Environmental Science 14th Edition Miller Solutions Manual

Environmental Science 14th Edition
Miller Solutions Manual

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CHAPTER 9
SUSTAINING BIODIVERSITY: THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH
Outline
9-1 What are the major threats to forest ecosystems?
A. Forests vary in their age, make-up, and origins.
1. Natural and planted forests occupy about 30% of the earth’s land surface (excluding
Greenland and Antarctica).
2. Two major types based on their age and structure:
a. An old growth forest is an uncut or regenerated primary forest that has not been
seriously disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for several hundred years or
more.
b. A second-growth forest is a stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological
succession that develops after the trees in an area have been removed by human
activities such as clear-cutting for timber or cropland or by natural forces such as fire,
hurricanes, or volcanic eruption.
3. A tree plantation, also called a tree farm or commercial forest, is a managed tract with
uniformly aged trees of one or two genetically uniform species that usually are harvested by
clear-cutting as soon as they become commercially valuable.
4. Forests provide important economic and ecological services.
a. Forests remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in organic compounds (biomass)
through photosynthesis.
b. Forests help to stabilize the earth’s temperature and slow projected climate change.
B. Unsustainable logging is a major threat to forest ecosystems.
1. The first step in harvesting trees is to build roads for access and timber removal, but they can
cause the following problems:
a. Increased erosion and sediment runoff into waterways.
b. Habitat fragmentation.
c. Loss of biodiversity.
d. Forest exposure to invasion by nonnative pests, diseases, and wildlife species.
2. Methods of harvesting trees:
a. Selective cutting.
b. Clear-cut.
c. Strip cutting.
3. SCIENCE FOCUS: Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecological Services.
a. Market tools such as regulations, taxes, and subsidies can encourage protection of
biodiversity.
b. The world’s forests and other ecosystems will continue to be degraded with current
prices of goods and services.
C. Fire can threaten or benefit forest ecosystems.
1. Surface fires usually burn only undergrowth and leaf litter on the forest floor.
a. Kills seedlings and small trees but spares most mature trees and allows most wild
animals to escape.
b. Burns away flammable ground material and may help to prevent more destructive
fires.
c. Frees valuable mineral nutrients tied up in slowly decomposing litter and
undergrowth.
d. Releases seeds from the cones of lodgepole pines.
e. Stimulates the germination of certain tree seeds, such as those of the giant sequoia
and jack pine.
f. Helps to control tree diseases and insects.
© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

150 Instructor’s Manual for Environmental Science, 14th edition
2. Crown fires are extremely hot fires that leap from treetop to treetop, burning whole trees.
a. Can destroy most vegetation, kill wildlife, increase soil erosion, and burn or damage
human structures in their paths.
3. CONNECTIONS: Climate Change and Forest Fires.
a. Rising temperatures and increased drought from projected climate change will likely
make many forest areas more suitable for insect pests, which would then multiply
and kill more trees.
b. Drying forests will probably experience more fires, producing increases in the
greenhouse gas CO2, which then increases atmospheric temperatures.
D. Almost half of the world’s forests have been cut down.
1. Deforestation is the temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for
agriculture, settlements, or other uses.
2. Human activities have reduced the earth’s original forest cover by about 46%, with most of
this loss occurring in the last 60 years.
3. If current deforestation rates continue, about 40% of the world’s remaining intact forests will
have been logged or converted to other uses within two decades, if not sooner.
4. Clearing large areas of forests, especially old-growth forests, has important short-term
economic benefits, but it also has a number of harmful environmental effects.
5. The net total forest cover in several countries changed very little or even increased between
2000 and 2007. Some of the increases resulted from natural reforestation by secondary
ecological succession on cleared forest areas and abandoned croplands. Other increases in
forest cover were due to the spread of commercial tree plantations.
6. Some scientists are concerned about the growing amount of land occupied by commercial tree
plantations, because replacement of old-growth forests by these biologically simplified tree
farms represents a loss of biodiversity, and possibly of stability, in some forest ecosystems.
7. CASE STUDY: Many Cleared Forests in the United States Have Grown Back.
a. Forests that cover about 30% of the U.S. land area provide habitats for more than 80%
of the country’s wildlife species and supply about two-thirds of the nation’s surface
water.
b. Today, forests in the United States (including tree plantations) cover more area than they
did in 1920, primarily due to secondary succession.
c. Every year, more wood is grown in the United States than is cut and the total area
planted with trees increases.
d. Protected forests make up about 40% of the country’s total forest area.
e. Since the mid-1960s, an increasing area of the nation’s remaining old-growth and fairly
diverse second-growth forests has been cut down and replaced with biologically
simplified tree plantations.
E. Tropical forests are disappearing rapidly.
1. Tropical forests cover about 6% of the earth’s land area.
2. At least half of the world’s known species of terrestrial plants and animals live in tropical
forests.
3. Brazil has more than 30% of the world’s remaining tropical rain forest in its vast Amazon
basin.
4. At the current rate of global deforestation, 50% of the world’s remaining old-growth tropical
forests will be gone or severely degraded by the end of this century.
F. Causes of tropical deforestation are varied and complex.
1. Tropical deforestation results from a number of interconnected underlying and direct causes.
a. Pressures from population growth and poverty, push subsistence farmers and the
landless poor into tropical forests, where they try to grow enough food to survive.
b. Government subsidies can accelerate the direct causes such as logging and ranching by
reducing the costs of timber harvesting, cattle grazing, and the creation of vast
plantations of crops such as soybeans.
c. Tropical forests in the Amazon and other South American countries are cleared or
burned mostly for cattle grazing and large soybean plantations.

Chapter 9: Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach 151
d. In Indonesia, Malaysia, and other areas of Southeast Asia, tropical forests are being
replaced with vast plantations of oil palm, whose oil is used in cooking, cosmetics, and
biodiesel fuel for motor vehicles (especially in Europe).
e. In Africa, people struggle to survive by clearing plots for small-scale farming and by
harvesting wood for fuel, which is causing deforestation on that continent.
2. CONNECTIONS: Burning Tropical Forests and Climate Change.
a. The burning of tropical forests releases CO2 into the atmosphere, which is projected to
warm the atmosphere and change the global climate at an increasing rate during this
century.
b. These fires account for at least 17% of all human-created greenhouse gas emissions.
9-2 How should we manage and sustain forests?
A. We can manage forests more sustainably.
1. Certification of sustainably grown timber and of sustainably produced forest products can
help consumers.
2. Removing government subsidies and tax breaks that encourage deforestation would also help.
B. We can improve the management of forest fires.
1. In the United States, the Smokey Bear educational campaign has:
prevented countless forest fires, saved many lives and prevented billions of dollars in loss
of trees, wildlife, and human structures.
a. convinced the public that all forest fires are bad and should be prevented or put out.
2. Trying to prevent all forest fires can make matters worse by increasing the likelihood of
destructive crown fires due to the accumulation of highly flammable underbrush and smaller
trees in some forests.
3. There are several strategies for reducing fire-related harm to forests and people.
a. Prescribed burns are small, contained surface fires to remove flammable small trees and
underbrush in the highest-risk forest areas.
b. Allow some fires on public lands to burn, thereby removing flammable underbrush and
smaller trees, as long as the fires do not threaten human structures and life. Protect
houses and other buildings in fire-prone areas by thinning a zone of about 60 meters
(200 feet) around them and eliminating the use of flammable building materials such as
wooden shingles.
c. Thin forest areas vulnerable to fire by clearing away small fire-prone trees and
underbrush under careful environmental controls.
4. SCIENCE FOCUS: Certifying Sustainably Grown Timber and Products Such as the Paper
Used in This Book.
a. The nonprofit Forest Stewardship Council has developed environmentally sound and
sustainable practices for use in certifying timber and timber products.
b. To be certified, a timber company must show that cutting of trees has not exceeded
long-term forest regeneration; roads and harvesting systems have not caused
unreasonable ecological damage; topsoil has not been damaged; and downed wood
(boles) and standing dead trees (snags) are left to provide wildlife habitat.
c. The FSC reported that, by 2009, about 5% of the world’s forest area in 82 countries had
been certified according to FSC standards. The countries with the largest areas of FSC-
certified forests are, in order, Canada, Russia, Sweden, the United States, Poland, and
Brazil.
d. FSC also certifies 5,400 manufacturers and distributors of wood products. The paper
used in this book was produced with the use of sustainably grown timber, as certified by
the FSC, and contains recycled paper fibers.
C. We can reduce the demand for harvested trees.
1. Reduce inefficient use of construction materials, excess packaging, overuse of junk mail,
inadequate paper recycling, and failure to reuse or find substitutes for wooden shipping
containers.
2. Paper can be made from fiber that does not come from trees.
D. Ways to reduce tropical deforestation.
1. Debt-for-nature swap can make it financially attractive for countries to protect their tropical
forests.

2.Conservation concessions occur when governments or private conservation organizations pay

nations for agreeing to preserve their natural resources.
3. Consumers can reduce the demand for products that are supplied through illegal and
unsustainable logging in tropical forests.
a. For building projects, use recycled waste lumber. Substitutes for wood, such as recycled
plastic building materials and bamboo, are also available.
b. Reduce the use of throwaway paper products and replace them with reusable plates,
cups, and cloth napkins and handkerchiefs.
4. Individuals can plant trees.
5. CONNECTIONS: Good and Bad Bamboo
a. Growing bamboo, which is increasingly used for hardwood flooring, added to an
environmental problem while trying to be part of the solution.
b. Bamboo can be a highly sustainable building material if it is raised on degraded lands.
c. Some bamboo suppliers have cleared natural forests to plant rapidly growing bamboo.
d. Consumers should look for bamboo products that are certified as sustainably produced
by the Forest Stewardship Council.
9-3 How should we manage and sustain grasslands?
A. Some rangelands are overgrazed.
1. Grasslands provide many important ecological services, including soil formation, erosion control,
nutrient cycling, storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide in biomass, and maintenance of
biodiversity.
2. Rangelands are unfenced grasslands in temperate and tropical climates that supply forage, or
vegetation, for grazing (grass-eating) and browsing (shrub-eating) animals.
3. Livestock also graze in pastures, which are managed grasslands or enclosed meadows usually
planted with domesticated grasses or other forage.
4. Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of
a rangeland area.
5. Limited data from surveys in various countries indicate that overgrazing by livestock has caused a
loss in productivity in as much as 20% of the world’s rangeland.
B. We can manage rangelands more sustainably.
1. Control the number of grazing animals and the duration of their grazing in a given area so the
carrying capacity of the area is not exceeded.
a. Rotational grazing in which cattle are confined by portable fencing to one area for a short
time (often only 1–2days) and then moved.
b. Livestock tend to aggregate around natural water sources with strips of lush vegetation known
as riparian zones, so providing supplemental feed at selected sites and strategically locating
water holes and tanks and salt blocks may reduce overgrazing.
c. Suppressing the growth of unwanted invader plants by use of herbicides, mechanical removal,
or controlled burning may help, as can controlled, short-term trampling by large numbers of
livestock.
9-4 How should we manage and sustain parks and nature reserves?
A. National parks face many environmental threats.
1. More than 1,100 major national parks are located in more than 120 countries.
2. Most too small to sustain many large animal species.
3. Many parks suffer from invasions by nonnative species that compete with and reduce the
populations of native species.
4. Some parks are so popular that large numbers of visitors are degrading the natural features that
make them attractive.
5. Parks in less-developed countries have the greatest biodiversity of all parks, but only about 1% of
these parklands are protected.
6. CASE STUDY: Stresses on U.S. Public Parks:
a. The U.S. national park system, established in 1912, includes 58 major national parks, along
with 335 monuments and historic sites. States, counties, and cities also operate public parks.
b. Popularity is one of the biggest problems. Noisy and polluting dirt bikes, dune buggies, jet
skis, snowmobiles, and off-road vehicles degrade the aesthetic experience for many visitors,
destroy or damage fragile vegetation, and disturb wildlife.

c. Many suffer damage from the migration or deliberate introduction of nonnative species.
d. Native species—some of them threatened or endangered—are killed or removed illegally.
7. CONNECTIONS: National Parks and Climate Change.
a. Low-lying U.S. park properties in places such as Key West, Florida, Ellis Island in New York
Harbor, and Florida’s Everglades National Park will likely be underwater later in this century
if sea levels rise as projected.
b. As climate zones shift in a warmer world, by 2030, Glacier National Park may not have any
glaciers and the saguaro cactus may disappear from Saguaro National Park.
B. Nature reserves occupy only a small part of the earth’s land.
1. As of 2010, less than 13% of the earth’s land area was strictly or partially protected in nature
reserves, parks, wildlife refuges, wilderness, and other areas.
2. No more than 5% of the earth’s land is strictly protected from potentially harmful human
activities.
3. Conservation biologists call for full protection of at least 20% of the earth’s land area in a global
system of biodiversity.
4. Developers and resource extractors oppose protection and contend that these areas might contain
valuable resources that would add to current economic growth.
5. Ecologists and conservation biologists view protected areas as islands of biodiversity and natural
capital that help to sustain all life and economies and serve as centers of evolution.
6. The buffer zone concept strictly protects an inner core of a reserve and establishes buffer zones in
which local people can extract resources sustainably without harming the inner core.
7. By 2010, the United Nations had used this principle to create a global network of 553 biosphere
reserves in 109 countries.
8. SCIENCE FOCUS: Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park.
a. Yellowstone reintroduced the wolf as an experiment in ecosystem restoration.
b. Project appears successful but decades of research will be needed to better understand the
wolves and to unravel many other interacting factors in this complex ecosystem.
9. CASE STUDY: Costa Rica—A Global Conservation Leader.
a. Tropical forests once completely covered Central America’s Costa Rica, but between 1963
and 1983 much of the country’s forests were cleared to graze cattle.
b. Costa Rica is a superpower of biodiversity, with an estimated 500,000 plant and animal
species.
c. Costa Rica now has a system of nature reserves and national parks that, by 2010, included
about a quarter of its land.
d. Costa Rica now devotes a larger proportion of its land to biodiversity conservation than does
any other country
e. The country’s largest source of income is its $1-billion-a-year tourism industry, almost two-
thirds of which involves ecotourism.
f. To reduce deforestation, the government has eliminated subsidies for converting forest to
rangeland.
g. The government pays landowners to maintain or restore tree cover.
h. Between 2007 and 2008, the government planted nearly 14 million trees.
i. Costa Rica has gone from having one of the world’s highest deforestation rates to having one
of the lowest.
C. Protecting wilderness is an important way to preserve biodiversity.
a. One way to protect undeveloped lands is to set them aside as wilderness, land officially
designated as an area where natural communities have not been seriously disturbed by
humans and where human activities are limited by law.
b. Some critics oppose protecting large areas for their scenic and recreational value for a
relatively small number of people.
c. Conservation biologists support protecting wilderness in order to preserve biodiversity and as
centers for evolution.
1. CASE STUDY: Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the United States.
a. In the United States, conservationists have been trying to save wild areas from development
since 1900.

b.The Wilderness Act (1964) allowed the government to protect undeveloped tracts of public
land from development as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System.
c. Only about 2% of the land area of the lower 48 states is protected, most of it in the West.
9-5 What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity?
A. Here are four ways to protect ecosystems.
1. Most biologists and wildlife conservationists believe that the best way to keep from hastening the
extinction of wild species through human activities is the ecosystems approach, which protects
threatened habitats and ecosystem services.
2. Four-point plan of the ecosystems approach:
a. Map the world’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and create an inventory of the species
contained in each of them and the ecosystem services they provide.
b. Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species, with emphasis on protecting
plant biodiversity and ecosystem services.
c. Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible.
B. Protecting global biodiversity hotspots is an urgent priority.
1. Some biodiversity scientists urge adoption of an emergency action strategy to identify and quickly
protect biodiversity hotspots, areas especially rich in plant species that are found nowhere else and
are in great danger of extinction .
2. These hotspots cover only a little more than 2% of the earth’s land surface, they contain an
estimated 50% of the world’s flowering plant species and 42% of all terrestrial species.
3. These hotspots are home for a large majority of the world’s endangered or critically endangered
species, and one-fifth of the world’s population.
C. We can rehabilitate and restore ecosystems that we have damaged.
1. Almost every natural place on the earth has been affected or degraded to some degree by human
activities.
2. We can at least partially reverse much of this harm through ecological restoration: the process of
repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and dynamics of natural ecosystems.
3. Examples of restoration include:
a. replanting forests
b. restoring grasslands
c. restoring coral reefs
d. restoring wetlands and stream banks
e. reintroducing native species
f. removing invasive species
g. freeing river flows by removing dams.
4. Four steps to speed up repair operations include the following:
a. Restoration.
b. Rehabilitation.
c. Replacement.
d. Creating artificial ecosystems.
5. Researchers have suggested a science-based, four-step strategy for carrying out most forms of
ecological restoration and rehabilitation:
a. Identify the causes of the degradation.
b. Stop the abuse by eliminating or sharply reducing these factors.
c. If necessary, reintroduce key species to help restore natural ecological processes.
d. Protect the area from further degradation and allow secondary ecological succession to occur.
6. SCIENCE FOCUS: Ecological Restoration of a Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica.
a. One of the world’s largest ecological restoration projects.
b. Small, tropical dry forest was burned, degraded, and fragmented for large-scale conversion of
the area to cattle ranches and farms.
c. The forest is being restored and reconnected to a rain forest on nearby mountain slopes, with
the goal of reestablishing a tropical dry-forest ecosystem over the next 100–300 years.
d. The project serves as a training ground in tropical forest restoration for scientists from all over
the world.
D. We can share areas we dominate with other species.

1.
Reconciliation ecology is the science that focuses on inventing, establishing, and maintaining new
habitats to conserve species diversity in places where people live, work, or play.
2. Examples include:
a. Protecting local wildlife and ecosystems can provide economic resources for their
communities by encouraging sustainable forms of ecotourism.
b. Protecting vital insect pollinators such as native butterflies and bees by reducing the use of
pesticides, planting flowering plants as a source of food for pollinating insect species, and
building structures which serve as hives for pollinating bees.
c. Protecting bluebirds within human-dominated habitats where most of the bluebirds’ nesting
trees have been cut down by using nesting boxes and keeping house cats away from nesting
bluebirds.
9-6 How can we help to sustain aquatic biodiversity?
A. Human activities are destroying and degrading aquatic biodiversity.
1. Human activities have destroyed or degraded a large portion of the world’s coastal wetlands,
coral reefs, mangroves, and ocean bottom, and disrupted many of the world’s freshwater
ecosystems.
2. Rising sea levels are likely to destroy many coral reefs and flood some low-lying islands
along with their protective coastal mangrove forests.
3. Loss and degradation of many sea-bottom habitats caused by dredging operations and trawler
fishing boats.
4. In freshwater aquatic zones, dam building and excessive water withdrawal from rivers for
irrigation and urban water supplies destroy aquatic habitats, degrade water flows, and disrupt
freshwater biodiversity.
5. The deliberate or accidental introduction of hundreds of harmful invasive species threatens
aquatic biodiversity.
6. Thirty-four percent of the world’s known marine fish species and 71% of the world’s
freshwater fish species face premature extinction.
B. Overfishing: gone fishing; fish gone.
1. A fishery is a concentration of a particular wild aquatic species suitable for commercial
harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water.
2. The fishprint is defined as the area of ocean needed to sustain the consumption of an average
person, a nation, or the world.
3. Fifty-two percent of the world’s fisheries are fully exploited, 20% are moderately
overexploited, and 28% are overexploited or depleted.
4. Overharvesting has led to the collapse of some of the world’s major fisheries.
5. When overharvesting causes larger predatory species to dwindle, rapidly reproducing invasive
species can more easily take over and disrupt ocean food webs.
6. CASE STUDY: Industrial Fish Harvesting Methods.
a. Industrial fishing fleets dominate the world’s marine fishing industry, using global
satellite positioning equipment, sonar fish-finding devices, huge nets and long fishing
lines, spotter planes, and gigantic refrigerated factory ships that can process and freeze
their catches.
b. Trawler fishing is used to catch fish and shellfish by dragging a funnel-shaped net held
open at the neck along the ocean bottom.
c. Purse-seine fishing, is used to catch surface-dwelling fish by using a spotter plane to
locate a school; the fishing vessel then encloses it with a large net called a purse seine.
d. Longlining involves lines up to 130 kilometers (80 miles) long, hung with thousands of
baited hooks to catch open-ocean fish species or bottom fishes.
e. Drift-net fishing catches fish with huge drifting nets that can hang as deep as 15 meters
(50 feet) below the surface and extend to 64 kilometers (40 miles) long.
f. Drift-nets can trap and kill large quantities of unwanted fish, called bycatch, along with
marine mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds.
g. Almost one-third of the world’s annual fish catch by weight consists of bycatch species,
which are mostly thrown overboard dead or dying.
C. We can protect and sustain marine biodiversity.
1. Protecting marine biodiversity is difficult for several reasons.

a. The human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding so rapidly into aquatic areas
that it is difficult to monitor the impacts.
b. Much of the damage to the oceans and other bodies of water is not visible to most
people.
c. Many people incorrectly view the seas as an inexhaustible resource that can absorb an
almost infinite amount of waste and pollution and still produce all the seafood we want.
d. Most of the world’s ocean area lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country and is
thus an open-access resource and subject to overexploitation.
2. Several ways to protect and sustain marine biodiversity:
a. Protect endangered and threatened aquatic species.
b. Establish protected marine sanctuaries.
c. Protect whole marine ecosystems within a global network of fully protected marine
reserves.
3. INDIVIDUALS MATTER: Sylvia Earle—Champion of the Oceans
a. Sylvia Earle is an oceanographer, explorer, author, and lecturer. For decades, she has
been a global leader in publicizing the urgent need to increase our understanding of the
global ocean that helps support all life and to protect much more of it from harmful
human activities.
b. Earle’s research has focused on the ecology and conservation of marine ecosystems,
with an emphasis on developing deep-sea exploration technology.
c. She has been the Chief Scientist of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and founded three companies devoted to developing
submarines and other devices for deep-sea exploration and research.
d. She has received more than 100 major international and national honors, including a
place in the National Women’s Hall of Fame.
e. Earle is currently leading a campaign to ignite public support for a global network of
marine protected areas, which she dubs “hope spots.” Her goal is to help save and
restore the oceans.
D. Taking an Ecosystem Approach to Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity
1. Strategies for applying the ecosystem approach to aquatic biodiversity include:
a. Complete the mapping of the world’s aquatic biodiversity, identifying and locating as
many plant and animal species as possible.
b. Identify and preserve the world’s aquatic biodiversity hotspots and areas where
deteriorating ecosystem services threaten people and other forms of life.
c. Create large and fully protected marine reserves to allow damaged marine ecosystems to
recover and to allow fish stocks to be replenished.
d. Protect and restore the world’s lakes and river systems, which are the most threatened
ecosystems of all.
e. Initiate worldwide ecological restoration projects in systems such as coral reefs and
inland and coastal wetlands.
f. Find ways to raise the incomes of people who live in or near protected lands and waters
so that they can become partners in the protection and sustainable use of ecosystems.
2. The harmful effects of human activities on aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem services could
be reversed over the next 2 decades if an ecosystem approach is implemented, at a cost one of
penny per cup of coffee consumed in the world each year.
3. This chapter’s three big ideas are:
a. The economic values of the important ecological services provided by the world’s
ecosystems are far greater than the value of raw materials obtained from those systems.
b. We can sustain terrestrial biodiversity by protecting severely threatened areas,
protecting remaining undisturbed areas, restoring damaged ecosystems, and sharing with
other species much of the land we dominate.
c. We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing
coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

Objectives
9-1 What are the major threats to forest ecosystems?
CONCEPT 9-1 Ecologically valuable forest ecosystems are being cut and burned at unsustainable rates in
many parts of the world.
1. Distinguish between old-growth and second-growth forests. Briefly describe the commercial and
ecological significance of forests, and the economic and ecological services that forests provide.
2. Describe several ways to harvest trees and list the problems associated with deforestation.
3. Describe the threats and benefits of fire to forest ecosystems, and the link between climate change and
forest fires.
4. Define deforestation, its economic and environmental effects, and changed that have occurred in the
forest area of the United States.
5. Describe causes and effects of deforestation of tropical forests.
9-2 How should we manage and sustain forests?

CONCEPT 9-2 We can sustain forests by emphasizing the economic value of their ecological services,
removing government subsidies that hasten their destruction, protecting old-growth forests, harvesting trees no
faster than they are replenished, and planting trees.
1. Describe methods to manage forests more sustainably and to improve the management of forest fires.
2. Describe efforts to certify sustainably grown timber and products such as paper.
3. List ways to reduce the demand for harvested trees and tropical deforestation.
9-3 How should we manage and sustain grasslands?

CONCEPT 9-3 We can sustain the productivity of grasslands by controlling the number and distribution of
grazing livestock and by restoring degraded grasslands.
1. Distinguish among grassland, rangeland and pasture. Define overgrazing.
2. List ways to manage rangelands more sustainably.
9-4 How should we manage and sustain parks and nature reserves?
CONCEPT 9-4 We need to put more resources into sustaining existing parks and nature reserves and into
protecting much more of the earth’s remaining undisturbed land area.
1. Describe the challenges to our natural parks.
2. Compare the percentage of the earth that is currently protected by nature reserves to the percentage
recommended by conservation biologists. Discuss the controversy over protecting land through nature
reserves.
3. Define wilderness and describe the controversy over wilderness protection in the United States.
9-5 What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity?

CONCEPT 9-5 We can help to sustain terrestrial biodiversity by identifying and protecting severely threatened
areas (biodiversity hotspots), restoring damaged ecosystems (using restoration ecology), and sharing with other
species much of the land we dominate (using reconciliation ecology).
1. List the steps of the four-point plan for implementing the ecosystems approach.
2. Define biodiversity hotspot and discuss the distribution of endangered or critically endangered species
and the human population in relation to hotspots.
3. Define ecological restoration and give 7 examples. List the four steps for carrying out most forms of
ecological restoration and rehabilitation.
4. Define reconciliation ecology and give three examples.

9-6 How can we help to sustain aquatic biodiversity?

CONCEPT 9-6 We can help to sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing
coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.
1. Discuss the issues involved in protecting the marine environment.
2. List factors that threaten the marine and freshewater aquatic zones.
3. Define fishery and fishprint. Describe threats to ocean fisheries, including industrial methods of
harvesting fish.
4. Discuss ways to protect marine biodiversity and the difficulties involved.
5. List strategies for applying the ecosystem approach to aquatic biodiversity.
Key Terms
biodiversity hotspots (p. 195) old-growth forest (p. 179) second-growth
commercial forest (p. 179) overgrazing (p. 190) forest (p. 179)
ecological restoration (p. 196) pastures (p. 190) tree plantation
fishprint (p. 199) rangelands (p. 190) (farm) (p. 179)
fishery (p. 199) reconciliation ecology (p. 197) wilderness (p. 195)
Teaching Tips
Use the case study to introduce the idea of human affect on, and management of, ecosystems. Begin this
discussion by reminding students that the area they lived in was once untouched by human civilization.
• Ask them what that area was like before humans settled there—species and forests or grasslands
present. Coax them to tell you how human history has carved its impact into the land and sea.
• Use this as a bridge to the discussion about whether humans have an ethical responsibility to
preserve and manage ecosystems, or whether ecosystems are present simply to provide for species,
such as ourselves.
• Furthermore, an introduction to the National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services, etc.
with particular attention to your local parks and refuges helps illustrate how local ecosystems are
being preserved or managed.
• The rather young science of restoration ecology is presented as one of the main strategies for
protecting Earth’s biodiversity. Lastly, suggested priorities are presented for protecting such
biodiversity.
Maintaining a high level of biodiversity is one of the text’s primary goals in maintaining a sustainable
world. Ask your students to think of a park or refuge that they have visited. They can present or write about
the following items specific to their park or refuge.
• Park name, location, size, and biome; describe the climate and habitat(s); list as many species as
possible that you remember seeing.
• Discuss the economic value of that park to the local economy then discuss the environmental
value.
• How was the park helping to maintain or increase biodiversity?
Discussion Topics
1. Why are tropical rain forests important for U.S. imports and biodiversity?
2. What are the different types of public land in the United States? How are these public lands used to
increase biodiversity? What are the environmental values derived from these lands?
3. What is the difference between the National Parks System and the National Wilderness System?

4. What type of wilderness preservation is happening in developing countries?
5. Should fires be allowed to burn in forests on public lands? What are some of the benefits and
detriments of forest fires?
6. Should products that result in destruction of tropical forests be banned in the United States?
7. What types of activities (such as mining) should be allowed in national wildlife refuges?
8. Should parts of the wilderness areas be set aside for wildlife only?
Activities and Projects

1. Invite a National Park Service or state official to your class to discuss park problems and future
management plans.
2. As a class field trip, visit a forest managed for pulp and paper production or industrial timbering. What
specific methods are used to maximize economic returns and to curb ecosystem damage? Contrast the
appearance of commercial forestland and relatively undisturbed forestland. Which do you like best?
Why?
3. As a class project, compile a list of commodities for sale in your community whose production or
harvesting contributes to the destructive exploitation of tropical forests. Are vendors and consumers
aware of the consequences? Do they care about the consequences?
4. If there are rangelands in your locale, try to schedule a class visit to examples of well- and poorly-
managed grazing lands. Compare the quantity and quality of vegetation present.
5. Look at maps with the different parks on them. Use a map to mark all the parks your students have
visited.
6. If possible, visit a national park or wilderness area. Assess its current problems and analyze plans to
address those problems.
Attitudes and Values Assessment

1. What wildlife is most common in your area?
2. Where are the nearest locations in your area to go to observe wildlife?
3. What are your feelings toward wildlife species? What relationship between humans and wildlife do
you find most desirable?
4. Do you feel that humans have the right to relate to other species in any way they wish? If not, what
limits do you see on human behavior toward other species?
5. Do you use products that come from the tropical forest? Do the products you use result in destruction
of forest or continued sustainable use of the forest?
6. How do you feel when you see pictures of the destruction of ancient forests?
7. Do you feel we can continue to find substitutes for losses we suffer when ancient forests are
destroyed?

8. Do you feel nature can continue to replenish forests at any rate humans choose to harvest them?
9. How do you feel when you see pictures of forests that have been clear-cut? Pictures of unemployed
loggers unable to support their families?
10. Do you feel it is right to destroy cultures that live sustainably in the tropical rain forests? If not, what
steps do you support to protect these cultures?
11. What steps do you feel should be taken to support human cultures and wildlife species in ways that
create sustainable societies?
12. Have you ever visited a mine? How did you feel about the mine? What benefits do you enjoy as a
result of mining activity?
13. Have you ever visited rangeland? How did you feel about the land? What benefits do you enjoy as a
result of cattle grazing?
14. Have you ever visited a national forest? How did you feel about the forest? What benefits do you enjoy
as a result of lumbering activity?
15. Have you ever visited a wilderness area? How did you feel about the wilderness? What benefits do you
enjoy as a result of protection of wilderness areas?
16. Would you support classifying a much larger proportion of the public lands (such as parks, forests, and
rangeland) in your country as wilderness and making such land unavailable for timber cutting,
livestock grazing, mining, hunting, fishing, motorized vehicles, or any type of human structure?
Laboratory Skills
Wells, Edward. Lab Manual for Environmental Science. 2009. Lab #2: The Tragedy of the Commons – A
Classroom Simulation Exercise.
Wells, Edward. Lab Manual for Environmental Science. 2009. Lab #15: Oil Spill!
News Videos
Darwin’s Galapagos under Threat, The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library 2009, ©2011,
DVD ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73355-7
Kalahari Desert Could Double in Size, The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library 2009,
©2011, DVD ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73355-7
Oil Spill Impacts the Fishing Industry, The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library 2010 with
Workbook, ©2012, DVD ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73495-0
Wildlife Suffering in the Gulf, The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library 2010 with
Workbook, ©2012, DVD ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73495-0

Additional Videos
After the Storm (Documentary, free DVD)
Looks at watersheds and their importance in various parts of the U.S.
http://www.epa.gov/weatherchannel/video.html
Blue Planet (Video Series from Discovery Channel, 2001)

Mammoth series, five years in the making, taking a look at the rich tapestry of life in the world's oceans.
http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/blueplanet/blueplanet.html
Conserving America: The Wetlands (PBS, 1994)

A four-part series on American conservation of wetlands.
http://www.amazon.com/CONSERVING-AMERICA-Wetlands-Burgess-Meredith/dp/B000EHQ0B2
Frontline: World, Mexico: The Business of Saving Trees (Documentary, 2008, Online)
A look at how the carbon credit system has been use to create jobs in Mexico.
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2008/03/mexico_the_busi.html
Last Journey for the Leatherback? (Documentary, 2004)

Looks at the effects of overfishing on sea turtles.
Main Website: http://www.seaturtles.org/article.php?id=1171
Teacher’s Kit: http://www.seaturtles.org/downloads/ACF173.pdf
The Lorax (Animated, Dr. Seuss, 1972, Online)

Animated version of the classic book about an industrialist and the destruction of the environment.
Movie: http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6650219631867189375#docid=7915135816862639754
Activity: http://www.teacherweb.com/TN/WestValleyMiddle/TheLorax/
NOVA—Fire Wars
Main Website: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fire/
Teacher’s Guide: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/programs/2908_fire.html
Livable Landscapes (Documentary, 2002)

How growth and sprawl affect the quality of life in New England, and some possible solutions.
http://www.bullfrogfilms.com/catalog/ll.html
Major World Ecosystems (Documentary, 2004)

Covers a variety of ecosystems and their requirements.
http://www.amazon.com/Major-World-Ecosystems/dp/B00004T01Y
Ocean Oasis (Documentary, San Diego Natural History Museum, 2001)

Biodiversity in the Sea of Cortez, and the deserts of Baja.
http://www.oceanoasis.org/toc.html
Planet Earth Series—Discovery Channel (TV Series)

Series contains excellent documentaries on major aquatic biomes.
http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/planet-earth/planet-earth.html
Valley at the Crossroads (Documentary, 2002)

The battle over sprawl in California's Central Valley, where 50% of America's fruits and vegetables are
grown.
http://www.bullfrogfilms.com/catalog/vac.html

We all Live Downstream (Documentary, 1991)

A look at pollution in the Mississippi River and the effects on human health.
http://www.videoproject.com/wea-281-v.html
Web Resources
Bridge
http://www.vims.edu/bridge/
A variety of resources for teachers that may be adaptable to the college level.
Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence

http://www.cosee.net/
Contains a variety of resources for ocean education.
Hope Spots
Marine scientist and conservationist Sylvia Earle has coined the term Hope Spots for special places that are
critical to the health of the ocean.
http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/missionblue/hope-spots/
http://www.sylviaearlealliance.org/hopespots
Monterey Bay Aquarium

http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/cr/research.aspx?c=dd
Information about research and conservation of marine species and ecosystems.
National Interagency Fire Center

Has up-to-date information on wildfires as well as educational materials.
http://www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_main.html
Ocean Conservancy
Excellent information on a variety of aquatic issues.
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/PageServer?pagename=home
U.S. Forest Service

Has up-to-date information on current forest management plans in the U.S. and a searchable index of
National Forests and National Grasslands.
http://www.fs.fed.us/
Digital Integration
Correlation to Global Environment Watch
Biodiversity Fisheries Land Management
Community-Based Conservation Fishing Land Use
Conservation Forests and Deforestation Oceans and Seas
Coral Reefs Grasslands Protected Areas
Deserts and Desertification Habitat Loss Remediation
Ecological Restoration Invasive Species Wetlands
Ecosystem Services Lakes, Rivers, and Streams Wildlife

Correlation to Virtual Field Trips

Ecosystem Approach to Sustaining Biodiversity
Correlation to Explore More

Aquatic Ecosystems Environmental History Rangeland
Biodiversity Forests Saving Species
Conservation Biology Indigenous Cultures Water Pollution
Environmental Economics Overfishing
Suggested Answers to End of Chapter Questions

Answers will vary but these represent phrases from this chapter. The following are examples of the material
that should be contained in possible student answers to the end of chapter questions. They represent only a
summary overview and serve to highlight the core concepts that are addressed in the text. It should be
anticipated that the students will provide more in-depth and detailed responses to the questions depending
on an individual instructor’s stated expectations.
Review
Core Case Study
1. Describe the Green Belt Movement founded by Wangari Maathai(Core Case Study).
See page 174.
• The main goal of the Green Belt Movement is to organize poor women in rural Kenya to plant and
protect millions of trees in order to combat deforestation and provide fuelwood.
Section 9-1
2. What is the key concept for this section? Distinguish among an old-growth (primary) forest, a
second-growth forest, and a tree plantation (tree farm or commercial forest). What major
ecological and economic benefits do forests provide? Describe the efforts of scientists and
economists to put a price tag on the major ecological services provided by forests and other
ecosystems.
See pages 175–178.
• CONCEPT 9-1 Ecologically valuable forest ecosystems are being cut and burned at unsustainable
rates in many parts of the world.
• An old-growth forest is an uncut or regenerated primary forest that has not been seriously
disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for several hundred years or more. Old-growth
forests are reservoirs of biodiversity because they provide ecological niches for a multitude of
wildlife species.
• A second-growth forest is a stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological succession. These
forests develop after the trees in an area have been removed by human activities such as clear-
cutting for timber or cropland or by natural forces such as fire, hurricanes, or volcanic eruption.
• A tree plantation, also called a tree farm or commercial forest, is a managed tract with uniformly
aged trees of one or two genetically uniform species that usually are harvested by clear-cutting as
soon as they become commercially valuable. The land is then replanted and clear-cut again in a
regular cycle.

• See Figure 9-4 for major ecological and economic services provided by forests. Ecological
services include: support energy flow and chemical cycling, reduce soil erosion, absorb and
release water, purify water and air, influence local and regional climate, store atmospheric carbon,
and provide numerous wildlife habitats. Economical services include fuel wood, lumber, pulp to
make paper, mining, livestock grazing, and recreation jobs.
• See SCIENCE FOCUS: Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecological Services for prices of goods
and services. Through market tools such as regulations, taxes, and subsidies that encourage
protection of biodiversity, the world’s forests and other ecosystems will continue to be degraded.
3. Describe the harm caused by building roads into previously inaccessible forests. Distinguish
among selective cutting, clear-cutting, and strip cutting in the harvesting of trees. What are the
major advantages and disadvantages of clear-cutting forests? What are two types of forest fires?
What are some ecological benefits of occasional surface fires? What are four ways to reduce the
harmful impacts of diseases and insects on forests? What effects might projected climate change
have on forests?
• See Figure 9-5 for natural capital and new highway degradation. Building roads into previously
inaccessible forests paves the way to fragmentation, destruction, and degradation of forest
ecosystems. Harmful effects include increased erosion and sediment runoff into waterways,
habitat fragmentation, and loss of biodiversity. Logging roads also expose forests to invasion by
nonnative pests, diseases, and wildlife species, and open once-inaccessible forests to miners,
ranchers, farmers, hunters, and off-road vehicle users.
• Harvesting Trees:
o Selective cutting occurs when intermediate-aged or mature trees in an uneven-aged forest are
cut singly or in small groups.
o Clear-cutting occurs when loggers remove all the trees from an area.
o Strip cutting involves clear-cutting a strip of trees along the contour of the land within a
corridor narrow enough to allow natural regeneration within a few years. After regeneration,
loggers cut another strip next to the first, and so on.
• Surface fires usually burn only undergrowth and leaf litter on the forest floor. They may kill
seedlings and small trees, but they spare most mature trees and allow most wild animals to escape.
• Occasional surface fires have a number of ecological benefits.
o They burn away flammable ground material and help to prevent more destructive fires.
o They free valuable mineral nutrients tied up in slowly decomposing litter and undergrowth;
release seeds from the cones of lodgepole pines; stimulate the germination of certain tree
seeds, such as those of the giant sequoia and jack pine; and help to control tree diseases and
insects.
o Wildlife species such as deer, moose, muskrat, and quail depend on occasional surface fires to
maintain their habitats and provide food in the form of vegetation that sprouts after fires.
• A crown fire is an extremely hot fire that leaps from treetop to treetop, burning whole trees.
o Crown fires usually occur in forests that have not experienced surface fires for several
decades, a situation that allows dead wood, leaves, and other flammable ground litter to
accumulate.
o These rapidly burning fires can destroy most vegetation, kill wildlife, increase soil erosion,
and burn or damage human structures in their paths.
• Climate Change and Forest Fires: Rising temperatures and increased drought from projected
climate change will likely make many forest areas more suitable for insect pests, which would
then multiply and kill more trees. The resulting combination of drier forests and more dead trees
could increase the incidence and intensity of forest fires. This would add more of the greenhouse
gas CO2 to the atmosphere, which would further increase atmospheric temperatures and cause
even more forest fires, in a spiraling cycle of increasingly harmful changes.

4. What is deforestation and what parts of the world are experiencing the greatest forest losses? List
some major harmful environmental effects of deforestation. Describe the encouraging news about
deforestation in the United States. How serious is tropical deforestation? What are the major
underlying and direct causes of tropical deforestation?
• Deforestation is the temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for agriculture,
settlements, or other uses.
• Tropical rainforests are experiencing great forest losses.
• There are many harmful environmental effects of deforestation, which can reduce biodiversity and
the ecological services provided by forests (see Figures 9-4 and 9-9):
o Decreased soil fertility from erosion.
o Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems.
o Premature extinction of species with specialized niches.
o Loss of habitat for native species and migratory species such as birds and butterflies.
o Regional climate change from extensive clearing.
o Release of CO2 into atmosphere.
o Acceleration of flooding.
• Forests in the United States (including tree plantations) cover more area than they did in 1920 (see
CASE STUDY: Many Cleared Forests in the United States Have Grown Back Today).
• How serious is tropical deforestation? What are the major underlying and direct causes of tropical
deforestation? Tropical forests (see Figure 7-14, top, p. 000) cover about 6% of the earth’s land
area—roughly the area of the continental United States.
• Half of the world’s tropical forests are gone, with most of this deforestation taking place since
1950.
• Tropical deforestation results from a number of underlying and direct causes (see Figure 9-12).
o Underlying causes, such as pressures from population growth and poverty, push
subsistence farmers and the landless poor into tropical forests, where they try to grow
enough food to survive.
o Government subsidies can accelerate the direct causes such as logging and ranching by
reducing the costs of timber harvesting, cattle grazing, and the creation of vast plantations
of crops such as soybeans and oil palm.
Section 9-2
5. What is the key concept for this section? Describe four ways to manage forests more sustainably. What
is certified timber? What are four ways to reduce the harm caused by forest fires to forests and to
people? What is a prescribed fire? What are three ways to reduce the need to harvest trees? What are
five ways to protect tropical forests and use them more sustainably?
See pages 184–186
• CONCEPT 9-2 We can sustain forests by emphasizing the economic value of their ecological
services, removing government subsidies that hasten their destruction, protecting old-growth
forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and planting trees.
• See Solutions: More Sustainable Forestry for ways to manage forests sustainably.
o Identify and protect forest areas high in biodiversity.
o Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting.
o No clear-cutting on steep slopes.
o No logging of old-growth forests.
• See Science Focus: Certifying Sustainably Grown Timber for more information: Since 1993,
Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) has evaluated the company’s timber production. SCS,
which is part of the nonprofit Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), was formed to develop a list of
environmentally sound practices for use in certifying timber and products made from such timber.

• Four strategies for reducing fire-related harm to forests and people:

o Set small, contained surface fires, such as prescribed fires, to remove flammable small trees
and underbrush in the highest-risk forest areas.
o Allow many fires on public lands to burn, thereby removing flammable underbrush and
smaller trees, as long as the fires do not threaten human structures and life.
o Protect houses and other buildings in fire-prone areas by thinning a zone of about 60 meters
(200 feet) around them and eliminating the use of flammable materials such as wooden
roofs.
o Thin forest areas vulnerable to fire by clearing away small fire-prone trees and underbrush
under careful environmental controls.
o A prescribed fire is a small, contained surface fire that is set intentionally to reduce
flammable ground material and help to prevent more destructive fires.
• Three ways to reduce the need to harvest trees include reducing wood waste, using alternative
sources, and embracing sustainable practices.
• Figure 9-15: Ways to protect tropical forests and use them more sustainably ; protect the most
diverse and endangered areas, educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry, subsidize
only sustainable forest use, protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps and conservation
concessions, certify sustainably grown timber, reduce poverty, and slow population growth.
Section 9-3
6. What is the key concept for this section? Distinguish between rangelands and pastures. What is
overgrazing and what are its harmful environmental effects? What are three ways to reduce
overgrazing and use rangelands more sustainably?
See pages 187-188.
• CONCEPT 9-3 We can sustain the productivity of grasslands by controlling the number and
distribution of grazing livestock and by restoring degraded grasslands.
• Rangelands are unfenced grasslands in temperate and tropical climates that supply forage, or
vegetation, for grazing (grass-eating) and browsing (shrub-eating) animals. Pastures are managed
grasslands or enclosed meadows usually planted with domesticated grasses or other forage.
• Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of
a rangeland area. It reduces grass cover, exposes the soil to erosion by water and wind, and
compacts the soil (which diminishes its capacity to hold water). Overgrazing also enhances
invasion by species such as sagebrush, mesquite, cactus, and cheatgrass, which cattle will not eat.
• Reduce overgrazing by fencing off these areas, which eventually leads to its natural ecological
restoration by ecological succession; move cattle around by providing supplemental feed at
selected sites and by strategically locating water holes and tanks and salt blocks; and suppress the
growth of unwanted invader plants by use of herbicides, mechanical removal, or controlled
burning.
Section 9-4
7. What is the key concept for this section? What major environmental threats affect national parks in
the world and in the United States? Why are many U.S. national parks considered to be threatened
islands of biodiversity? Describe some of the ecological effects of reintroducing the gray wolf to
Yellowstone National Park in the United States. What percentage of the world’s land has been set
aside and protected as nature reserves, and what percentage do conservation biologists believe
should be protected?
• CONCEPT 9-4 We need to put more resources into sustaining existing parks and nature reserves
and into protecting much more of the earth’s remaining undisturbed land area.

• National parks are threatened because they are too small and fragmented to sustain many large
animal species, because of invasions by nonnative species that compete with and reduce the
populations of native species, because many are so popular that large numbers of visitors are
degrading the natural features that make them attractive, and lack of funding to enforce protection
of biodiversity. Parks could be more sustainable with decreased degradation of the habitat and
resources, protection from illegal logging and poaching, and consolidation of green areas.
• Many U.S. national parks have become threatened islands of biodiversity surrounded by a sea of
commercial development.
• The return of the gray wolf, a keystone predator species, has sent ecological ripples through the
park’s ecosystem. With wolves around, elk populations have declined. Remains of elk killed by
wolves provide an important food source for grizzly bears and other scavengers such as bald
eagles and ravens. And wary elk are gathering less near streams and rivers, which has helped to
spur the regrowth of aspen, cottonwoods, and willow trees in those areas. This in turn has helped
to stabilize and shade stream banks, which has lowered the water temperature and made better
habitat for trout. Beavers seeking willow and aspen have returned. And the dams they build
establish wetlands and create more favorable habitat for aspens. The wolves have also cut in half
the population of coyotes—the top predators in the absence of wolves. This has reduced coyote
attacks on cattle in surrounding ranches and has increased populations of smaller animals such as
ground squirrels and mice, hunted by coyotes.
• Currently, only 12% of the earth’s land area is protected strictly or partially in nature reserves,
parks, wildlife refuges, wilderness, and other areas, with only 5% of the earth’s land strictly
protected from potentially harmful human activities. Conservation scientists call for full protection
of at least 20% of the earth’s land area in a global system of biodiversity reserves, which would
include multiple examples of all the earth’s biomes.
8. How should nature reserves be designed and managed? Describe what Costa Rica has done to establish
nature reserves. What is wilderness and why is it important? Describe the controversy over protecting
wilderness in the United States.
• The United Nations has used the buffer zone concept to design and manage nature reserves in
creating its global network of 531 biosphere reserves in 105 countries. This means protecting an
inner core of a reserve, usually by establishing two buffer zones in which local people can extract
resources sustainably without harming the inner core. Instead of shutting people out of the
protected areas and likely creating enemies, this approach enlists local people as partners in
protecting a reserve from unsustainable uses such as illegal logging and poaching.
• Costa Rica has consolidated its parks and reserves into eight zoned megareserves, designed to
sustain about 80% of the country’s rich biodiversity. Green areas are protected reserves and
yellow areas are nearby buffer zones, which can be used for sustainable forms of forestry,
agriculture, hydropower, hunting, and other human activities (See Case Study: Costa Rica—A
Global Conservation Leader and Figure 9-20).
• One way to protect undeveloped lands from human exploitation is by legally setting them aside as
large areas of undeveloped land called wilderness. There are two important reasons for protecting
wilderness and other areas from exploitation and degradation, both involving long-term needs.
One is to preserve biodiversity as a vital part of the earth’s natural capital. The other reason is to
protect wilderness areas as centers for evolution.
• Some critics oppose protecting large areas for their scenic and recreational value or a relatively
small number of people. They believe this keeps some areas of the planet from being economically
useful to people here today.

Section 9-5
9. What is the key concept for this section? Describe a four-point strategy for protecting ecosystems.
What is a biodiversity hotspot and why is it important to protect such areas? About how much of
the earth’s land surface is occupied by hotspots and what percentages of the world’s flowering
plants and terrestrial vertebrates live in these areas? What is ecological restoration? Describe a
science-based, four-point strategy for carrying out ecological restoration and rehabilitation.
Describe the ecological restoration of a tropical dry forest in Costa Rica. Define and give three
examples of reconciliation ecology.
• CONCEPT 9-5 We can help to sustain terrestrial biodiversity by identifying and protecting
severely threatened areas (biodiversity hotspots), restoring damaged ecosystems (using restoration
ecology), and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate (using reconciliation
ecology).
• Four-point plan of the ecosystems approach:
o Map the world’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and create an inventory of the species
contained in each of them and the ecosystem services they provide.
o Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species, with emphasis on
protecting plant biodiversity and ecosystem services.
o Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible.
• Biodiversity hotspots are areas especially rich in plant species that are found nowhere else and are
in great danger of extinction. They are home for a large majority of the world’s endangered or
critically endangered species, and one-fifth of the world’s population.
• These hotspots cover only a little more than 2% of the earth’s land surface, they contain an
estimated 50% of the world’s flowering plant species and 42% of all terrestrial species.
• Ecological restoration is the process of repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and
dynamics of natural ecosystems.
• Science-based, four-point strategy for carrying out ecological restoration and rehabilitation:
o Identify the causes of the degradation (such as pollution, farming, overgrazing, mining, or
invasive species).
o Stop the abuse by eliminating or sharply reducing these factors. This would include removing
toxic soil pollutants, improving depleted soil by adding nutrients and new topsoil, preventing
fires, and controlling or eliminating disruptive nonnative species.
o If necessary, reintroduce species—especially pioneer, keystone, and foundation species—to
help restore natural ecological processes, as was done with wolves in the Yellowstone
ecosystem.
o Protect the area from further degradation and allow secondary ecological succession to occur.
• See Science Focus: Ecological Restoration of a Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica.
• Reconciliation ecology focuses on inventing, establishing, and maintaining new habitats to
conserve species diversity in places where people live, work, or play.
• Examples of reconciliation ecology include
o Protecting local wildlife and ecosystems can provide economic resources for their
communities by encouraging sustainable forms of ecotourism.
o Protecting vital insect pollinators such as native butterflies and bees by reducing the use of
pesticides, planting flowering plants as a source of food for pollinating insect species, and
building structures which serve as hives for pollinating bees.
o Protecting bluebirds within human-dominated habitats where most of the bluebirds’ nesting
trees have been cut down by using nesting boxes and keeping house cats away from nesting
bluebirds.

Section 9-6
10. What is the key concept for this section? Summarize the threats to aquatic biodiversity resulting
from human activities. Define fishery and fishprint and summarize the threats to marine fisheries.
Describe three industrial fish harvesting methods. Why is it difficult to protect marine biodiversity?
What are three ways in which we could protect more marine biodiversity? How can the ecosystem
approach be applied to protecting aquatic biodiversity? What are this chapter’s three big ideas?
Describe the relationship between preserving biodiversity as it is done by the Green Belt
Movement and the three scientific principles of sustainability.
• CONCEPT 9-6 We can help to sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries,
managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.
• Major human threats to aquatic diversity include climate change and loss and degradation of many
sea-bottom habitats, caused by dredging operations and trawler fishing boats.
• A fishery is a concentration of a particular aquatic species (usually fish or shellfish) suitable for
commercial harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water.
• The fishprint is defined as the area of ocean needed to sustain the consumption of an average
person, a nation, or the world.
• Three industrial fishing methods are:
o Trawler fishing is used to catch fish and shellfish by dragging a funnel-shaped net held open
at the neck along the ocean bottom.
o Purse-seine fishing, is used to catch surface-dwelling fish by using a spotter plane to locate a
school; the fishing vessel then encloses it with a large net called a purse seine.
o Longlining involves lines up to 130 kilometers (80 miles) long, hung with thousands of baited
hooks to catch open-ocean fish species or bottom fishes.
o Drift-net fishing catches fish with huge drifting nets that can hang as deep as 15 meters (50
feet) below the surface and extend to 64 kilometers (40 miles) long.
• Protecting marine biodiversity is difficult for several reasons.
o First, the human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding so rapidly that it is difficult
to monitor their impacts.
o Second, much of the damage to the oceans and other bodies of water is not visible to most
people.
o Third, many people incorrectly view the seas as an inexhaustible resource that can absorb an
almost infinite amount of waste and pollution and still produce all the seafood we want.
Fourth, most of the world’s ocean area lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country.
Thus, much of it is an open-access resource, subject to overexploitation—a classic case of
the tragedy of the commons.
• There are several ways to protect and sustain marine biodiversity.
o For example, we can protect endangered and threatened aquatic species, as discussed in
Chapter 8. And some individuals find economic rewards in restoring and sustaining streams,
wetlands, and aquatic systems.
o We can also establish protected marine sanctuaries. Since 1986, the IUCN has helped to
establish a global system of marine protected areas (MPAs)—areas of ocean partially
protected from human activities. There are more than 4,000 MPAs worldwide. However,
nearly all MPAs allow dredging, trawler fishing, and other ecologically harmful resource
extraction activities.
o Many scientists and policymakers call for protecting whole marine ecosystems within a
global network of fully protected marine reserves, some of which already exist. These areas
are declared off-limits to destructive human activities in order to enable their ecosystems to
recover and flourish. Some reserves could be made temporary or moveable to protect
migrating species such as turtles.
• The following strategies can be used to apply the ecosystems approach to aquatic biodiversity:
o Complete the mapping of the world’s aquatic biodiversity, identifying and locating as many
plant and animal species as possible.

o Identify and preserve the world’s aquatic biodiversity hotspots and areas where deteriorating
ecosystem services threaten people and other forms of life.
o Create large and fully protected marine reserves to allow damaged marine ecosystems to
recover and to allow fish stocks to be replenished.
o Protect and restore the world’s lakes and river systems, which are the most threatened
ecosystems of all.
o Initiate worldwide ecological restoration projects in systems such as coral reefs and inland
and coastal wetlands.
o Find ways to raise the incomes of people who live in or near protected lands and waters so
that they can become partners in the protection and sustainable use of ecosystems.
• Here are the three big ideas in this chapter:
o The economic values of the important ecological services provided by the world’s ecosystems
are far greater than the value of raw materials obtained from those systems.
o We can sustain terrestrial biodiversity by protecting severely threatened areas, protecting
remaining undisturbed areas, restoring damaged ecosystems, and sharing with other species
much of the land we dominate.
o We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal
development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.
• The relationship between Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt Movement (Core Case Study) and the
three principles of sustainability is that preserving terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity involves
applying the three principles of sustainability.
o First, it means respecting biodiversity and understanding the value of sustaining it.
o Then, in helping to sustain biodiversity by planting trees for example, we also help to restore
and preserve the flows of energy from the sun through food webs and the cycling of nutrients
within ecosystems.
o If we rely less on fossil fuels and more on direct solar energy and its indirect forms, such as
wind and flowing water, we will generate less pollution and interfere less with natural
chemical cycling and other forms of natural capital that sustain biodiversity and our own lives
and societies.
Critical Thinking
1. Describe some ecological, economic, and social benefits of the Green Belt Movement (Core Case
Study). Are there any areas near where you live that could benefit from such intensive planting of
trees? If so, describe how it would benefit the areas.
Answers will vary. However, three possible ways are landscaping with native plants, purchasing
only wood products that are made of sustainably harvested wood, and planting and caring for
trees.
2. If we fail to protect a much larger percentage of the world’s remaining old-growth forests and
tropical rain forests, describe three harmful effects that this failure is likely to have on any children
and grandchildren you might have.
3. In the early 1990s, Miguel Sanchez, a subsistence farmer in Costa Rica, was offered $600,000 by a
hotel developer for a piece of land that he and his family had been using sustainably for many
years. The land, which contained an old-growth rain forest and a black sand beach, was
surrounded by an area under rapid development. Sanchez refused the offer. What would you have
done if you were in Miguel Sanchez’s position? Explain your decision.
Answers will vary. One possible answer is given below.
I would have refused the offer like Sanchez did. The family heritage on land owned by generations
of the same family is worth more than hard cash. Although many of these subsistence farmers are
considered “poor” by the standards of living in the developed world, they have in many ways a

much “richer” life than money alone can provide. Sanchez thought it important to continue in the
sustainable ways of his family. I agree.
4. In 2009, environmental analyst Lester R. Brown estimated that reforesting the earth and restoring
the earth’s degraded rangelands would cost about $15 billion a year. Suppose the United States,
the world’s most affluent country, agreed to put up half of this money, at an average annual cost of
$25 per American citizen. Would you support doing this? Explain. What other part or parts of the
federal budget would you decrease to come up with these funds?
Answers will vary but one possible answer is:
Yes, I would support this. The United States comprises less than 5 percent of the world’s
population but we are responsible for a much higher percentage use of the world’s resources and
resulting environmental degradation. Other countries should also kick in and help offset the costs.
These funds could come out of the military budget that the Pentagon receives, a large part of
which is used for unpopular foreign wars.
5. Are you in favor of establishing more wilderness areas in the United States, especially in the lower
48 states (or in the country where you live)? Explain. What might be some drawbacks of doing
this?
Answers will vary. One possible answer is given below.
Ensuring that current wilderness areas remain protected would be a main priority. Then an
assessment of what other potential wilderness areas in the nation could be protected should be
conducted, and decisions made on a case by case basis. Once an area has been given the
designation of being a wilderness area, it should keep that designation and not have it removed by
the next government administration. There are drawbacks to this. Some people will be against
protecting these areas and may wish to expand into them for development or resource extraction.
Others may wish this to occur as it may limit their own ability to use the area as they would like
to, for off-roading for example.
6. What do you think are the three greatest threats to aquatic biodiversity and aquatic ecosystem
services? Explain your selections. Imagine that you are a national official in charge of setting
policy for preserving aquatic biodiversity and outline a plan for dealing specifically with these
threats.
One possible answer is:
I think that three of the greatest threats to aquatic biodiversity are habitat destruction, increased
pollution from increasing population growth, and overharvesting. Aquatic species are more
vulnerable to premature extinction due to the delicate balance of marine and freshwater
ecosystems. Small changes in pH or temperature changes in the water can have a major effect on
aquatic areas, for example, coral reefs and fish spawning grounds. Also, because we cannot
actually “see” what is living under the surface of the oceans, lakes, and seas, there is danger of
harvesting species in numbers that exceed the maximum sustainable yield. On the land, if you cut
down a forest you can see that it has gone, but you cannot look into the ocean and directly relate to
the impact that overfishing is having as it is “hidden” from view. For this reason it is difficult to
identify and monitor rare species in aquatic environments. Also, it is very difficult to protect
species that range over parts of the ocean that are not under the jurisdiction of any nation.
My plan for preserving aquatic biodiversity would include expanding existing aquatic sanctuaries,
establishing new ones and ensuring that there is adequate funding for protection of aquatic
sanctuaries and reserves. I would fund research to continue mapping of the world’s aquatic
biodiversity and identifying both aquatic biodiversity hotspots and areas where deteriorating
ecosystem services threaten people and other forms of life. I would increase protection of the

world’s lakes and river systems, which are the most threatened ecosystems of all, initiate
worldwide ecological restoration projects in systems such as coral reefs and inland and coastal
wetlands and, lastly, find ways to raise the incomes of people who live in or near protected lands
and waters so that they can become partners in the protection and sustainable use of ecosystems.
7. You are a defense attorney arguing in court for preserving a coastal wetlands area to prevent it
from being developed. Give your three strongest arguments for preservation of this ecosystem.
Assume that there is a coral reef offshore from this wetland, and include that fact in your
arguments.
The following is an example of an acceptable response but several other answers are acceptable.
The coastal wetlands area should be preserved because it provides vital ecological and economic
services. Wetlands help to maintain water quality in coastal zones by filtering toxic pollutants,
excess plant nutrients, and sediments, and by absorbing other pollutants. They provide food,
habitats, and nursery sites for a variety of aquatic and terrestrial species. They also reduce storm
damage and coastal erosion by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by storms and
tsunamis.
In addition, the coral reef that is offshore should be protected. Coral reefs also provide important
ecological and economic services. For example, they act as natural barriers that help to protect
coastlines from erosion caused by battering waves and storms. And they provide habitats for about
25% of all marine organisms. Economically, coral reefs support commercial fisheries, as well as
provide fishing and ecotourism jobs. These biological treasures give us an underwater world to
study and enjoy.
8. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List the three most important features of your
policies for using and managing the world’s (a) forests, (b) grasslands, (c) nature reserves such as
parks and wildlife refuges, (d) biological hotspots, (e) marine aquatic systems, and (f) freshwater
aquatic systems.
(a) I would ensure that sustainable harvesting practices took place in forested areas in order to
supply and promote the production of sustainably grown wood products, manage the forests using
best practices, and replant areas that have been cut down.
(b) I would limit grazing rights on grasslands and remove subsidies that turn grasslands into cash
crop-yielding areas, and minimize habitat fragmentation by limiting road construction and
development of these areas.
(c) I would limit the yearly use of nature reserves by putting a cap on the number of visitors who
could access the area; increase the funding for park management and maintenance, and increase
the amount of area in and around the reserves by purchasing and protecting more land.
(d) I would limit development in biodiversity hotspots, and implement a habitat conservation plan
to protect as many threatened and endangered species as possible.
(e) I would protect endangered and threatened aquatic species, establish protected marine
sanctuaries and protect whole marine ecosystems within a global network of fully protected
marine reserves.
(f) I would establish new guidelines for construction of new dams and examine removal of
existing dams. I would put in place strict regulations (with funding for enforcement) of water
withdrawal from rivers for irrigation and urban water supplies.

Global Environment Watch Exercise

Search for “Forests and Deforestation” and use the topic portal to find out the following: (a) whether
overall tropical deforestation around the world is increasing or decreasing; (b) the three countries with the
highest rates of deforestation; (c) the main causes for this deforestation, and (d) three countries where
forests are actually growing back (where there is a net gain in forest cover when clearing of forests and
regrowth of forests is considered).
(a) Increasing
(b) Brazil, Indonesia and Russia
(c) Croplands, pastures, and plantations are expanding into natural forests. Forests are also under pressure
from loggers.
(d) China, Italy, Vietnam and the United States
Ecological Footprint Analysis

1. What is the annual rate of tropical rain forest loss, as a percentage of total forest area, in each of
the five countries? Answer by filling in the blank column in the table.
E.g., the annual percentage rate of rain forest loss in country A is:
50,000 square kilometers/ 1,800,000 square kilometers x 100 = 0.028 X 100 = 2.8% per year.
Country Area of tropical rain Area of deforestation Annual rate of

forest (square per year (square tropical forest loss
kilometers) kilometers)
A 1,800,000 50,000 2.8
B 55,000 3,000 5.5
C 22,000 6,000 27.3
D 530,000 12,000 2.3
E 80,000 700 0.9
2. What is the annual rate of tropical deforestation collectively in all of the countries represented in
the table?
The annual percentage rate of rain forest loss for all the countries is 71,700 square
kilometers/2,487,000 square kilometers x 100 = 0.029 x 100 = 2.9% per year.
3. According to the table, and assuming the rates of deforestation remain constant, which country’s
tropical rain forest will be completely destroyed first?
If current rates continue, Country C’s rainforests would be completely destroyed first because they
have the highest annual rate of deforestation.
4. Assuming the rate of deforestation in country C remains constant, how many years will it take for
all of its tropical rain forests to be destroyed?
It will take 3.67 years for Country C’s rainforests to be completely destroyed at current rates.
22,000/6,000 = 3.67

5. Assuming that a hectare (1.0 hectare = 0.01 square kilometer) of tropical rain forest absorbs 0.85
metric tons (1 metric ton = 2,200 pounds) of carbon dioxide per year, what would be the total
annual growth in the carbon footprint (carbon emitted but not absorbed by vegetation because of
deforestation) in metric tons of carbon dioxide per year for each of the five countries in the table?
The total carbon footprint per year for tropical rain forest loss in each country is:
A: 50,000 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer= 5,000,000 hectares

5,000,000 hectares x 0.85 metric tons of carbon/hectare = 4,250,000 metric tons of carbon not
absorbed per year
B: 3,000 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer X 0.85 metric tons of carbon/hectare
= 255,000 metric tons of carbon not absorbed per year
C: 6,000 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer X 0.85 metric tons of

carbon/hectare = 510,000 metric tons of carbon not absorbed per year
D: 12,000 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer X 0.85 metric tons of

carbon/hectare = 1,020,000 metric tons of carbon not absorbed per year
E: 700 square kilometers X 1 hectare/0.01 square kilometer X 0.85 metric tons of carbon/hectare
= 59,500 metric tons of carbon not absorbed per year

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© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

2.Conservation concessions occur when governments or private conservation organizations pay

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

9-2 How should we manage and sustain forests?

9-3 How should we manage and sustain grasslands?

9-5 What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity?

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

9-6 How can we help to sustain aquatic biodiversity?

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

4. What type of wilderness preservation is happening in developing countries?

Activities and Projects

Attitudes and Values Assessment

2. Where are the nearest locations in your area to go to observe wildlife?

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

Blue Planet (Video Series from Discovery Channel, 2001)

Conserving America: The Wetlands (PBS, 1994)

Last Journey for the Leatherback? (Documentary, 2004)

The Lorax (Animated, Dr. Seuss, 1972, Online)

Livable Landscapes (Documentary, 2002)

Major World Ecosystems (Documentary, 2004)

Ocean Oasis (Documentary, San Diego Natural History Museum, 2001)

Planet Earth Series—Discovery Channel (TV Series)

Valley at the Crossroads (Documentary, 2002)

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

We all Live Downstream (Documentary, 1991)

Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence

Monterey Bay Aquarium

National Interagency Fire Center

U.S. Forest Service

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

Correlation to Virtual Field Trips

Correlation to Explore More

Suggested Answers to End of Chapter Questions

See page 174.

See pages 175–178.

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

See pages 177–180.

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

See pages 180–184.

See pages 184–186

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

• Four strategies for reducing fire-related harm to forests and people:

See pages 187-188.

See pages 188–191.

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

See pages 192–194.

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

See pages 195–201.

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

Answers will vary. One possible answer is given below.

© 2013 Brooks/Cole Publishing, a Division of Cengage Learning

Answers will vary but one possible answer is:

Answers will vary. One possible answer is given below.