Blood

Blood
A specified fluid connective tissue composed of
fluid portion (plasma) and the cellular elements
(RBC, WBC, platelets) circulating through the
CVS and carrying substances essential for the
living.
Composition of blood
Composition:-
1. Cellular Substance:- 45% (44% RBC and 1% buffy coat
containing platelets and WBC).
2. Fluid (plasma):- 55% Plasma contains
a) Liquid:- water 91-92% of the plasma
b) Solid:- 8-9% of the plasma
i. Organic constituents:- Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, urea,
uric acid, creatinine, ammonia, antibodies, enzymes, hormones,
bilirubin, carotene, etc.
ii. Inorganic constituents:- sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, phosphorous, iron, copper, etc.
Different blood components
Composition of blood
Plasma and Serum
Blood Plasma:-
- Straw colored, sticky fluid, contains over 100
dissolved substances (ions, nutrients, proteins,
hormones, enzymes, waste products and gases).

Blood serum= Blood plasma-fibrinogen

Properties of blood
1. Blood volume: 5-6 litres (7-8% of the total body
weight).
May vary according to age and sex.
2. Normal reaction: Slightly alkaline, pH-7.34 to 7.43
3. Specific gravity: 1.052 to 1.060
4. Viscosity: 4.5 times more viscous than water.
5. Temperature: 38oC
6. Osmotic (oncotic) pressure: 25mm of Hg
7. Colour: Bright red (artery), dark red (vein)
8. Taste: Salty (metallic taste)
Functions of blood
1. Transport of many components:
a. O2 from lungs
b. Low M.W. compounds e.g., salts and ions.
c. High M.W. compounds e.g., proteins.
2. Delivery of many components:
Amino acids, fatty acids, trace metals and other substances
to the cells.
3. Modulation of cellular metabolism:
Bring hormones and vitamins to the cell.
Functions of blood (contd..)
4. Maintenance of pH and electrolyte conc n.:-
Constant exchange of molecules with interstitial fluid-
maintains the pH and electrolyte concentrations.
5. Removal of waste products:-
Carries the waste products of metabolism to their organs of
excretion.
6. Temperature regulation:-
In warm-blooded animals blood transports heat generated in
deep organs to the skin and lungs for dissipation.
Functions of blood (contd..)

7. Protective functions:-
WB C fights with invading microorganisms- Role in
immunity.
Antibodies play vital role in defense mechanism
8. Blood coagulation:-
Platelets and blood coagulation proteins maintain
hemostasis.
Plasma Proteins
Constitute 7-9% of plasma
Three types of plasma proteins: albumins, globulins, &
fibrinogen
Albumin accounts for 60-80%
Creates colloid osmotic pressure that draws H20 from
interstitial fluid into capillaries to maintain blood volume
& pressure.
Globulins carry lipids.
Gamma globulins are antibodies
Fibrinogen serves as clotting factor
Converted to fibrin
Serum is fluid left when blood clots
Plasma proteins
Composition
1. Albumin: 4-5 g/100 ml of blood
2. Globulin (α, β, γ) : 2-3 g/100 ml of blood) and
3. Clotting proteins: fibrinogen (0.3g/dl), prothrombin.
4. Others
a) Complement proteins
b) Ttransferrin (carries iron)
c) Ceruloplasmin (copper attached)
d) Immunoglobulin
e) Thromboplastin
f) Thrombocobalamin, etc.
Plasma proteins
Composition of the plasma
Plasma proteins
Albumin
Content: 4-5 gm/dl; (M.W. 66,000)
Site of synthesis: Liver
Rate of production: 15 gm/day
Function:-
Protein reservoir of the body
Major contributor to the colloidal osmotic pressure
of blood (25mmHg is maintained)
Acts as a carrier for certain hormones, bilirubin,
fatty acids, amino acids, bile salts, heavy metals
(Hg, Cu) and some drugs
Acts as a buffer for plasma H+.
Plasma proteins
Globulin
Content: 2-3 gm/dl; (M.W. 90,000-156,000) less
soluble
Site of synthesis: liver (α & β), plasma cells (γ)
Divided into:
α (α1 , α2)
β (β1, β2 )
Are transport proteins that binds to lipids, metal
ions and fat soluble vitamins
γ globulin.
Antibodies produced by plasma cells during
immune response.
Plasma proteins
Globulin
Examples
1. Important transporters
1. Thyroxin binding globulin for thyroxin
2. Transcortin for corticosteroid
3. Transcobalamin for vitamin B12
4. Transferrin (β) for iron
5. Ceruloplasmin (α2 ) for copper
2. α globulin is the precursor of kinins & angiotensin I

3. γ globulin ( some β) forms Ig (acts as antibody).

Plasma proteins
Fibrinogen
Content: 0.3 gm/dl; (M.W. 500,000)
Site of synthesis: Liver
Function:-
Responsible for blood coagulation.
In the carcinoma of the prostate and after cardiac surgery
decreases as a result of increased fibrinolysis.
Increases in the acute infections, malaria, tissue injury and
chronic infections.
Physiological increase in the pregnancy and menstruation.
Functions of plasma proteins
Osmotic pressure:- Plasma proteins are osmotically active
molecules and the osmotic pressure of plasma due to plasma
proteins is called oncotic pressure. Normal oncotic pressure is
25 mmHg.
This pressure helps in maintaining volume of the vascular
compartment and retain fluid and prevents loss of fluid from
capillaries into the interstitial tissue space (functionally it opposes
the action of hydrostatic pressure).
Protective function:- Exhibited by the immunoglobulin.
Helps for coagulation of blood:- Important plasma proteins
involved in coagulation are fibrinogen and prothrombin.
Regulation of pH of blood:- ( 15%-16%)
Functions of plasma proteins
Maintenance of viscosity of blood:- Plasma proteins
contributes to about 50% of the viscosity of blood (red cells
account for the rest of the viscosity). The viscosity depends on
the molecular shape of the plasma protein.
Reservoir function:- Reserve protein during starvation.
Transport function:- Serve as carrier molecule for transport of
various substances like hormones, drugs, metals, etc.
Synthetic function:- Plasma proteins provide substrate for the
synthesis of protein hormones like erythropoietin and various
enzymes.
Determination of ESR:- ESR mostly depends on the
concentration of fibrinogen in the plasma. Fibrinogen facilitates
rouleux formation which in turn increases the rate of
sedimentation of red cells.
Oedema
Presence of excess fluid in the body tissues.

Extracellular edema:- Excess fluid accumulation

in extracellular spaces.
Causes:-
Decreased plasma proteins (Nephrotic
syndrome, burns, cirrhosis, malnutrition)
Lymph obstruction (Cancer, Surgery)
Oedema (Contd..)
Increased capillary pressure (Retention of salt by
kidneys and heart failure)
Increased capillary permeability (immune reactions,
infections, burns)

Intracellular edema:- Accumulation of excess

fluid into tissues.
Causes:-
Depression of metabolic systems of the tissues
Lack of adequate nutrition to the cells.
(cell membrane ionic pumps become depressed)
Variation of plasma protein levels

Variation Cause Examples

Low albumin level Poor supply Malnutrition,
Kidney disease
Excessive loss
Impaired synthesis Liver disease

High plasma Hemoconcentration Dehydration`

protein level

High globulin level Tissue destruction Fever, Liver

disease
Red blood cells White blood cells

platelets

Formed
Elements
of blood
White blood cells
Formed Elements
Erythrocytes:-
Are erythrocytes (RBCs) & leukocytes
(WBCs)
RBCs are flattened biconcave discs
Shape provides increased surface area
for diffusion
Lack nuclei & mitochondria
Each RBC contains hemoglobins
Leukocytes
Have nucleus, mitochondria, & amoeboid ability
Can squeeze through capillary walls (diapedesis)
Granular leukocytes help detoxify foreign substances &
release heparin
Include eosinophils, basophils, & neutrophils
Leukocytes (Contd..)

Agranular
leukocytes are
phagocytic &
produce antibodies.
Include lymphocytes
& monocytes.
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
Are smallest of formed elements, lack
nucleus
Are fragments of megakaryocytes;
amoeboid
Constitute most of mass of blood clots
Release serotonin to vasoconstrict &
reduce blood flow to clot area
Secrete growth factors to maintain
integrity of blood vessel wall
Survive 5-9 days
Formation of Blood Cells
Formation of blood:- Haemopoiesis.

Formation of erythrocytes (RBC):-Erythropoiesis

Formation of leucocytes (WBC) :-Leucopoiesis

Formation of thrombocytes (platelets):-

Thrombopiesis
Hematopoiesis
Is formation of blood cells from stem cells in marrow
(myeloid tissue) & lymphoid tissue
Erythropoiesis is formation of RBCs
Stimulated by erythropoietin (EPO) from kidney
Leukopoiesis is formation of WBCs
Stimulated by variety of cytokines
Autocrine regulators secreted by immune system
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