2. Where are the nearest locations in your area to go to observe wildlife?
3. What are your feelings toward wildlife species? What relationship between humans and wildlife do
you find most desirable?
4. Do you feel that humans have the right to relate to other species in any way they wish? If not, what
limits do you see on human behavior toward other species?
5. Do you use products that come from the tropical forest? Do the products you use result in destruction
of forest or continued sustainable use of the forest?
6. How do you feel when you see pictures of the destruction of ancient forests?
7. Do you feel we can continue to find substitutes for losses we suffer when ancient forests are
destroyed?

8. Do you feel nature can continue to replenish forests at any rate humans choose to harvest them?
9. How do you feel when you see pictures of forests that have been clear-cut? Pictures of unemployed
loggers unable to support their families?
10. Do you feel it is right to destroy cultures that live sustainably in the tropical rain forests? If not, what
steps do you support to protect these cultures?
11. What steps do you feel should be taken to support human cultures and wildlife species in ways that
create sustainable societies?
12. Have you ever visited a mine? How did you feel about the mine? What benefits do you enjoy as a
result of mining activity?
13. Have you ever visited rangeland? How did you feel about the land? What benefits do you enjoy as a
result of cattle grazing?
14. Have you ever visited a national forest? How did you feel about the forest? What benefits do you enjoy
as a result of lumbering activity?
15. Have you ever visited a wilderness area? How did you feel about the wilderness? What benefits do you
enjoy as a result of protection of wilderness areas?
16. Would you support classifying a much larger proportion of the public lands (such as parks, forests, and
rangeland) in your country as wilderness and making such land unavailable for timber cutting,
livestock grazing, mining, hunting, fishing, motorized vehicles, or any type of human structure?
Laboratory Skills
Wells, Edward. Lab Manual for Environmental Science. 2009. Lab #2: The Tragedy of the Commons – A
Classroom Simulation Exercise.
Wells, Edward. Lab Manual for Environmental Science. 2009. Lab #15: Oil Spill!
News Videos
Darwin’s Galapagos under Threat, The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library 2009, ©2011,
DVD ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73355-7
Kalahari Desert Could Double in Size, The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library 2009,
©2011, DVD ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73355-7
Oil Spill Impacts the Fishing Industry, The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library 2010 with
Workbook, ©2012, DVD ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73495-0
Wildlife Suffering in the Gulf, The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library 2010 with
Workbook, ©2012, DVD ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73495-0

Additional Videos
After the Storm (Documentary, free DVD)
Looks at watersheds and their importance in various parts of the U.S.
http://www.epa.gov/weatherchannel/video.html
Blue Planet (Video Series from Discovery Channel, 2001)

Mammoth series, five years in the making, taking a look at the rich tapestry of life in the world's oceans.
http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/blueplanet/blueplanet.html
Conserving America: The Wetlands (PBS, 1994)

A four-part series on American conservation of wetlands.
http://www.amazon.com/CONSERVING-AMERICA-Wetlands-Burgess-Meredith/dp/B000EHQ0B2
Frontline: World, Mexico: The Business of Saving Trees (Documentary, 2008, Online)
A look at how the carbon credit system has been use to create jobs in Mexico.
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2008/03/mexico_the_busi.html
Last Journey for the Leatherback? (Documentary, 2004)

Looks at the effects of overfishing on sea turtles.
Main Website: http://www.seaturtles.org/article.php?id=1171
Teacher’s Kit: http://www.seaturtles.org/downloads/ACF173.pdf
The Lorax (Animated, Dr. Seuss, 1972, Online)

Animated version of the classic book about an industrialist and the destruction of the environment.
Movie: http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6650219631867189375#docid=7915135816862639754
Activity: http://www.teacherweb.com/TN/WestValleyMiddle/TheLorax/
NOVA—Fire Wars
Main Website: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fire/
Teacher’s Guide: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/programs/2908_fire.html
Livable Landscapes (Documentary, 2002)

How growth and sprawl affect the quality of life in New England, and some possible solutions.
http://www.bullfrogfilms.com/catalog/ll.html
Major World Ecosystems (Documentary, 2004)

Covers a variety of ecosystems and their requirements.
http://www.amazon.com/Major-World-Ecosystems/dp/B00004T01Y
Ocean Oasis (Documentary, San Diego Natural History Museum, 2001)

Biodiversity in the Sea of Cortez, and the deserts of Baja.
http://www.oceanoasis.org/toc.html
Planet Earth Series—Discovery Channel (TV Series)

Series contains excellent documentaries on major aquatic biomes.
http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/planet-earth/planet-earth.html
Valley at the Crossroads (Documentary, 2002)

The battle over sprawl in California's Central Valley, where 50% of America's fruits and vegetables are
grown.
http://www.bullfrogfilms.com/catalog/vac.html

We all Live Downstream (Documentary, 1991)

A look at pollution in the Mississippi River and the effects on human health.
http://www.videoproject.com/wea-281-v.html
Web Resources
Bridge
http://www.vims.edu/bridge/
A variety of resources for teachers that may be adaptable to the college level.
Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence

http://www.cosee.net/
Contains a variety of resources for ocean education.
Hope Spots
Marine scientist and conservationist Sylvia Earle has coined the term Hope Spots for special places that are
critical to the health of the ocean.
http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/missionblue/hope-spots/
http://www.sylviaearlealliance.org/hopespots
Monterey Bay Aquarium

http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/cr/research.aspx?c=dd
Information about research and conservation of marine species and ecosystems.
National Interagency Fire Center

Has up-to-date information on wildfires as well as educational materials.
http://www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_main.html
Ocean Conservancy
Excellent information on a variety of aquatic issues.
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/PageServer?pagename=home
U.S. Forest Service

Has up-to-date information on current forest management plans in the U.S. and a searchable index of
National Forests and National Grasslands.
http://www.fs.fed.us/
Digital Integration
Correlation to Global Environment Watch
Biodiversity Fisheries Land Management
Community-Based Conservation Fishing Land Use
Conservation Forests and Deforestation Oceans and Seas
Coral Reefs Grasslands Protected Areas
Deserts and Desertification Habitat Loss Remediation
Ecological Restoration Invasive Species Wetlands
Ecosystem Services Lakes, Rivers, and Streams Wildlife

Correlation to Virtual Field Trips

Ecosystem Approach to Sustaining Biodiversity
Correlation to Explore More

Aquatic Ecosystems Environmental History Rangeland
Biodiversity Forests Saving Species
Conservation Biology Indigenous Cultures Water Pollution
Environmental Economics Overfishing
Suggested Answers to End of Chapter Questions

Answers will vary but these represent phrases from this chapter. The following are examples of the material
that should be contained in possible student answers to the end of chapter questions. They represent only a
summary overview and serve to highlight the core concepts that are addressed in the text. It should be
anticipated that the students will provide more in-depth and detailed responses to the questions depending
on an individual instructor’s stated expectations.
Review
Core Case Study
1. Describe the Green Belt Movement founded by Wangari Maathai(Core Case Study).
See page 174.
• The main goal of the Green Belt Movement is to organize poor women in rural Kenya to plant and
protect millions of trees in order to combat deforestation and provide fuelwood.
Section 9-1
2. What is the key concept for this section? Distinguish among an old-growth (primary) forest, a
second-growth forest, and a tree plantation (tree farm or commercial forest). What major
ecological and economic benefits do forests provide? Describe the efforts of scientists and
economists to put a price tag on the major ecological services provided by forests and other
ecosystems.
See pages 175–178.
• CONCEPT 9-1 Ecologically valuable forest ecosystems are being cut and burned at unsustainable
rates in many parts of the world.
• An old-growth forest is an uncut or regenerated primary forest that has not been seriously
disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for several hundred years or more. Old-growth
forests are reservoirs of biodiversity because they provide ecological niches for a multitude of
wildlife species.
• A second-growth forest is a stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological succession. These
forests develop after the trees in an area have been removed by human activities such as clear-
cutting for timber or cropland or by natural forces such as fire, hurricanes, or volcanic eruption.
• A tree plantation, also called a tree farm or commercial forest, is a managed tract with uniformly
aged trees of one or two genetically uniform species that usually are harvested by clear-cutting as
soon as they become commercially valuable. The land is then replanted and clear-cut again in a
regular cycle.

• See Figure 9-4 for major ecological and economic services provided by forests. Ecological
services include: support energy flow and chemical cycling, reduce soil erosion, absorb and
release water, purify water and air, influence local and regional climate, store atmospheric carbon,
and provide numerous wildlife habitats. Economical services include fuel wood, lumber, pulp to
make paper, mining, livestock grazing, and recreation jobs.
• See SCIENCE FOCUS: Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecological Services for prices of goods
and services. Through market tools such as regulations, taxes, and subsidies that encourage
protection of biodiversity, the world’s forests and other ecosystems will continue to be degraded.
3. Describe the harm caused by building roads into previously inaccessible forests. Distinguish
among selective cutting, clear-cutting, and strip cutting in the harvesting of trees. What are the
major advantages and disadvantages of clear-cutting forests? What are two types of forest fires?
What are some ecological benefits of occasional surface fires? What are four ways to reduce the
harmful impacts of diseases and insects on forests? What effects might projected climate change
have on forests?
• See Figure 9-5 for natural capital and new highway degradation. Building roads into previously
inaccessible forests paves the way to fragmentation, destruction, and degradation of forest
ecosystems. Harmful effects include increased erosion and sediment runoff into waterways,
habitat fragmentation, and loss of biodiversity. Logging roads also expose forests to invasion by
nonnative pests, diseases, and wildlife species, and open once-inaccessible forests to miners,
ranchers, farmers, hunters, and off-road vehicle users.
• Harvesting Trees:
o Selective cutting occurs when intermediate-aged or mature trees in an uneven-aged forest are
cut singly or in small groups.
o Clear-cutting occurs when loggers remove all the trees from an area.
o Strip cutting involves clear-cutting a strip of trees along the contour of the land within a
corridor narrow enough to allow natural regeneration within a few years. After regeneration,
loggers cut another strip next to the first, and so on.
• Surface fires usually burn only undergrowth and leaf litter on the forest floor. They may kill
seedlings and small trees, but they spare most mature trees and allow most wild animals to escape.
• Occasional surface fires have a number of ecological benefits.
o They burn away flammable ground material and help to prevent more destructive fires.
o They free valuable mineral nutrients tied up in slowly decomposing litter and undergrowth;
release seeds from the cones of lodgepole pines; stimulate the germination of certain tree
seeds, such as those of the giant sequoia and jack pine; and help to control tree diseases and
insects.
o Wildlife species such as deer, moose, muskrat, and quail depend on occasional surface fires to
maintain their habitats and provide food in the form of vegetation that sprouts after fires.
• A crown fire is an extremely hot fire that leaps from treetop to treetop, burning whole trees.
o Crown fires usually occur in forests that have not experienced surface fires for several
decades, a situation that allows dead wood, leaves, and other flammable ground litter to
accumulate.
o These rapidly burning fires can destroy most vegetation, kill wildlife, increase soil erosion,
and burn or damage human structures in their paths.
• Climate Change and Forest Fires: Rising temperatures and increased drought from projected
climate change will likely make many forest areas more suitable for insect pests, which would
then multiply and kill more trees. The resulting combination of drier forests and more dead trees
could increase the incidence and intensity of forest fires. This would add more of the greenhouse
gas CO2 to the atmosphere, which would further increase atmospheric temperatures and cause
even more forest fires, in a spiraling cycle of increasingly harmful changes.

4. What is deforestation and what parts of the world are experiencing the greatest forest losses? List
some major harmful environmental effects of deforestation. Describe the encouraging news about
deforestation in the United States. How serious is tropical deforestation? What are the major
underlying and direct causes of tropical deforestation?
• Deforestation is the temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for agriculture,
settlements, or other uses.
• Tropical rainforests are experiencing great forest losses.
• There are many harmful environmental effects of deforestation, which can reduce biodiversity and
the ecological services provided by forests (see Figures 9-4 and 9-9):
o Decreased soil fertility from erosion.
o Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems.
o Premature extinction of species with specialized niches.
o Loss of habitat for native species and migratory species such as birds and butterflies.
o Regional climate change from extensive clearing.
o Release of CO2 into atmosphere.
o Acceleration of flooding.
• Forests in the United States (including tree plantations) cover more area than they did in 1920 (see
CASE STUDY: Many Cleared Forests in the United States Have Grown Back Today).
• How serious is tropical deforestation? What are the major underlying and direct causes of tropical
deforestation? Tropical forests (see Figure 7-14, top, p. 000) cover about 6% of the earth’s land
area—roughly the area of the continental United States.
• Half of the world’s tropical forests are gone, with most of this deforestation taking place since
1950.
• Tropical deforestation results from a number of underlying and direct causes (see Figure 9-12).
o Underlying causes, such as pressures from population growth and poverty, push
subsistence farmers and the landless poor into tropical forests, where they try to grow
enough food to survive.
o Government subsidies can accelerate the direct causes such as logging and ranching by
reducing the costs of timber harvesting, cattle grazing, and the creation of vast plantations
of crops such as soybeans and oil palm.
Section 9-2
5. What is the key concept for this section? Describe four ways to manage forests more sustainably. What
is certified timber? What are four ways to reduce the harm caused by forest fires to forests and to
people? What is a prescribed fire? What are three ways to reduce the need to harvest trees? What are
five ways to protect tropical forests and use them more sustainably?
See pages 184–186
• CONCEPT 9-2 We can sustain forests by emphasizing the economic value of their ecological
services, removing government subsidies that hasten their destruction, protecting old-growth
forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and planting trees.
• See Solutions: More Sustainable Forestry for ways to manage forests sustainably.
o Identify and protect forest areas high in biodiversity.
o Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting.
o No clear-cutting on steep slopes.
o No logging of old-growth forests.
• See Science Focus: Certifying Sustainably Grown Timber for more information: Since 1993,
Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) has evaluated the company’s timber production. SCS,
which is part of the nonprofit Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), was formed to develop a list of
environmentally sound practices for use in certifying timber and products made from such timber.

• Four strategies for reducing fire-related harm to forests and people:

o Set small, contained surface fires, such as prescribed fires, to remove flammable small trees
and underbrush in the highest-risk forest areas.
o Allow many fires on public lands to burn, thereby removing flammable underbrush and
smaller trees, as long as the fires do not threaten human structures and life.
o Protect houses and other buildings in fire-prone areas by thinning a zone of about 60 meters
(200 feet) around them and eliminating the use of flammable materials such as wooden
roofs.
o Thin forest areas vulnerable to fire by clearing away small fire-prone trees and underbrush
under careful environmental controls.
o A prescribed fire is a small, contained surface fire that is set intentionally to reduce
flammable ground material and help to prevent more destructive fires.
• Three ways to reduce the need to harvest trees include reducing wood waste, using alternative
sources, and embracing sustainable practices.
• Figure 9-15: Ways to protect tropical forests and use them more sustainably ; protect the most
diverse and endangered areas, educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry, subsidize
only sustainable forest use, protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps and conservation
concessions, certify sustainably grown timber, reduce poverty, and slow population growth.
Section 9-3
6. What is the key concept for this section? Distinguish between rangelands and pastures. What is
overgrazing and what are its harmful environmental effects? What are three ways to reduce
overgrazing and use rangelands more sustainably?
See pages 187-188.
• CONCEPT 9-3 We can sustain the productivity of grasslands by controlling the number and
distribution of grazing livestock and by restoring degraded grasslands.
• Rangelands are unfenced grasslands in temperate and tropical climates that supply forage, or
vegetation, for grazing (grass-eating) and browsing (shrub-eating) animals. Pastures are managed
grasslands or enclosed meadows usually planted with domesticated grasses or other forage.
• Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of
a rangeland area. It reduces grass cover, exposes the soil to erosion by water and wind, and
compacts the soil (which diminishes its capacity to hold water). Overgrazing also enhances
invasion by species such as sagebrush, mesquite, cactus, and cheatgrass, which cattle will not eat.
• Reduce overgrazing by fencing off these areas, which eventually leads to its natural ecological
restoration by ecological succession; move cattle around by providing supplemental feed at
selected sites and by strategically locating water holes and tanks and salt blocks; and suppress the
growth of unwanted invader plants by use of herbicides, mechanical removal, or controlled
burning.
Section 9-4
7. What is the key concept for this section? What major environmental threats affect national parks in
the world and in the United States? Why are many U.S. national parks considered to be threatened
islands of biodiversity? Describe some of the ecological effects of reintroducing the gray wolf to
Yellowstone National Park in the United States. What percentage of the world’s land has been set
aside and protected as nature reserves, and what percentage do conservation biologists believe
should be protected?
• CONCEPT 9-4 We need to put more resources into sustaining existing parks and nature reserves
and into protecting much more of the earth’s remaining undisturbed land area.

• National parks are threatened because they are too small and fragmented to sustain many large
animal species, because of invasions by nonnative species that compete with and reduce the
populations of native species, because many are so popular that large numbers of visitors are
degrading the natural features that make them attractive, and lack of funding to enforce protection
of biodiversity. Parks could be more sustainable with decreased degradation of the habitat and
resources, protection from illegal logging and poaching, and consolidation of green areas.
• Many U.S. national parks have become threatened islands of biodiversity surrounded by a sea of
commercial development.
• The return of the gray wolf, a keystone predator species, has sent ecological ripples through the
park’s ecosystem. With wolves around, elk populations have declined. Remains of elk killed by
wolves provide an important food source for grizzly bears and other scavengers such as bald
eagles and ravens. And wary elk are gathering less near streams and rivers, which has helped to
spur the regrowth of aspen, cottonwoods, and willow trees in those areas. This in turn has helped
to stabilize and shade stream banks, which has lowered the water temperature and made better
habitat for trout. Beavers seeking willow and aspen have returned. And the dams they build
establish wetlands and create more favorable habitat for aspens. The wolves have also cut in half
the population of coyotes—the top predators in the absence of wolves. This has reduced coyote
attacks on cattle in surrounding ranches and has increased populations of smaller animals such as
ground squirrels and mice, hunted by coyotes.
• Currently, only 12% of the earth’s land area is protected strictly or partially in nature reserves,
parks, wildlife refuges, wilderness, and other areas, with only 5% of the earth’s land strictly
protected from potentially harmful human activities. Conservation scientists call for full protection
of at least 20% of the earth’s land area in a global system of biodiversity reserves, which would
include multiple examples of all the earth’s biomes.
8. How should nature reserves be designed and managed? Describe what Costa Rica has done to establish
nature reserves. What is wilderness and why is it important? Describe the controversy over protecting
wilderness in the United States.
• The United Nations has used the buffer zone concept to design and manage nature reserves in
creating its global network of 531 biosphere reserves in 105 countries. This means protecting an
inner core of a reserve, usually by establishing two buffer zones in which local people can extract
resources sustainably without harming the inner core. Instead of shutting people out of the
protected areas and likely creating enemies, this approach enlists local people as partners in
protecting a reserve from unsustainable uses such as illegal logging and poaching.
• Costa Rica has consolidated its parks and reserves into eight zoned megareserves, designed to
sustain about 80% of the country’s rich biodiversity. Green areas are protected reserves and
yellow areas are nearby buffer zones, which can be used for sustainable forms of forestry,
agriculture, hydropower, hunting, and other human activities (See Case Study: Costa Rica—A
Global Conservation Leader and Figure 9-20).
• One way to protect undeveloped lands from human exploitation is by legally setting them aside as
large areas of undeveloped land called wilderness. There are two important reasons for protecting
wilderness and other areas from exploitation and degradation, both involving long-term needs.
One is to preserve biodiversity as a vital part of the earth’s natural capital. The other reason is to
protect wilderness areas as centers for evolution.
• Some critics oppose protecting large areas for their scenic and recreational value or a relatively
small number of people. They believe this keeps some areas of the planet from being economically
useful to people here today.

Section 9-5
9. What is the key concept for this section? Describe a four-point strategy for protecting ecosystems.
What is a biodiversity hotspot and why is it important to protect such areas? About how much of
the earth’s land surface is occupied by hotspots and what percentages of the world’s flowering
plants and terrestrial vertebrates live in these areas? What is ecological restoration? Describe a
science-based, four-point strategy for carrying out ecological restoration and rehabilitation.
Describe the ecological restoration of a tropical dry forest in Costa Rica. Define and give three
examples of reconciliation ecology.
• CONCEPT 9-5 We can help to sustain terrestrial biodiversity by identifying and protecting
severely threatened areas (biodiversity hotspots), restoring damaged ecosystems (using restoration
ecology), and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate (using reconciliation
ecology).
• Four-point plan of the ecosystems approach:
o Map the world’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and create an inventory of the species
contained in each of them and the ecosystem services they provide.
o Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species, with emphasis on
protecting plant biodiversity and ecosystem services.
o Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible.
• Biodiversity hotspots are areas especially rich in plant species that are found nowhere else and are
in great danger of extinction. They are home for a large majority of the world’s endangered or
critically endangered species, and one-fifth of the world’s population.
• These hotspots cover only a little more than 2% of the earth’s land surface, they contain an
estimated 50% of the world’s flowering plant species and 42% of all terrestrial species.
• Ecological restoration is the process of repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and
dynamics of natural ecosystems.
• Science-based, four-point strategy for carrying out ecological restoration and rehabilitation:
o Identify the causes of the degradation (such as pollution, farming, overgrazing, mining, or
invasive species).
o Stop the abuse by eliminating or sharply reducing these factors. This would include removing
toxic soil pollutants, improving depleted soil by adding nutrients and new topsoil, preventing
fires, and controlling or eliminating disruptive nonnative species.
o If necessary, reintroduce species—especially pioneer, keystone, and foundation species—to
help restore natural ecological processes, as was done with wolves in the Yellowstone
ecosystem.
o Protect the area from further degradation and allow secondary ecological succession to occur.
• See Science Focus: Ecological Restoration of a Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica.
• Reconciliation ecology focuses on inventing, establishing, and maintaining new habitats to
conserve species diversity in places where people live, work, or play.
• Examples of reconciliation ecology include
o Protecting local wildlife and ecosystems can provide economic resources for their
communities by encouraging sustainable forms of ecotourism.
o Protecting vital insect pollinators such as native butterflies and bees by reducing the use of
pesticides, planting flowering plants as a source of food for pollinating insect species, and
building structures which serve as hives for pollinating bees.
o Protecting bluebirds within human-dominated habitats where most of the bluebirds’ nesting
trees have been cut down by using nesting boxes and keeping house cats away from nesting
bluebirds.

Section 9-6
10. What is the key concept for this section? Summarize the threats to aquatic biodiversity resulting
from human activities. Define fishery and fishprint and summarize the threats to marine fisheries.
Describe three industrial fish harvesting methods. Why is it difficult to protect marine biodiversity?
What are three ways in which we could protect more marine biodiversity? How can the ecosystem
approach be applied to protecting aquatic biodiversity? What are this chapter’s three big ideas?
Describe the relationship between preserving biodiversity as it is done by the Green Belt
Movement and the three scientific principles of sustainability.
• CONCEPT 9-6 We can help to sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries,
managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.
• Major human threats to aquatic diversity include climate change and loss and degradation of many
sea-bottom habitats, caused by dredging operations and trawler fishing boats.
• A fishery is a concentration of a particular aquatic species (usually fish or shellfish) suitable for
commercial harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water.
• The fishprint is defined as the area of ocean needed to sustain the consumption of an average
person, a nation, or the world.
• Three industrial fishing methods are:
o Trawler fishing is used to catch fish and shellfish by dragging a funnel-shaped net held open
at the neck along the ocean bottom.
o Purse-seine fishing, is used to catch surface-dwelling fish by using a spotter plane to locate a
school; the fishing vessel then encloses it with a large net called a purse seine.
o Longlining involves lines up to 130 kilometers (80 miles) long, hung with thousands of baited
hooks to catch open-ocean fish species or bottom fishes.
o Drift-net fishing catches fish with huge drifting nets that can hang as deep as 15 meters (50
feet) below the surface and extend to 64 kilometers (40 miles) long.
• Protecting marine biodiversity is difficult for several reasons.
o First, the human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding so rapidly that it is difficult
to monitor their impacts.
o Second, much of the damage to the oceans and other bodies of water is not visible to most
people.
o Third, many people incorrectly view the seas as an inexhaustible resource that can absorb an
almost infinite amount of waste and pollution and still produce all the seafood we want.
Fourth, most of the world’s ocean area lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country.
Thus, much of it is an open-access resource, subject to overexploitation—a classic case of
the tragedy of the commons.
• There are several ways to protect and sustain marine biodiversity.
o For example, we can protect endangered and threatened aquatic species, as discussed in
Chapter 8. And some individuals find economic rewards in restoring and sustaining streams,
wetlands, and aquatic systems.
o We can also establish protected marine sanctuaries. Since 1986, the IUCN has helped to
establish a global system of marine protected areas (MPAs)—areas of ocean partially
protected from human activities. There are more than 4,000 MPAs worldwide. However,
nearly all MPAs allow dredging, trawler fishing, and other ecologically harmful resource
extraction activities.
o Many scientists and policymakers call for protecting whole marine ecosystems within a
global network of fully protected marine reserves, some of which already exist. These areas
are declared off-limits to destructive human activities in order to enable their ecosystems to
recover and flourish. Some reserves could be made temporary or moveable to protect
migrating species such as turtles.
• The following strategies can be used to apply the ecosystems approach to aquatic biodiversity:
o Complete the mapping of the world’s aquatic biodiversity, identifying and locating as many
plant and animal species as possible.

o Identify and preserve the world’s aquatic biodiversity hotspots and areas where deteriorating
ecosystem services threaten people and other forms of life.
o Create large and fully protected marine reserves to allow damaged marine ecosystems to
recover and to allow fish stocks to be replenished.
o Protect and restore the world’s lakes and river systems, which are the most threatened
ecosystems of all.
o Initiate worldwide ecological restoration projects in systems such as coral reefs and inland
and coastal wetlands.
o Find ways to raise the incomes of people who live in or near protected lands and waters so
that they can become partners in the protection and sustainable use of ecosystems.
• Here are the three big ideas in this chapter:
o The economic values of the important ecological services provided by the world’s ecosystems
are far greater than the value of raw materials obtained from those systems.
o We can sustain terrestrial biodiversity by protecting severely threatened areas, protecting
remaining undisturbed areas, restoring damaged ecosystems, and sharing with other species
much of the land we dominate.
o We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal
development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.
• The relationship between Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt Movement (Core Case Study) and the
three principles of sustainability is that preserving terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity involves
applying the three principles of sustainability.
o First, it means respecting biodiversity and understanding the value of sustaining it.
o Then, in helping to sustain biodiversity by planting trees for example, we also help to restore
and preserve the flows of energy from the sun through food webs and the cycling of nutrients
within ecosystems.
o If we rely less on fossil fuels and more on direct solar energy and its indirect forms, such as
wind and flowing water, we will generate less pollution and interfere less with natural
chemical cycling and other forms of natural capital that sustain biodiversity and our own lives
and societies.
Critical Thinking
1. Describe some ecological, economic, and social benefits of the Green Belt Movement (Core Case
Study). Are there any areas near where you live that could benefit from such intensive planting of
trees? If so, describe how it would benefit the areas.
Answers will vary. However, three possible ways are landscaping with native plants, purchasing
only wood products that are made of sustainably harvested wood, and planting and caring for
trees.
2. If we fail to protect a much larger percentage of the world’s remaining old-growth forests and
tropical rain forests, describe three harmful effects that this failure is likely to have on any children
and grandchildren you might have.
3. In the early 1990s, Miguel Sanchez, a subsistence farmer in Costa Rica, was offered $600,000 by a
hotel developer for a piece of land that he and his family had been using sustainably for many
years. The land, which contained an old-growth rain forest and a black sand beach, was
surrounded by an area under rapid development. Sanchez refused the offer. What would you have
done if you were in Miguel Sanchez’s position? Explain your decision.
Answers will vary. One possible answer is given below.
I would have refused the offer like Sanchez did. The family heritage on land owned by generations
of the same family is worth more than hard cash. Although many of these subsistence farmers are
considered “poor” by the standards of living in the developed world, they have in many ways a

much “richer” life than money alone can provide. Sanchez thought it important to continue in the
sustainable ways of his family. I agree.
4. In 2009, environmental analyst Lester R. Brown estimated that reforesting the earth and restoring
the earth’s degraded rangelands would cost about $15 billion a year. Suppose the United States,
the world’s most affluent country, agreed to put up half of this money, at an average annual cost of
$25 per American citizen. Would you support doing this? Explain. What other part or parts of the
federal budget would you decrease to come up with these funds?
Answers will vary but one possible answer is:
Yes, I would support this. The United States comprises less than 5 percent of the world’s
population but we are responsible for a much higher percentage use of the world’s resources and
resulting environmental degradation. Other countries should also kick in and help offset the costs.
These funds could come out of the military budget that the Pentagon receives, a large part of
which is used for unpopular foreign wars.
5. Are you in favor of establishing more wilderness areas in the United States, especially in the lower
48 states (or in the country where you live)? Explain. What might be some drawbacks of doing
this?
Answers will vary. One possible answer is given below.
Ensuring that current wilderness areas remain protected would be a main priority. Then an
assessment of what other potential wilderness areas in the nation could be protected should be
conducted, and decisions made on a case by case basis. Once an area has been given the
designation of being a wilderness area, it should keep that designation and not have it removed by
the next government administration. There are drawbacks to this. Some people will be against
protecting these areas and may wish to expand into them for development or resource extraction.
Others may wish this to occur as it may limit their own ability to use the area as they would like
to, for off-roading for example.
6. What do you think are the three greatest threats to aquatic biodiversity and aquatic ecosystem
services? Explain your selections. Imagine that you are a national official in charge of setting
policy for preserving aquatic biodiversity and outline a plan for dealing specifically with these
threats.
One possible answer is:
I think that three of the greatest threats to aquatic biodiversity are habitat destruction, increased
pollution from increasing population growth, and overharvesting. Aquatic species are more
vulnerable to premature extinction due to the delicate balance of marine and freshwater
ecosystems. Small changes in pH or temperature changes in the water can have a major effect on
aquatic areas, for example, coral reefs and fish spawning grounds. Also, because we cannot
actually “see” what is living under the surface of the oceans, lakes, and seas, there is danger of
harvesting species in numbers that exceed the maximum sustainable yield. On the land, if you cut
down a forest you can see that it has gone, but you cannot look into the ocean and directly relate to
the impact that overfishing is having as it is “hidden” from view. For this reason it is difficult to
identify and monitor rare species in aquatic environments. Also, it is very difficult to protect
species that range over parts of the ocean that are not under the jurisdiction of any nation.
My plan for preserving aquatic biodiversity would include expanding existing aquatic sanctuaries,
establishing new ones and ensuring that there is adequate funding for protection of aquatic
sanctuaries and reserves. I would fund research to continue mapping of the world’s aquatic
biodiversity and identifying both aquatic biodiversity hotspots and areas where deteriorating
ecosystem services threaten people and other forms of life. I would increase protection of the

world’s lakes and river systems, which are the most threatened ecosystems of all, initiate
worldwide ecological restoration projects in systems such as coral reefs and inland and coastal
wetlands and, lastly, find ways to raise the incomes of people who live in or near protected lands
and waters so that they can become partners in the protection and sustainable use of ecosystems.
7. You are a defense attorney arguing in court for preserving a coastal wetlands area to prevent it
from being developed. Give your three strongest arguments for preservation of this ecosystem.
Assume that there is a coral reef offshore from this wetland, and include that fact in your
arguments.
The following is an example of an acceptable response but several other answers are acceptable.
The coastal wetlands area should be preserved because it provides vital ecological and economic
services. Wetlands help to maintain water quality in coastal zones by filtering toxic pollutants,
excess plant nutrients, and sediments, and by absorbing other pollutants. They provide food,
habitats, and nursery sites for a variety of aquatic and terrestrial species. They also reduce storm
damage and coastal erosion by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by storms and
tsunamis.
In addition, the coral reef that is offshore should be protected. Coral reefs also provide important
ecological and economic services. For example, they act as natural barriers that help to protect
coastlines from erosion caused by battering waves and storms. And they provide habitats for about
25% of all marine organisms. Economically, coral reefs support commercial fisheries, as well as
provide fishing and ecotourism jobs. These biological treasures give us an underwater world to
study and enjoy.
8. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List the three most important features of your
policies for using and managing the world’s (a) forests, (b) grasslands, (c) nature reserves such as
parks and wildlife refuges, (d) biological hotspots, (e) marine aquatic systems, and (f) freshwater
aquatic systems.
(a) I would ensure that sustainable harvesting practices took place in forested areas in order to
supply and promote the production of sustainably grown wood products, manage the forests using
best practices, and replant areas that have been cut down.
(b) I would limit grazing rights on grasslands and remove subsidies that turn grasslands into cash
crop-yielding areas, and minimize habitat fragmentation by limiting road construction and
development of these areas.
(c) I would limit the yearly use of nature reserves by putting a cap on the number of visitors who
could access the area; increase the funding for park management and maintenance, and increase
the amount of area in and around the reserves by purchasing and protecting more land.
(d) I would limit development in biodiversity hotspots, and implement a habitat conservation plan
to protect as many threatened and endangered species as possible.
(e) I would protect endangered and threatened aquatic species, establish protected marine
sanctuaries and protect whole marine ecosystems within a global network of fully protected
marine reserves.
(f) I would establish new guidelines for construction of new dams and examine removal of
existing dams. I would put in place strict regulations (with funding for enforcement) of water
withdrawal from rivers for irrigation and urban water supplies.

Global Environment Watch Exercise

Search for “Forests and Deforestation” and use the topic portal to find out the following: (a) whether
overall tropical deforestation around the world is increasing or decreasing; (b) the three countries with the
highest rates of deforestation; (c) the main causes for this deforestation, and (d) three countries where
forests are actually growing back (where there is a net gain in forest cover when clearing of forests and
regrowth of forests is considered).
(a) Increasing
(b) Brazil, Indonesia and Russia
(c) Croplands, pastures, and plantations are expanding into natural forests. Forests are also under pressure
from loggers.
(d) China, Italy, Vietnam and the United States
Ecological Footprint Analysis

1. What is the annual rate of tropical rain forest loss, as a percentage of total forest area, in each of
the five countries? Answer by filling in the blank column in the table.
E.g., the annual percentage rate of rain forest loss in country A is:
50,000 square kilometers/ 1,800,000 square kilometers x 100 = 0.028 X 100 = 2.8% per year.
Country Area of tropical rain Area of deforestation Annual rate of

forest (square per year (square tropical forest loss
kilometers) kilometers)
A 1,800,000 50,000 2.8
B 55,000 3,000 5.5
C 22,000 6,000 27.3
D 530,000 12,000 2.3
E 80,000 700 0.9
2. What is the annual rate of tropical deforestation collectively in all of the countries represented in
the table?
The annual percentage rate of rain forest loss for all the countries is 71,700 square
kilometers/2,487,000 square kilometers x 100 = 0.029 x 100 = 2.9% per year.
3. According to the table, and assuming the rates of deforestation remain constant, which country’s
tropical rain forest will be completely destroyed first?
If current rates continue, Country C’s rainforests would be completely destroyed first because they
have the highest annual rate of deforestation.
4. Assuming the rate of deforestation in country C remains constant, how many years will it take for
all of its tropical rain forests to be destroyed?
It will take 3.67 years for Country C’s rainforests to be completely destroyed at current rates.
22,000/6,000 = 3.67

5. Assuming that a hectare (1.0 hectare = 0.01 square kilometer) of tropical rain forest absorbs 0.85
metric tons (1 metric ton = 2,200 pounds) of carbon dioxide per year, what would be the total
annual growth in the carbon footprint (carbon emitted but not absorbed by vegetation because of
deforestation) in metric tons of carbon dioxide per year for each of the five countries in the table?
The total carbon footprint per year for tropical rain forest loss in each country is:
A: 50,000 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer= 5,000,000 hectares

5,000,000 hectares x 0.85 metric tons of carbon/hectare = 4,250,000 metric tons of carbon not
absorbed per year
B: 3,000 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer X 0.85 metric tons of carbon/hectare
= 255,000 metric tons of carbon not absorbed per year
C: 6,000 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer X 0.85 metric tons of

carbon/hectare = 510,000 metric tons of carbon not absorbed per year
D: 12,000 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer X 0.85 metric tons of

carbon/hectare = 1,020,000 metric tons of carbon not absorbed per year
E: 700 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer X 0.85 metric tons of carbon/hectare
= 59,500 metric tons of carbon not absorbed per year

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The unfortunate major was traced to the house of Rainhill, where,
entering the garden, the pursuers soon found him. Gillespie, who
had got one of Anderson’s pistols, accompanied by Stevenson,
advanced upon the murderer, who came up with a fierce
countenance, asking what was the matter. 1694.
Paterson told him there had been a man
slain in Glasgow, and the murderer was supposed to be here: ‘If you
be he,’ added Paterson, ‘may God forgive you!’ Menzies replied: ‘It is
no business of yours;’ whereupon one of the others called out:
‘Dowhill, here is the man.’ Then the major, drawing his sword, and
using a horrible imprecation, came forward, crying: ‘What have the
rascals to do with me?’ The men retreated before him, and a pistol
was fired in self-defence, by which Menzies was slain. When
Paterson returned a minute after, he found him lying on his back,
dead, with his drawn sword across his breast.
Strange to say, Henry Fletcher, brother of Lord Salton, and
Lieutenant-colonel Hume, for the interest of his majesty’s forces,
raised a prosecution against the three Glasgow citizens for murder. It
ended in a verdict of Not proven.[133]
Previous to 1705, when the first professor Oct.

of anatomy was appointed in the university
of Edinburgh, there were only a few irregular attempts in the
Scottish capital to give instructions in that department of medical
education. We first hear of dissection of the dead body in our city in
the latter part of the year 1694, a little before which time the
celebrated Dr Archibald Pitcairn had left a distinguished position as
professor of medicine in the university of Leyden, and marrying an
Edinburgh lady, had been induced finally to settle there in practice.
On the 14th October, Pitcairn wrote to his friend, Dr Robert Gray of
London, that he was taking part in an effort to obtain subjects for
dissection from the town-council, requesting from them the bodies of
those who die in the correction-house called Paul’s Work, and have
none to bury them. ‘We offer,’ he says, ‘to wait on these poor for
nothing, and bury them after dissection at our own charges, which
now the town does; yet there is great opposition by the chief
surgeons, who neither eat hay nor suffer the oxen to eat it. I do
propose, if this be granted, to make better improvements in anatomy
than have been made at Leyden these thirty years; for I think most or
all anatomists have neglected or not known what was most useful for
a physician.’
The person ostensibly moving in this matter was Mr Alexander
Monteith, an eminent surgeon, and a friend of Pitcairn. In
compliance with his request, the town-council (October 24) gave him
a grant of the dead bodies of those dying in 1694.
the correction-house, and of foundlings who
die on the breast, allowing at the same time a room for dissection,
and freedom to inter the remains in the College Kirk cemetery, but
stipulating that he bury the intestines within forty-eight hours, and
the remainder of the body within ten days, and that his prelections
should only be during the winter half of the year.
Monteith’s brethren did not present any opposition to his
movement generally; they only disrelished his getting the Council’s
gift exclusively to himself. Proposing to give demonstrations in
anatomy also, they preferred a petition to the town-council, asking
the unclaimed bodies of persons dying in the streets, and foundlings
who died off the breast; and the request was complied with, on
condition of their undertaking to have a regular anatomical theatre
ready before the term of Michaelmas 1697.[134]
Such were the beginnings of the medical school of Edinburgh.
The Bass.
REIGN OF WILLIAM III.: 1695–1702.
During this period, the affairs of Scotland were in a marked degree

subordinate to those of England. The king, absorbed in continental
wars and continental politics, paid little attention to his northern
kingdom; he left it chiefly to the care of its state-officers, using as a
medium of his own influence, William Carstares, a Presbyterian
minister of extraordinary worth, sincerity, and prudence, who had
gained his entire esteem and confidence, and who usually attended
him wherever he was. A parliament which sat in May 1695, was
chiefly occupied with the investigation of the Glencoe massacre, and
with measures connected with the rising commercial enterprise of
the country, including the formation of a native bank, and that of a
company for trading with Africa and the Indies. The latter of these
speculations was worked out in an expedition to Darien, and an
attempted settlement there, which, through English mercantile
jealousy, and the king’s indifference to Scottish interests, ended so
unfortunately as greatly to incense the Scottish nation, and increase
the party disaffected to the Revolution government. The misery
hence arising was increased by a dearth from a succession of bad
seasons. Nevertheless, this period will be found in our chronicle to
have been remarkable for the establishment of manufactories of
various kinds, and for various other industrial enterprises, shewing
that the national energies were beginning to take a decidedly new
direction. At the same time, instances of deplorable superstition,
cruelty, and intolerance were sufficiently numerous to attest that the
days of barbarism were not past.
Incessant efforts were made by the Jacobite party to procure the
restoration of King James, and the discontents excited by Darien
were greatly favourable to their views. Yet the heart of the middle
class throughout the more important provinces remained firm in
Presbyterianism, for which the Revolution government was the sole
guarantee; and in this lay an insuperable bar to all reactionary
projects. A war against France, which had begun immediately after
the Revolution (May 1689), was brought to a conclusion in
September 1697, by the treaty of Ryswick, which included an
acknowledgment by Louis XIV. of the title of King William to the
English throne. The exiled king, old and abandoned to ascetic
devotion, indulged a hope that he would outlive William, and be then
quietly recalled. He died, however, in September 1701, with only the
assurance of the French king in favour of the restoration of his son.
William survived him but a few months, dying of a fever and ague on
the 8th March 1702. His vigorous talents, his courage, his essential
mildness and tolerance, abated as they were by an unpopular
coldness of manners, are amply recognised in English history;
among the Scots, while Presbyterians thank him for the
establishment of their church, there is little feeling regarding the
Dutch king, besides a strong resentment of his concern in the affairs
of Glencoe and Darien.
This day, being Sunday, the Catholics of 1695. Feb. 17.

Edinburgh were so bold as to hold a
meeting for worship in the Canongate. It was fallen upon and
‘dissipat’ by the authorities, and the priest, Mr David Fairfoul, with
James De Canton and James Morris, fencing-masters, and John
Wilson of Spango, were committed to prison, while the Lord
Advocate obtained a list of other persons present. The Privy Council
ordered the four prisoners to be carried from the Canongate to the
Edinburgh Tolbooth, and appointed a committee to take what steps
it might think meet regarding the list of worshippers.
On the 28th February, the Council permitted the liberation of the
two fencing-masters, on assurance of their doing nothing offensive to
the government in future, under a penalty of five hundred merks. At
the same time, they ordained ‘Harry Graham, and his landlord,
James Blair, periwig-maker in Niddry’s Wynd; James Brown, son to
Hugh Brown, chirurgeon, and the said Hugh his father; John
Abercrombie, merchant in Edinburgh, and John Lamb in the Water
of Leith, to give bond in the same terms and under the same penalty;’
else to be kept in prison. Orders were given to search for John Laing,
writer, John Gordon, writer, and James Scott in the Canongate,
‘who, being also at the said meeting, have absconded.’ The priest
Fairfoul was treated with unexpected mercy, being liberated on
condition of banishment, not to return under a penalty of three
hundred pounds sterling.[135]
Robert Davidson, merchant in Ellon, Feb. 19.

Aberdeenshire, represented to the Privy
Council that he had been in a good way of merchandise, and
proprietor of a two-story house, when in the beginning of December
last some of Lord Carmichael’s dragoons were quartered upon him,
and deposited their powder in one of his low rooms. As they were
one morning dividing the powder, it caught 1695.
fire, and demolished the house, together
with his whole merchandise and household plenishing, carrying the
bed whereon he and his family lay to the top of the house, and
seriously injuring a relative who was living with him at the time, and
for the cost of whose cure he was answerable. Robert petitioned for
some compensation, and the Council—following its rule of a
vicarious beneficence—allowed him to raise a voluntary collection at
the church-doors of Aberdeenshire and the two adjacent counties.[136]
There never, perhaps, was any mystic Feb.

history better attested than that of ‘the
Rerrick Spirit.’ The tenant of the house, many of his neighbours, the
minister of the parish, several other clergymen, the proprietor of the
ground living half a mile off, all give their testimonies to the various
things which they ‘saw, heard, and felt.’ The air of actuality is helped
even by the local situation and its associations. It is in the same
parish with Dundrennan Abbey, where Queen Mary spent her last
night in Scotland. It is upon the same rock-bound coast which Scott
has described so graphically in his tale of Guy Mannering, which was
indeed founded on facts that occurred in this very parish. Collin, the
house of the laird, still exists, though passed into another family.
Very probably, the house of Andrew Mackie himself would also be
found by any one who had the curiosity to inquire for it; nor would
he fail, at the same time, to learn that the whole particulars of this
narration continue to be fresh in popular recollection, though four
generations have passed away since the event. Few narrations of the
kind have included occurrences and appearances which it was more
difficult to reconcile with the theory of trick or imposture.
Andrew Mackie, a mason, occupied a small farm, called Ring-croft,
on the estate of Collin, in the parish of Rerrick, and stewartry of
Kirkcudbright. He is spoken of as a man ‘honest, civil, and harmless
beyond many of his neighbours,’ and we learn incidentally that he
had a wife and some children. In the course of the month of February
1695, Andrew was surprised to find his young cattle frequently loose
in the byre, and their bindings broken. Attributing it to their
unruliness, he got stronger bindings; but still they were found loose
in the morning. Then he removed the beasts to another place; and
when he went to see them next morning, he 1695.
found one bound up with a hair tether to
the roof-beam, so strait, that its feet were lifted off the ground. Just
about this time, too, the family were awakened one night with a smell
of smoke; and when they got up, they found a quantity of peats lying
on the floor, and partially kindled. It seemed evident that some
mischievous agent was at work in Ring-croft; but as yet nothing
superhuman was in the surmises of the family.
On Wednesday, the 7th of March, a number of stones were thrown
in the house—‘in all places of it’—and no one could tell whence they
came, or who threw them. This continued during day and night, but
mostly during the night, for several days, the stones often hitting the
members of the family, but always softly, as if they had less than half
their natural weight. A kind of fear began to take possession of the
little household, and the father’s fireside devotions waxed in
earnestness. Here, however, a new fact was developed: the stone-
throwing was worst when the family was at prayers. On the Saturday
evening, the family being for some time without, one or two of the
children, on entering, were startled to observe what appeared a
stranger sitting at the fireside, with a blanket about him. They were
afraid, and hesitated; but the youngest, who was only nine or ten
years of age, chid the rest for their timidity, saying: ‘Let us sain
[bless] ourselves, and then there is no ground to fear it!’ He
perceived that the blanket around the figure was his. Having blessed
himself, he ran forward, and pulled away the blanket, saying: ‘Be
what it will, it hath nothing to do with my blanket.’ It was found to be
a four-footed stool set on end, and the blanket cast over it.
Attending church on Sunday, Andrew Mackie took an opportunity,
after service, of informing the minister, Mr Telfair, how his house
had been disturbed for the last four days. The reverend gentleman
consequently visited Ring-croft on Tuesday. He prayed twice,
without experiencing any trouble; but soon after, as he stood
conversing with some people at the end of the barn, he saw two
stones fall on the croft near by, and presently one came from the
house to tell that the pelting within doors had become worse than
ever. He went in, prayed again, and was hit several times by the
stones, but without being hurt. After this there was quiet for several
days. On Sunday it began again, and worse than before, for now the
stones were larger, and where they hit, they gave pain. On the
ensuing Wednesday, the minister revisited 1695.
the house, and stayed a great part of the
night, during which he was ‘greatly troubled.’ ‘Stones and several
other things,’ says he, ‘were thrown at me; I was struck several times
on the sides and shoulders very sharply with a great staff, so that
those who were present heard the noise of the strokes. That night it
threw off the bed-side, and rapped upon the chests and boards as one
calling for access. As I was at prayer, leaning on a bed-side, I felt
something pressing up my arm. I, casting my eyes thither, perceived
a little white hand and arm, from the elbow down, but presently it
evanished.’
The neighbours now began to come about the house, to gratify
their curiosity or express sympathy; and both when they were within
doors, and when they were approaching or departing, they were
severely pelted. Mackie himself got a blow from a stone, which
wounded his forehead. After several apparent efforts of a visionary
being to seize him by the shoulder, he was griped fast by the hair of
the head, and ‘he thought something like nails scratched his skin.’
This, however, was little in comparison to what happened with some
of the neighbours, for, as attested by ‘Andrew Tait in Torr,’ they were
seized and dragged up and down the house by the clothes. ‘It griped
one John Keig, miller in Auchencairn, so by the side, that he
entreated his neighbours to help: it cried it would rive [tear] the side
from him. That night it lifted the clothes off the children, as they
were sleeping in bed, and beat them on the hips as if it had been with
one’s hand, so that all who were in the house heard it. The door-bar
and other things would go thorough the house, as if a person had
been carrying them in his hand; yet nothing seen doing it. It also
rattled on chests and bed-sides with a staff, and made a great noise.’
‘At night it cried, “Whisht! whisht!” at every sentence in the close of
prayer; and it whistled so distinctly, that the dog barked and ran to
the door, as if one had been calling to hound him.’
At the request of the laird, Charles M‘Lellan of Collin, a number of
ministers put up public prayers on account of these strange
occurrences, and on the 4th of April two came to the house to see
what they could do in behalf of the family. They spent the night in
fasting and prayer, but with no other apparent effect than that of
rendering the supposed spirit more ‘cruel.’ One of the reverend
gentlemen got a wound in the head from a stone, and the other had
his wig pulled off, and received several sore blows, which, however,
were healed quickly. A fiery peat was 1695.
thrown amongst the people, and in the
morning when they arose from prayer, ‘the stones poured down on
all who were in the house to their hurt.’
Two days after, the affair took a new turn, when Mackie’s wife was
induced to lift a stone which she found loose at the threshold of the
house, and perceived underneath ‘seven small bones, with blood, and
some flesh, all closed in a piece of old soiled paper;’ the blood being
fresh and bright. She presently ran to the laird’s house, about a
quarter of a mile distant, to fetch him; and while she was gone, the
spirit became worse than ever, ‘throwing stones and fire-balls in and
about the house; but the fire, as it lighted, did evanish. It thrust a
staff through the wall above the children in bed, shook it over them,
and groaned.’ The laird came and lifted the bones and flesh, after
which the trouble ceased for a little time. Next day, however, being
Sunday, it recommenced with throwing of stones and other heavy
articles, and set the house twice on fire. In the evening, when the
eldest boy was coming home, ‘an extraordinary light fell about him,
and went before him to the house, with a swift motion.’
On the ensuing morning, the 8th April, Mackie found in his close a
letter written and sealed with blood, superscribed thus: ‘3 years tho
shall have to repent a net it well.’ Within he read: ‘Wo be to the
Cotlland Repent and tak warning for the door of haven ar all Redy
bart against the I am sent for a warning to the to fllee to god yet
troublt shallt this man be for twenty days a 3 rpent rpent Scotland
or els tow shall.’[137]
Following up the old notion regarding the touching of a murdered
person in order to discover the murderer, all the surviving persons
who had lived in the house during the twenty-eight years of its
existence, were convened by appointment of the civil magistrate
before Charles M‘Lellan of Collin, ‘and did all touch the bones,’ but
without any result.
On a committee of five ministers coming two days after to the
house, the disturbing agency increased much in violence. According
to the parish minister, Telfair, who was present on this occasion, ‘It
came often with such force, that it made all the house shake; it brake
a hole through the timber and thatch of the 1695.
roof, and poured in great stones, one
whereof, more than a quarter weight, fell upon Mr James Monteath
his back, yet he was not hurt.’ When a guard was set upon the hole in
the roof, outside, it broke another hole through the gable from the
barn, and threw stones in through that channel. ‘It griped and
handled the legs of some, as with a man’s hand; it hoised up the feet
of others, while standing on the ground; thus it did to William
Lennox of Millhouse, myself, and others.’
After this, the disturbances went on with little variation of effect
for a week or more. A pedler felt a hand thrust into his pocket.
Furniture was dragged about. Seeing a meal-sieve flying about the
house, Mackie took hold of it, when the skin was immediately torn
out. Several people were wounded with the stones. Groaning,
whistling, and cries of Whisht—Bo, bo—and Kuck, kuck! were
frequently heard. Men, while praying, were over and over again lifted
up from the ground. While Mackie was thrashing in the barn, some
straw was set fire to, and staves were thrust at him through the wall.
When any person was hit by a stone, a voice was heard saying: ‘Take
that till you get more;’ and another was sure to come immediately.
On the 24th of April, there was a fast and humiliation in the parish
on account of the demonstrations at Ring-croft; and on that day the
violences were more than ever extreme, insomuch that the family
feared they should be killed by the stones. ‘On the 26th, it threw
stones in the evening, and knocked on a chest several times, as one to
have access, and began to speak, and call those who were sitting in
the house witches and rooks, and said it would take them to hell. The
people then in the house said among themselves: “If it had any to
speak to it, now it would speak.” In the meantime, Andrew Mackie
was sleeping. They wakened him, and then he, hearing it say: “Thou
shalt be troubled till Tuesday,” asked, “Who gave thee a
commission?” It answered: “God gave me a commission, and I am
sent to warn the land to repent, for a judgment is to come, if the land
do not quickly repent;” and commanded him to reveal it upon his
peril. And if the land did not repent, it said it would go to its father,
and get a commission to return with a hundred worse than itself, and
it would trouble every particular family in the land. Andrew Mackie
said: “If I should tell this, I would not be believed.” Then it said:
“Fetch [your] betters; fetch the minister of 1695.
the parish, and two honest men on
Tuesday’s night, and I shall declare before them what I have to say.”
Then it said: “Praise me, and I will whistle to you; worship me, and I
will trouble you no more.” Then Andrew Mackie said: “The Lord,
who delivered the three children out of the fiery furnace, deliver me
and mine this night from the temptations of Satan!” It replied: “You
might as well have said, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.”’ On a
humble person present here putting in a word, the voice told him he
was ill-bred to interfere in other people’s discourse. ‘It likewise said:
“Remove your goods, for I will burn the house.”’
The house was actually set on fire seven times next day, and the
care of the inmates preventing damage of this kind from extending,
the end of the house was pulled down in the evening, so that the
family was forced to spend the night in the barn. On the second next
day, the house being again set fire to several times, Mackie carefully
extinguished all fires about the place, and poured water upon his
hearth; yet after this, when there was no fire within a quarter of a
mile, the conflagrations, as was alleged, were renewed several times.
The period announced in the bloody letter of the 8th instant was
now approaching, and in a conversation with Mackie, the supposed
spirit good-naturedly informed him that, ‘except some casting of
stones on Tuesday to fulfil the promise,’ he should have no more
trouble. Tuesday, being the 30th of April, was the twenty-third day
from the finding of the letter. That night, Charles M‘Lellan of Collin
and several neighbours were in the barn. As he was at prayer, he
‘observed a black thing in the corner of the barn, and it did increase,
as if it would fill the whole house. He could not discern it to have any
form, but as if it had been a black cloud; it was affrighting to them
all. Then it threw bear-chaff and mud in their faces, and afterwards
did grip severals who were in the house by the middle of the body, by
the arms, and other parts of their bodies, so strait, that some said for
five days thereafter they thought they felt those grips.’ Such,
excepting the firing of a sheep-cot next day, was the last that was
seen, heard, or felt of the Rerrick Spirit.
So great was the impression made by these incidents, that early in
the ensuing year Mr Telfair published an account of them in a small
pamphlet, which went through a second edition in Scotland, and was
reprinted, with alterations of language, in 1695.
[138]
London. At the end appeared the
attestations of those who ‘saw, heard, and felt’ the various things
stated—namely, ‘Mr Andrew Ewart, minister at Kells; Mr James
Monteath, minister at Borgue; Mr John Murdo, minister at
Crossmichael; Mr Samuel Stirling, minister at Parton; Mr William
Falconer, minister at Kelton; Charles M‘Lellan of Collin, William
Lennox of Millhouse, Andrew and John Tait in Torr, John Cairns in
Hardhills, William Macminn, John Corsby, Thomas Macminn,
Andrew Paline, &c.’ It may be remarked, that for each particular
statement in the Relation, the names of the special witnesses are
given; and their collected names are appended, as to a solemn
document in which soul and conscience were concerned.
The degree of respect felt by the Mar. 19.

authorities of this age for the rights of the
individual, is shewn very strikingly in a custom which was now and
for a considerable time after largely practised, of compromising with
degraded and imputedly criminal persons for banishment to the
American plantations. For example, at this date, thirty-two women of
evil fame, residing in Edinburgh, were brought before the
magistrates as a moral nuisance. We do not know what could have
been done to them beyond whipping and hard labour; yet they were
fain to agree that, instead of any other punishment, they should be
banished to America, and arrangements for that purpose were
immediately made.
In the ensuing June, a poor woman of the same sort, named Janet
Cook, residing in Leith, was denounced for offences in which a father
and son were associated—a turpitude which excited a religious
horror, and caused her to be regarded as a criminal of the highest
class. The Lord Advocate reported of Janet to the Privy Council, that
she had been put under the consideration of the Lords of Justiciary,
as a person against whom ‘probation could not be found,’ but that
the Lords were nevertheless ‘of opinion she might be banished the
kingdom,’ and she herself had ‘consented to her banishment.’ The
Lords of the Privy Council seem to have had no more difficulty about
the case than those of the Court of 1695.
Justiciary had had; they ordered that Janet
should depart furth of the kingdom and not return, ‘under the
highest pains and penalties.’
In January 1696, a woman named Elizabeth Waterstone,
imprisoned on a charge identical in all respects with the above, was,
in like manner, without trial, banished, with her own consent, to the
plantations.
On the 7th of February 1697, four boys who were notorious
thieves, and eight women who were that and worse, were called
before the magistrates of Edinburgh, and ‘interrogat whether or not
they would consent freely to their own banishment furth of this
kingdom, and go to his majesty’s plantations in America.’ ‘They one
and all freely and unanimously consented so to do,’ and
arrangements were made by the Privy Council for their deportation
accordingly. It was only ordained regarding the boys that Lord Teviot
might engage them as recruits for Flanders, in which case he was
immediately to commence maintaining them.
On the 15th February 1698, Robert Alexander, ‘a notorious horse-
stealer,’ now in prison, was willing to appease justice by consenting
to banishment without trial. He likewise made discoveries enabling
several countrymen to recover their horses. The Privy Council
therefore ordained him to be transported by the first ship to the
plantations of America, not to return thence under pain of death.
William Baillie, ‘ane Egyptian,’ prisoner in the Tolbooth of
Edinburgh, but regarding whom we hear of no specific offence and
no trial, was summarily ordered (Sep. 12, 1699) to be transported in
the first ship going to the plantations, the skipper to be allowed a
proper gratuity from the treasury, and at the same time to give
caution for five hundred merks that he would produce a certificate of
the man being landed in America.[139]
It was long before justice in Scotland took any qualm about this
free-and-easy way of dealing with accused persons. So late as 1732,
two men of humble rank—Henderson, a sedan-carrier, and
Hamilton, a street-cadie—suspected of being accessory to the
murder of an exciseman, having petitioned for banishment before
trial, were sent from the jail in Edinburgh to Glasgow, there to wait a
vessel for the plantations.[140]
The Earl of Home, as a dangerous person, 1695. Apr. 3.
had for some time been confined to his
house of the Hirsel, near Coldstream; but now he was required to
enter himself prisoner in Edinburgh Castle. He represented himself
as under such indisposition of body as to make this unendurable, and
the Council therefore ordered Dr Sir Thomas Burnet, the king’s
physician, to take a chirurgeon with him to the Hirsel, and inquire
into the state of his lordship’s health. The doctor and surgeon
reported in such terms that the earl was allowed to remain at the
Hirsel, but not without caution to the extent of two thousand pounds
sterling. For their pains in travelling fifty miles and back, and giving
this report, the Council allowed Dr Burnet two hundred merks (£11,
2s. 2d.), and Gideon Elliot, chirurgeon, one hundred merks.[141]
A hership of cattle having taken place on May 20.

the lands of Lord Rollo, in Perthshire, the
Master of Rollo was pleased to prosecute the matter a little more
energetically than was convenient to some of his neighbours. He
seems to have particularly excited the resentment of James
Edmonstoun of Newton, one of whose tenants was found in
possession of a cow reclaimed as part of the hership. Newton, being
soon after at the house of Clavidge, spoke some despiteful words
regarding the Master, which were afterwards taken notice of. At the
same house, about the same time, Patrick Graham, younger of
Inchbrakie, spoke in the like angry terms of the Master. ‘It has been
noised in the country,’ said he, ‘that I have courted the Master of
Rollo, and fawned upon him; but when occasion serves, something
different will be seen.’
These two hot-headed men spent a couple of days together at
Ryecroft, a house of young Inchbrakie, and probably there inflamed
their common resentment by talking over their grievances. On the
day noted in the margin, hearing that the Master of Rollo was to go
in the afternoon to Invermay House, they rode to his house of
Duncrub, and from that place accompanied him to Invermay,
together with the Laird of Clavidge and a gentleman named
M‘Naughton. Inchbrakie was remarked to have no sword, while his
companion Newton was provided with one. Supping at the
hospitable board of Invermay, these two conducted themselves much
in the manner of men seeking a quarrel. Inchbrakie said to the
Master: ‘Master, although John Stewart killed and salted two of your
kine, you surely will not pursue him, since 1695.
your father and his Miss ate them!’
Hereupon Clavidge remarked that this was not table-talk; to which
Newton made answer: ‘I think you are owning that.’ Then Inchbrakie
and Newton were observed to whisper together, and the latter was
heard saying: ‘I will not baulk you, Inchie.’ Afterwards, they went out
together, and by and by returned to table. What was the subject of
their conversation during absence, might only too easily be inferred
from what followed.
At ten o’clock the party broke up, and the strangers mounted their
horses, to ride to their respective homes. The Laird of Invermay,
having observed some mischief brewing in the mind of Newton,
endeavoured to make him stay for the night, but without success.
The Master, Clavidge, and M‘Naughton rode on, with Inchbrakie a
little in front of them. When Newton came up, Inchbrakie and he
turned a little aside, and Newton was then observed to loose his belt
and give his sword to Inchbrakie. Then riding on to the rest of the
party, he contrived to lead Clavidge and M‘Naughton a little ahead,
and commenced speaking noisily about some trivial matter. Hearing,
however, the clashing of two swords behind them, Clavidge and
M‘Naughton turned back, along with Newton, and there saw the
Master of Rollo fallen on his knees, while Inchbrakie stood over him.
The latter called out to Newton, ‘He has got it.’ Clavidge rushed to
sustain the sinking man, while Inchbrakie and Newton went apart
and interchanged a few hurried sentences. Presently Newton came
up again, when Clavidge, perceiving that the Master was wounded to
the death, cried out: ‘O God, such a horrid murder was never seen!’
To this Newton, standing coolly by, said: ‘I think not so—I think it
has been fair.’ The poor Master seems to have died immediately, and
then Newton went again aside with Inchbrakie, gave him his own
hat, and assisted him to escape. In the morning, when the two
swords were found upon the ground, the bloody one proved to be
Newton’s.
Inchbrakie fled that night to the house of one John Buchanan,
whom he told that he had killed the Master of Rollo, adding, with
tokens of remorse: ‘Wo worth Newton—wo worth the company!’ and
stating further that Newton had egged him on, and given him a
weapon, when he would rather have declined fighting.
Inchbrakie escaped abroad, and was outlawed, but, procuring a
remission, returned to his country in 1720. 1695.
[142]
James Edmonstoun of Newton was
tried (Aug. 6, 1695) for accession to the murder of John Master of
Rollo, and condemned to banishment for life.[143] It is stated that,
nevertheless, he carried the royal standard of James VIII. at the
battle of Sheriffmuir, and even after that event, lived many years on
his own estate in Strathearn.[144]
The Estates at this date advert to the fact May.

that sundry lands lying along the sea-coast
had been ruined, in consequence of their being overwhelmed with
sand driven from adjacent sand-hills, ‘the which has been mainly
occasioned by the pulling up by the roots of bent, juniper, and broom
bushes, which did loose and break the surface and scroof of the sand-
hills.’ In particular, ‘the barony of Cowbin and house and yards
thereof, lying in the sheriffdom of Elgin, is quite ruined and
overspread with sand,’ brought upon it by the aforesaid cause.
Penalties were accordingly decreed for such as should hereafter pull
up bent or juniper bushes on the coast sand-hills.[145]
A remarkable geological phenomenon, resulting in the ruin of a
family of Morayland gentry, is here in question. We learn from an act
of parliament, passed two months later, that, within the preceding
twenty years, two-thirds of the estate of Culbin had been
overwhelmed with blown sand, so that no trace of the manor-house,
yards, orchards, or mains thereof, was now to be seen, though
formerly ‘as considerable as many in the country of Moray.’
Alexander Kinnaird of Culbin now represented to the parliament,
that full cess was still charged for his lands, being nearly as much as
the remainder of them produced to him in rent; and he petitioned
that his unfortunate estate might, in consideration of his
extraordinary misfortune, be altogether exempted from cess. Three
years after this date, we hear of the remaining fourth part of Culbin
as sold for the benefit of the creditors of the proprietor, and himself
suing to parliament for a personal protection. In time, the entire ruin
of the good old barony was completed. Hugh Miller says: ‘I have
wandered for hours amid the sandwastes of this ruined barony, and
seen only a few stunted bushes of broom, and a few scattered tufts of
withered bent, occupying, amid utter 1695.
barrenness, the place of what, in the middle
of the seventeenth century, had been the richest fields of the rich
province of Moray; and, where the winds had hollowed out the sand,
I have detected, uncovered for a few yards-breadth, portions of the
buried furrows, sorely dried into the consistence of sun-burned
brick, but largely charged with the seeds of the common cornfield
weeds of the country, that, as ascertained by experiment by the late
Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, still retain their vitality. It is said that an
antique dove-cot, in front of the huge sand-wreath which enveloped
the manor-house, continued to present the top of its peaked roof
over the sand, as a foundered vessel sometimes exhibits its vane over
the waves, until the year 1760. The traditions of the district testify
that, for many years after the orchard had been enveloped, the
topmost branches of the fruit-trees, barely seen over the surface,
continued each spring languidly to throw out bud and blossom; and
it is a curious circumstance, that in the neighbouring churchyard of
Dike there is a sepulchral monument of the Culbin family, which,
though it does not date beyond the reign of James VI., was erected by
a lord and lady of the lost barony, at a time when they seem to have
had no suspicion of the utter ruin which was coming on their house.
The quaint inscription runs as follows:
VALTER : KINNAIRD : ELIZABETH : INNES : 1613 :
THE : BVILDARS : OF : THIS : BED : OF : STANE :
AR : LAIRD : AND : LADIE : OF : COVBINE :
QVHILK : TVA : AND : THARS : QVHANE : BRAITHE IS : GANE :
PLEIS : GOD : VIL : SLEIP : THIS : BED : VITHIN :
I refer to these facts, though they belong certainly to no very remote

age in the past history of our country, chiefly to shew that in what
may be termed the geological formations of the human period, very
curious fossils may be already deposited, awaiting the researches of
the future. As we now find, in raising blocks of stone from the
quarry, water-rippled surfaces lying beneath, fretted by the tracks of
ancient birds and reptiles, there is a time coming when, under thick
beds of stone, there may be detected fields and orchards, cottages,
manor-houses, and churches—the memorials of nations that have
perished, and of a condition of things and a stage of society that have
for ever passed away.’[146]
The same advantages of situation which June 4.

are now thought to 1695.
adapt Peterhead
for a harbour of refuge for storm-beset vessels—placed centrally and
prominently on the east coast of Scotland—rendered it very
serviceable in affording shelter to vessels pursued by those French
privateers which, during the present war, were continually scouring
the German Ocean. Very lately, four English vessels returning from
Virginia and other foreign plantations with rich commodities, would
have inevitably been taken if they had not got into Peterhead
harbour, and been protected there by the fortifications and the
‘resoluteness’ of the inhabitants. The spirit manifested in keeping up
the defences, and maintaining a constant guard and watch at the
harbour, had incensed the privateers not a little; and one Dunkirker
of thirty-four guns took occasion last summer to fire twenty-two
great balls at the town, nor did he depart without vowing (as
afterwards reported by a Scottish prisoner on board) to return and
do his endeavour to set it in a flame. The people, feeling their danger,
and exhausted with expensive furnishings and watchings, now
petitioned the Privy Council for a little military protection—which
was readily granted.[147]
As political troubles subsided in Scotland, June.
the spirit of mercantile enterprise rose and
gained strength. The native feelings of this kind were of course
stimulated by the spectacle of success presented in England by the
East India Company, and the active trade carried on with the
colonies. These sources of profit were monopolies; but Scotland
inquired, since she was an independent state, what was to hinder her
to have similar sources of profit established by her own legislature.
The dawnings of this spirit are seen in an act passed in the Scottish
parliament in 1693, wherein it is declared, ‘That merchants may
enter into societies and companies for carrying on trade as to any
sort of goods to whatsoever countries not being at war with their
majesties, where trade is in use to be, and particularly, besides the
kingdoms of Europe, to the East and West Indies, to the Straits and
Mediterranean, or upon the coast of Africa, or elsewhere,’ and
promising to such companies letters-patent for privileges and other
encouragements, as well as protection in case of their being attacked
or injured. Amongst a few persons favouring this spirit, was one of
notable character and history—William Paterson—a native of
Scotland, but now practising merchandise 1695.
in London—a most active genius, well
acquainted with distant countries, not visionary, animated, on the
contrary, by sound commercial principles, yet living, unfortunately
for himself, before the time when there was either intelligence or
means for the successful carrying out of great mercantile adventures.
Paterson, in the early part of this year, had gained for himself a
historical fame by projecting and helping to establish the Bank of
England. For his native country he at the same time projected what
he hoped would prove a second East India Company.
At the date noted, an act passed the Scottish parliament, forming
certain persons named into an incorporation, under the name of The
Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies, who should
be enabled to ‘plant colonies, and build cities and forts, in any
countries in Asia, Africa, or America, not possest by any European
sovereign,’ ‘by consent of the natives and inhabitants thereof,’ and to
take all proper measures for their own protection and the
advancement of their special objects, only acknowledging the
supremacy of the king by the annual payment of a hogshead of
tobacco. It was scrupulously arranged, however, that at least one half
of the stock of this Company should be subscribed for by Scotsmen
residing either at home or abroad.
Although the war pressed sorely on the resources of England,
Paterson calculated securely that there was enough of spare capital
and enterprise in London to cause the new Scottish trading scheme
to be taken up readily there. When the books for subscription were
opened in October, the whole £300,000 offered to the English
merchants was at once appropriated. By this time, the fears of the
East India Company and of the English mercantile class generally
had been roused; it was believed that the Scottish adventurers would
compete with them destructively in every place where they now
enjoyed a lucrative trade. The parliament took up the cry, and voted
that the noblemen and gentlemen named in the Scottish act were
guilty of a high crime and misdemeanour. Irritated rather than
terrified by this denunciation, these gentlemen calmly proceeded
with their business in Scotland. The subscription books being opened
on the 26th of February 1696, the taking up of the stock became
something like a national movement. It scarcely appeared that the
country was a poor one. Noblemen, country gentlemen, merchants,
professional men, corporations of every kind, flocked to put down
their names for various sums according to their ability, till not
merely the £300,000 devoted to Scotsmen 1695.
was engaged for, but some additional
capital besides.[148] In a list before me, with the sums added up, I find
the total is £336,390 sterling; but, of course, the advance of this large
sum was contemplated as to be spread over a considerable space of
time, the first instalment of 25 per cent. being alone payable within
1696.
Meanwhile the furious denunciations of the English parliament
proved a thorough discouragement to the project in London, and
nearly the whole of the stockholders there silently withdrew from it;
under the same influence, the merchants of Hamburg were induced
to withdraw their support and co-operation, leaving Scotland to work
out her own plans by herself.
African Company’s House at Bristo Port, Edinburgh.
She proceeded to do so with a courage much to be admired. A

handsome house for the conducting of the Company’s business was
erected; schemes for trade with Greenland, with Archangel, with the
Gold Coast, were considered; the qualities of goods, possible
improvements of machinery, the extent of 1695.
the production of foreign wares, were all the
subject of careful inquiry. Under the glow of a new national object,
old grudges and antipathies were forgotten. William Paterson,
indeed, had set the pattern of a non-sectarian feeling from the
beginning, for, writing from London to the Lord Provost of
Edinburgh in July 1695, we find him using this strain of language,
hitherto unwonted in Scotland: ‘Above all, it is needful for us to make
no distinction of parties in this great undertaking; but of whatever
nation or religion a man be, he ought to be looked upon, if one of us,
to be of the same interest and inclination. We must not act apart in
anything, but in a firm and united body, and distinct from all other
interests whatsoever.’
The design of Paterson presents such indications of a great, an
original, and a liberal mind, as to make the obscurity which rests on
his history much to be regretted. The narrow, grasping, and
monopolising spirit which had hitherto marked the commerce of

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2.Conservation concessions occur when governments or private conservation organizations pay

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9-2 How should we manage and sustain forests?

9-3 How should we manage and sustain grasslands?

9-5 What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity?

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9-6 How can we help to sustain aquatic biodiversity?

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4. What type of wilderness preservation is happening in developing countries?

Activities and Projects

Attitudes and Values Assessment

2. Where are the nearest locations in your area to go to observe wildlife?

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Blue Planet (Video Series from Discovery Channel, 2001)

Conserving America: The Wetlands (PBS, 1994)

Last Journey for the Leatherback? (Documentary, 2004)

The Lorax (Animated, Dr. Seuss, 1972, Online)

Livable Landscapes (Documentary, 2002)

Major World Ecosystems (Documentary, 2004)

Ocean Oasis (Documentary, San Diego Natural History Museum, 2001)

Planet Earth Series—Discovery Channel (TV Series)

Valley at the Crossroads (Documentary, 2002)

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We all Live Downstream (Documentary, 1991)

Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence

Monterey Bay Aquarium

National Interagency Fire Center

U.S. Forest Service

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Correlation to Virtual Field Trips

Correlation to Explore More

Suggested Answers to End of Chapter Questions

See page 174.

See pages 175–178.

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See pages 177–180.

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See pages 180–184.

See pages 184–186

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• Four strategies for reducing fire-related harm to forests and people:

See pages 187-188.

See pages 188–191.

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See pages 192–194.

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See pages 195–201.

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Answers will vary. One possible answer is given below.

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Answers will vary but one possible answer is:

Answers will vary. One possible answer is given below.