Open Geosci.

2017; 9:266–280

Research Article Open Access

Fei Tian*, Xinbian Lu, Songqing Zheng, Hongfang Zhang, Yuanshuai Rong, Debin Yang, and
Naigui Liu

Structure and Filling Characteristics of Paleokarst

Reservoirs in the Northern Tarim Basin, Revealed
by Outcrop, Core and Borehole Images
DOI 10.1515/geo-2017-0022 nect core- and seismic-scale interpretations, and can pro-
Received May 11, 2016; accepted Mar 22, 2017 vide support for the recognition and development of these
strongly heterogeneous reservoirs.
Abstract: The Ordovician paleokarst reservoirs in the Tahe
oilfield, with burial depths of over 5300 m, experienced Keywords: Paleokarst Reservoirs, Structure, Filling, Bore-
multiple phases of geologic processes and exhibit strong hole Images, Tarim Basin
heterogeneity. Core testing can be used to analyse the char-
acteristics of typical points at the centimetre scale, and
seismic datasets can reveal the macroscopic outlines of
reservoirs at the >10-m scale. However, neither method
1 Introduction
can identify caves, cave fills and fractures at the meter
Deeply buried carbonate paleokarst reservoirs are some of
scale. Guided by outcrop investigations and calibrations
the most important hydrocarbon targets in many basins
based on core sample observations, this paper describes
worldwide [1–7]. Since the 1980s, the Ordovician strata
the interpretation of high longitudinal resolution bore-
and the associated reservoirs in the Tarim Basin have be-
hole images, the identification of the characteristics of
come important exploration targets in China [8]. Works
caves, cave fills (sedimentary, breccia and chemical fills)
have identified huge oilfields containing reserves of more
and fractures in single wells, and the identification of
than 1 × 108 tons of oil, including the Tahe, Halahatang,
structures and fill characteristics at the meter scale in the
YingMaiLi, and Tazhong oilfields [9–13]. The Tahe oilfield,
strongly heterogeneous paleokarst reservoirs. The paleo-
which is located in the northern uplift of the Tarim Basin,
geomorphology, a major controlling factor in the distribu-
is considered to be the largest giant Paleozoic marine oil-
tion of paleokarst reservoirs, was also analysed. The re-
field in China (Figure 1) [14]. Paleokarst reservoirs, which
sults show that one well can penetrate multiple cave lay-
develop near unconformities, are the main reservoir type
ers of various sizes and that the caves are filled with mul-
in the Tahe oilfield. In this type of reservoir, caves and their
tiple types of fill. The paleogeomorphology can be divided
surrounding fractures are the main storage spaces for hy-
into highlands, slopes and depressions, which controlled
drocarbons.
the structure and fill characteristics of the paleokarst reser-
Previous publications on collapsed paleocave struc-
voirs. The results of this study can provide fundamental
tures based on outcrops, petrographic analysis of core
meter-scale datasets for interpreting detailed geologic fea-
samples, and paleokarst reservoir prediction using seis-
tures of deeply buried paleocaves, can be used to con-
mic data have revealed some of the characteristics of pale-
okarst reservoirs. Loucks et al. [4, 15–18] investigated the
*Corresponding Author: Fei Tian: Key Laboratory of Petroleum
paleokarst outcrops of the Lower Ordovician Ellenburger
Resources Research, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chi- Formation in Texas. These authors constructed a three-
nese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, 100029; Email: tian- dimensional (3D) seismic-scale model of the paleokarst
fei@mail.iggcas.ac.cn system, established a structural model of the collapse of
Xinbian Lu, Yuanshuai Rong, Debin Yang: Tahe Oilfield Branch paleocave passages, and proposed a classification of six
Company, SINOPEC, Urumqi, China, 830011
basic paleocave facies. Li et al. and Jiang et al. analysed in
Songqing Zheng, Hongfang Zhang: Petroleum Exploration & Pro-
duction Research Institute, SINOPEC, Beijing, China, 100083 detail the thin sections and C/O isotope ratios of core sam-
Naigui Liu: Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources Research, In- ples [19, 20]. These authors found that the paleokarst sys-
stitute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, tems in Tahe mainly formed via atmospheric fresh water
Beijing, China, 100029

© 2017 F. Tian et al., published by De Gruyter Open.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License.
 Structure and Filling Characteristics of Paleokarst Reservoirs | 267

dissolution and that the breccias formed primarily through

the collapse of local caves. Additionally, Sun et al. pre-
2 Geologic Setting
dicted regional sweet spots in paleokarst reservoirs at a
The Tahe oilfield, which has an area of 2400 km2 , is
seismic scale [21]. Zeng et al., Dou et al. Ahlborn et al. and
located on the southwestern slope of the south-central
Tian et al. described the spatial structures of these reser-
Akekule Arch (Figure 1b) [25]. The Akekule Arch is located
voirs based on seismic datasets using 3D delineation meth-
in the North Uplift (Shaya Uplift) of the Tarim Basin and
ods [7, 22–24].
lies to the east of the Hanikatam Sag, to the south of the
However, because of the low core recovery rate from
Yakela Faulted Arch, to the west of the Caohu Sag, and to
sections with caves, the core samples only reflect some
the north of the Shuntuoguole Lower Uplift and the Manji-
characteristics of the paleocaves at the centimetre scale.
aer Depression (Figure 1b). The rocks of the Akekule Arch
Additionally, due to the limitations of seismic data reso-
experienced multiple stages of tectonic activity, includ-
lution (>10 m), the seismic-based results only show the
ing the Caledonian, Hercynian, Indo-Yanshanian and Hi-
macroscopic outlines of paleokarst reservoirs. The Ordovi-
malayan events. The area finally became a large nose-like
cian paleokarst reservoirs in Tahe oilfield, with deep burial
arch with southward-dipping Paleozoic strata during the
depths exceeding 5300 m, experienced multiple geologic
Himalayan period [9, 26–28].
processes, including karstification, filling and deep burial
From bottom to top, the Ordovician strata are divided
collapse, resulting in strongly heterogeneous character-
into the Penglaiba, Yingshan, Yijianfang, Querbake, Lian-
istics [24]. To date, some questions remain unaddressed.
glitage and Sangtamu formations [26]. Two primary stages
What are the structures of the deeply buried paleocaves,
of karstification affected the Ordovician strata: a middle
e.g., the numbers of caves penetrated by single well or the
Caledonian karstification event and an early Hercynian
heights of the caves? What are the fill characteristics of the
karstification event. In the middle Caledonian, the arch de-
caves, e.g., the distributions of the fills, including sedimen-
veloped into a monocline dipping gently to the southeast.
tary, breccias, and chemical fills? How have fractures de-
As the arch was uplifted several times, three episodes of
veloped around the caves, and what is the thickness of the
karstification, designated episodes I, II and III, occurred
fractures? The meter-scale structure and fill characteris-
during this period [29]. Because most of the Sangtamu For-
tics of paleokarst reservoirs remain unclear, thereby signif-
mation is resistant to dissolution, only minor caves formed
icantly limiting any improvements in reservoir exploration
in the Lianglitage Formation along paleo-faults that pen-
and development.
etrated the Sangtamu Formation. In summary, following
Electric imaging logging has high longitudinal resolu-
the middle Caledonian karstification event, only a few
tion (~5 mm) and makes continuous measurements. This
small parallel layers of caves and dissolution fractures de-
method can be used to clearly identify the sedimentary
veloped in the Ordovician strata. At the end of the De-
fill, collapse breccia, chemical fill and fractures and is a
vonian Period, the early Hercynian tectonic event caused
reliable tool for studying the characteristics of paleokarst
considerable uplift of the arch, which structurally changed
reservoirs at the meter scale. The paleokarst reservoirs in
from a monocline in the middle Caledonian to a large
the Tahe oilfield were studied in detail by analysing core
nose-like structure [3, 26]. The strata experienced signifi-
samples and borehole images from 14 wells and studying
cant weathering and erosion. The Devonian, Silurian and
outcrops of coeval rocks. The structure and fill character-
some of the Upper Ordovician strata were eroded away in
istics of the deeply buried paleocaves were also analysed.
the north but were preserved in a southward-dipping se-
Then, the effects of paleogeomorphology on the structure
quence in the south. A mature karst system developed on
and fill characteristics were also examined. The results of
the exposed Yijianfang and Yingshan formations where
this study provide a fundamental dataset for the detailed
the Sangtamu Formation was completely eroded away.
interpretation of the geologic features of deeply buried pa-
Due to its long duration, widespread distribution, and
leocaves based on the core and borehole images from the
great intensity, the early Hercynian karstification event
Tahe oilfield and can be applied to similar paleokarst oil-
was the most significant karstification phase in the forma-
fields.
tion of the paleokarst reservoirs in the Tahe oilfield [30].
268 | F. Tian et al.

Figure 1: Location of the Tarim Basin and the study area

(a) Tectonic components of the Tarim Basin, including three uplifts and four depressions with east-west orientations (modified from [11]).
The Tahe oilfield is located in the Northern Uplift of the Tarim Basin. The paleokarst outcrops in the Liuhuang Valley are located in the Bachu
Arch, which is approximately 50 km north of Bachu City.
(b) The study area is in the centre of the Tahe oilfield, which is located in the southwestern part of the Akekule Arch in the Northern Uplift of
the Tarim Basin (modified from [14]).
(c) The time-domain depth map of Ordovician strata in blocks 4 and 7 in the main area of the Tahe oilfield. The wells with FMI data are
marked in red.

tag Mountains [7]. Related rocks crop out approximately

3 Data and Method
Actively explored Ordovician strata are exposed in the sub-
surface on the edge of the Tarim Basin along the Kalpin-
600 km west of the actual subsurface region in the Bachu
area. The Liuhuang Valley and Yijianfang profile sections
have four typical outcrop profiles [31, 32]. In the outcrop
 Structure and Filling Characteristics of Paleokarst Reservoirs |
area, the Ordovician strata feature multiple levels of pa-
leokarst systems. Outcrop data and analyses, including of
cave height, fractures around the caves, sedimentary fill,
breccia and chemical cave fill, are used to improve the un-
derstanding of the paleokarst subsurface features.
The outcrops provide a preliminary geological model
for this study. Approximately 600 m of core samples and
borehole images (Formation MicroScanner image, FMI)
from 14 wells in the northern Tarim Basin have been anal-
ysed in this study. The borehole images are calibrated
with the core samples to analyse various geologic fea-
tures in the reservoirs, including cave height, fracture fea-
tures, sedimentary fill, breccia and chemical fill. The struc-
ture and fill characteristics of the paleokarst reservoirs
in these 14 wells can be described in detail using these
data. In combination with the restored paleogeomorphol-
ogy, which is interpreted from 3D seismic data, the distri-
butions of paleokarst reservoir structures and fills in an-
cient highland, slope, and depression areas are discussed.
4 Results
4.1 Characteristics of Paleocaves in
Outcrops
Ordovician strata are exposed in the Bachu Arch on the
northern edge of the Tarim Basin [7, 31]. Representative pa-
leokarst outcrops are located in the Liuhuang Valley and in
Yijianfang profile sections, which are located in the north-
ern Bachu Arch area (Figure 1a). Tian et al. performed a de-
tailed examination of these outcrops and concluded that
they experienced the same episodes of karstification as the
reservoirs in the Tahe oilfield [24]. Thus, the outcrops are
physical equivalents that are useful in characterizing the
structures and fills of the Ordovician paleokarst reservoirs.
A three-layered paleokarst system with 8 paleocaves
is located in the No. 4 Liuhuang Valley (Figure 2a). The
caves developed parallel to the formation, with three high-
level caves, four mid-level caves, and one low-level cave
(Figure 2b). The heights of these caves ranged from 1 to
2 m. Approximately 1-m-high fractures developed on the
top of these caves. A paleocave dominated by breccia fill
and with a height of 5.8 m formed in the No. 3 Liuhuang
Valley (Figure 2c). From bottom to the top, the breccia size
decreases. Additionally, a sedimentary fill occurs between
the breccia (Figure 2d). No. 3 Liuhuang Valley also features
a paleocave dominated by sedimentary fill with a height
of 6.1 m (Figure 2e). The lower part of this cave consists of
well-sorted sand, the middle part consists of breccia, and
269
the upper part consists of sand. Due to the complete filling
of the cave, the cave fill affected the formation pressure,
and a 1-m-thick fracture zone developed in the roof and
sides of the channel (Figure 2f). A completely filled pale-
ocave, which is 3.6 m wide and 1.2 m high, is located in
the Yijianfang outcrop (Figure 2g). This cave is completely
filled with pure calcite.
4.2 Paleokarst features in Borehole Images
and Cores
Borehole images are modern logs that are frequently used
to detect complex geologic features in carbonate and clas-
tic reservoirs [33]. The FMI logs used in this study display
variations in microresistivity using 192 electrodes located
on 8 pads. The directional information and position of the
tool in space are calculated using inclinometer measure-
ments (accelerometers and magnetometers). The borehole
coverage is a function of the borehole diameter and is
equal to approximately 80% in an 8.5-inch borehole. High-
resolution (~5 mm) and nearly complete borehole cover-
age can greatly increase the detail and precision of geolog-
ical interpretations. In the displayed FMI borehole images,
resistive rocks are bright, whereas conductive material is
dark.
In the borehole images, the fractures and sedimen-
tary, breccia and chemical fills appear as conductive or re-
sistive anomalies with well-defined shapes (Figure 3). The
fractures are shown as sinusoidal lines in the FMI, provid-
ing a resistivity contrast between fractures and the exist-
ing formation. There is a fracture with a dissolution vug
in the core of well S67 at a depth of 5666.93-5666.97 m. In
the static FMI, the sinusoidal line and black dissolution
patches are very clear (Figure 3a). The paleocaves are usu-
ally filled with breccia, sedimentary and/or chemical fills.
Each type of fill has distinct image patterns that can be
used for identification. Breccias, which experienced wa-
ter transport, can be identified in the static FMI because
the clasts are smaller at the bottom and larger at the top.
A small cave developed in well T615 at a depth of 5557.78-
5558.65 m. A core sample of this section shows that it is a
breccia-dominated cave, which can also be inferred from
the FMI (Figure 3b). The chemical fills are mainly calcite in
the Ordovician Tahe reservoirs. Similar to the outcrops in
the Yijianfang profile (Figure 2g), the calcite is mainly pure
(Figure 3c). Thus, in the static FMI, the pure calcite of well
S75 exhibits a uniform resistivity (Figure 3c). Sedimentary
fills can be subdivided into sandstone and clay. Well T615
features well-sorted sandstone and stratified clay. Because
270 | F. Tian et al.

Figure 2: Paleocave outcrops in the Liuhuang Valley and Yijianfang profiles. Locations are shown in Figure 1a.
(a) and (b) Typical multi-layered paleokarst system in the No. 4 Liuhuang Valley.
(c) and (d) Typical cave dominated by breccia fill and an intensely deformed roof in the No. 3 Liuhuang Valley.
(e) and (f) Typical completely filled sedimentary cave with a slightly deformed roof in the No. 3 Liuhuang Valley.
(e) and (f) Typical fully filled calcite cave in the Yijianfang Profile, with few fractures around the cave.
 Structure and Filling Characteristics of Paleokarst Reservoirs | 271
Figure 3: Paleokarst features in cores and static FMI.
(a) shows the core and images of a typical fracture with a vug in well S67.
(b) shows the core and images of a typical breccia fill dominated cave in well T615.
(c) shows the core and images of chemical fill in well S75.
(d) shows the core and images of typical sedimentary fill in well T615.
the sedimentary fills have low resistivity values, they are
dark stratified areas in the static FMI (Figure 3d).
4.3 Structure and Fill Characteristics of a
Single-Layered Paleocave
Typical near-surface karst terrain was summarized in a
block diagram by Loucks [15]. The schematic diagram
shows the geometry of a single cave passage with fractures
around the caves. As the burial depth of the cave passage
increases, the roof and walls collapse, forming more brec-
cia [7]. This phenomenon can also be observed in the out-
crops in the northern Tarim Basin (Figure 2). Through de-
tailed analyses of cores and borehole images, we found
this characteristic in the structure of the paleokarst reser-
voirs. Well S75 in the Yingshan Formation contained host
rock, cave sediments, collapse breccia and fractures at
depths from 5521 to 5539 m. A typical fracture-paleocave
complex in this interval consists of a 10.58-m-tall cave lo-
cated at depths of 5525.31 to 5535.89 m, with 0.63-m-tall
fractures in its roof at depths from 5524.68 to 5525.31 m and
0.93-m-tall fractures in its floor at depths from 5535.89 to
5536.82 m. Additionally, there are two fracture-developing
zones that are 1.67 m tall and 0.29 m tall at depths from
5520.26 to 5521.93 m and from 5523.08 to 5523.37 m.
Based on a detailed core description, conventional
well logging data, and interpretations of borehole images,
a detailed core log was drawn (Figure 4). Nearly all col-
lapsed paleocave facies [4, 18] were present in the interval.
Cave collapse breccia represents a major proportion of the
cave fills and can be divided into water-transported and
local-collapse breccia. The clasts in the water-transported
breccia were typically small in size, transported over long
distances, and well sorted (Figure 5a). At the top of the
water-transported breccia section, clay was found (Fig-
ure 5c). The local-collapse breccia formed via local fail-
ures in the cave roof, and the clasts are large in diameter.
Some fractures developed in the large breccia (Figure 5b,
Figure 5d, e.g., 5528.95-5529.91 m and 5533.02-5533.66 m in
well S75). Some sedimentary fills with low resistivity val-
ues and high gamma ray activities are also present in the
top section of the cave and are indicated by dark colours
in the borehole images (Figure 4, e.g., 5525.31-5526.19 m in
well S75).
4.4 Paleokarst Zonations and their Structure
and Fill Characteristics
Ford and Williams subdivided the unsaturated and satu-
rated zones of an unconfined aquifer [34]. The Tahe pa-
272 | F. Tian et al.

Figure 4: Borehole images and well logs of the paleokarst interval in well S75

Figure 5: The core photos show the cave fills in well S75. See locations in Figure 4
 Structure and Filling Characteristics of Paleokarst Reservoirs | 273
Figure 6: Paleokarst features of the Tahe Ordovician reservoirs characterized by borehole images from well T615
leokarst system was modelled on a mature authigenic
karst [24]. In consideration of the practical needs of hy-
drocarbon exploration, the Tahe paleokarst profile was di-
vided into the following four zones: the epikarst zone, the
vadose zone, the run-off zone, and the deep phreatic zone.
The epikarst zone occupies the uppermost portion of
the paleokarst system and is generally a zone of heavily
weathered limestone that directly underlies the soil. In
well T615, the epikarst zone is located at depths of 5520.18-
5522.21 m (Figure 6 and Figure 7). There are some resid-
ual sediments and fractures at the top, exhibiting light-
dark sinusoidal line contrasts compared with the host rock
(Figure 6). The vadose zone is the zone of less weath-
ered bedrock extending down to the high water table. At-
mospheric precipitation seeps down to the water table
through the vadose zone. In well T615, the vadose zone is
at a depth of 5522.21–5527.90 m. There are 1.86-m-tall ver-
tical fractures with dissolution features, which are shown
in the borehole images (Figure 6). The run-off zone is char-
acterized by predominantly horizontal passages and con-
duits with erosion features whose orientations are locally
controlled by bedding planes. The extent of the run-off
zone is primarily controlled by the water table, and rises
and falls in the regional base level and the associated wa-
ter table significantly alter the run-off zone. Multi-layered
caves with fractures and various fills commonly develop
in the run-off zone. The typical single-layered paleocave
in well S75 is shown in Figure 4. However, more caves can
be identified in wells penetrated by paleokarst systems. In
the run-off zone of well T615, there are 6 paleocaves with
different fills. The largest paleocave, with a height of 18.70
m, is present at depths of 5534.41-5553.11 m. The cave fills
include well-sorted fine-grained sandstone, clay, breccia,
and chemical fills. Sedimentary fills represent a major pro-
portion of the fills. The heights of the other 5 caves range
from 0.7 to 1.3 m. The roof and floor of these 6 caves feature
many fractures. The caves and fractures provide enormous
storage spaces for hydrocarbons. The deep phreatic zone
exhibits incipient corrosion and/or cementation grading
into the fresh (unweathered) formation. Because this zone
is deeper than the present reach of hydrocarbon explo-
ration, the available data is insufficient to characterize this
zone.
4.5 Paleogeomorphologic Control on the
Structure and Fill Characteristics
The development of paleokarst reservoirs is controlled by
rock properties, karstification, tectonic activities and geo-
274 | F. Tian et al.
Figure 7: Geological interpretations of the paleokarst structures and fill characteristics in well T615
morphic conditions, resulting in very strong heterogeneity.
The paleogeomorphology has a major impact on the devel-
opment and types of paleokarst reservoirs. Fractures and
caves in the weathering crust primarily developed in the
highlands and slopes [7, 35]. The Ordovician strata in the
study area are directly covered with Carboniferous strata
(without Silurian strata), and the main karstification oc-
curred before the deposition of the Carboniferous strata
in the early Hercynian. Because multiple tectonic events
occurred after the early Hercynian in the Tarim Basin, the
present structures do not represent the paleogeography at
the time of the early Hercynian karstification.
To reconstruct the early Hercynian paleogeography,
we flattened the seismic volume on the lower Carbonifer-
ous Bachu Formation reflection (T56). The Bachu Forma-
tion contains primarily mudstone (Figure 7), which has a
filling effect on early Hercynian differences in geomorphol-
ogy [36]. The flattened seismic section readjusts the top
Ordovician unconformity and shows the macroscale mor-
phology of the Ordovician karstification [37]. The seismic
 Structure and Filling Characteristics of Paleokarst Reservoirs | 275
Figure 8: Seismic section AA’ flattened on the lower Carboniferous Bachu Formation reflection (T56) to reveal the original paleogeomorphol-
ogy of the top of the Ordovician unconformity. See location in Figure 9.
section AA’ is oriented in a north-south direction and has
a length of approximately 14 km (Figure 8). In the seismic
image, “bright spots” appear below the Ordovician uncon-
formity and are typical indications of paleocaves. A 3D pa-
leogeomorphological map can also be created based on
the seismic dataset (Figure 9). Typical karst features, such
as rivers, karst towers, canyons and sinkholes, are obvious
in the seismic section and the 3D map. We divided the pale-
ogeomorphology into highlands, slopes and depressions.
The karst system is mature and is similar to the modern
karst system in the Chinese Guilin area.
Karst highlands are located in the high regions of the
karst area. Atmospheric precipitation infiltrated or flowed
through the karst highlands via karst slopes to karst de-
pressions. Thus, karst highlands feature poorly developed
surface water systems and are primarily dominated by
isolated karst towers. The epikarst zone sediments have
been carried away by water, forming erosional grooves.
The large cave-like features are mainly composed of sink-
holes, which also had relatively isolated distributions.
Karst highlands are mainly distributed in the central part
of blocks 4, 6 and 7 and are represented by red and yellow
colours in the paleogeomorphological map (Figure 9). Five
vertical and three horizontal wells were drilled to collect
borehole image logging data. The structure and fill charac-
teristics of these wells indicate that thick fractures devel-
oped in the highland and that the caves in the karst high-
lands were small (mostly vertically less than 20 m). Based
on the cave fill characteristics, the paleocaves in the karst
highlands are dominated by collapse breccia and, in some
locations, chemical fills (e.g., Well S67).
Karst slopes were the main area of flow in the pale-
okarst water system and developed numerous caves, form-
ing complex underground drainage systems. In contrast,
valleys on the surface and surface water system were not
well developed. Karst slopes are mainly distributed on the
edge of blocks 4, 6 and 7, marked with green and light
blue colours in the paleogeomorphological map (Figure 9).
Four vertical wells with borehole image logging data were
drilled. The structure and fill features of these wells in-
dicate that the caves on the slopes were large (exceeding
10 m), with large heights and good geometric connectivity.
Underground rivers transported sedimentary fill from the
karst highlands and peripheral areas. However, because
of variations in precipitation and underground river di-
versions, some caves filled with sediments, whereas oth-
ers developed collapse breccias. Because the caves were
filled with sediment and breccias, thereby influencing the
effects of the overlying formation pressure, fewer periph-
eral fractures developed around these caves compared to
the caves in the highlands (Table 1).
Karst depressions, located in low-lying areas of the
karst systems, functioned as water collection areas for
the surrounding regions. These regions featured surface
rivers, which became filled at a later time. Karst depres-
sions are mainly distributed in the external areas of the
southern block 7 and the western block 6, marked as blue
and purple in the paleogeomorphological map (Figure 9).
276 | F. Tian et al.

Figure 9: A time-structure map on top of the karstified Ordovician Yingshan Formation (T74), picked in a seismic volume, flattened on the
lower Carboniferous Bachu Formation reflection (T56) (e.g., AA′ in Figure 8)

Table 1: Statistics of the multiple-layer paleokarst reservoirs in the area of well T615

Paleography Well Cave Fracture Sedimentary fill Breccia fill rate (%) Chemical fill rate
Height Height rate (%) (%)
Highland S66 9.0 28.9 2.78 9.72 87.50
S74 18.1 36.1 20.32 77.28 2.40
S88 12.4 24.3 14.56 63.04 22.40
TK408 9.4 46.7 9.80 60.78 29.42
S67 0.4 114.2 13.33 65.37 21.30
TK457H 42.5 127.5 16.50 79.31 4.29
TK458H 57.6 143.4 13.70 82.64 3.66
TK459H 12.5 89.5 15.90 63.32 20.78
Slope S75 13.8 16.2 66.12 30.60 3.28
T615 52.5 16.3 74.24 3.00 22.76
TK426 11.2 29.5 92.92 7.08 0.00
TK604 76.2 34.2 52.46 44.68 2.86
Depression TK429 2.3 13.1 100.00 0.00 0.00
TK635H 27.9 94.5 72.10 19.21 8.69
 Structure and Filling Characteristics of Paleokarst Reservoirs | 277

Figure 10: Cave fill classification and the fill characteristics of drilled wells in different paleogeomorphologic settings. The caves in the high-
lands are mostly filled with breccia, and those on the slopes and depressions are primarily filled with sediments

Well TK429 in a paleo-channel of a karst depression con- thickness of the paleokarst reservoirs in the horizontal
tains weathering residues in the epikarst zone and pene- wells is significantly greater than that in vertical wells.
trated only a 2-m-tall cave fully filled with sediments (Ta- Thus, according to the structure and fill characteristics,
ble 1). Well TK635 is a horizontal well that drilled into less we suggest that horizontal wells should be preferentially
than 30 m of the caves, demonstrating that caves were not drilled in this type of paleokarst reservoir.
well developed in the studied karst depressions.
In summary, the paleogeomorphology controlled the
development and fill characteristics of the paleokarst
reservoirs. The karst highlands developed relatively iso-
5 Discussion
lated sinkholes and small local caves, which were filled
Based on outcrop investigations, core sample observa-
with collapse breccia and developed fractures. The karst
tions, and interpretations of borehole images, this paper
slopes developed numerous tall caves as part of the under-
identified the characteristics of caves, cave fills (sedimen-
ground drainage systems. Multi-layered cave systems de-
tary, breccias and chemical fills) and fractures above and
veloped in the karst slopes due to the changing paleowa-
below caves penetrated by individual wells in strongly het-
ter table. The caves were largely filled with sediments (Fig-
erogeneous paleokarst reservoirs at the meter scale. The
ure 10), and the fills bore part of the overlying strata pres-
paleogeomorphology of study area was reconstructed us-
sure; hence, fewer fractures formed around the caves. The
ing a 3D seismic dataset. The karst highlands, slopes and
karst depressions developed fewer fractures and caves,
depressions were interpreted and their effects on pale-
which were mainly filled with sediments (Figure 10). Based
okarst reservoir development were summarized.
on the borehole image interpretations, we found that the
278 | F. Tian et al.
Previous studies used seismic datasets to predict the
sweet spots in paleokarst reservoirs and delineate their 3D
outlines. This type of work can effectively guide drilling
during the early exploration period. The thin section ob-
servations, inclusion homogenization temperature mea-
surements and isotope analysis of representative core sam-
ples can reveal the main development periods and geo-
logic processes experienced by the paleokarst reservoirs.
However, seismic datasets can only reveal the macroscopic
responses of the reservoirs at the >10-m scale and are un-
able to accurately characterize the structure and fill in-
side the caves. Core analysis focuses only on selected rep-
resentative points, and the scale is on the order of cen-
timetre. Therefore, this method cannot effectively evalu-
ate the petrophysical properties of strongly heterogeneous
reservoirs. This paper characterized the paleocaves, their
fills and the related fractures at the meter scale. The re-
sults effectively characterize the heterogeneity within and
around the paleocaves and effectively connect core anal-
ysis and seismic interpretations. Therefore, these results
can be used to evaluate the petrophysical properties of a
reservoir, guide fluid flow simulations, and improve pale-
okarst reservoir evaluations during the development pe-
riod.
The Ordovician paleokarst reservoirs in the Tahe oil-
field, with burial depths of over 5300 m, experienced mul-
tiple phases of geologic processes and exhibit strong het-
erogeneity. In future studies, outcrop and subsurface data
should be used to character the reservoirs. Core samples
and thin sections should be used to study the character-
istics at the microscopic to centimetre scale, borehole im-
ages and conventional well logging information should be
used to study the structures, fill and petrophysical charac-
teristics of the reservoirs drilled by single wells at the meter
scale, and seismic datasets and production data should be
used to study the 3D distributions and macroscopic prop-
erties of the reservoirs at the 10-100-m scale. These multi-
scale, multi-disciplinary comprehensive characterizations
can provide strong support for recognizing and efficiently
developing these strongly heterogeneous paleokarst reser-
voirs.
6 Conclusions
The structure and fill characteristics of the deeply buried
Ordovician paleokarst reservoirs in the Tahe oilfield of the
Tarim Basin were characterized via a comprehensive uti-
lization of outcrops, core samples, and borehole image log-
ging data. Field outcrops and core samples, which provide
the most direct evidence of collapsed caverns, show that
the caves contain sediments, collapse breccias, and chemi-
cal fills. The fill characteristics of different caves vary. Frac-
tures developed around the caves. The extent of the pe-
ripheral fractures was smaller for completely filled caves.
Using core-calibrated borehole images, the structure
and fill characteristics of paleokarst reservoirs were stud-
ied at the meter scale. Through the analysis of a single-
layered paleocave, we found that the cave was filled with
multiple types of fill and that fractures were present in
the cave roof and floor. An analysis of the paleokarst
features in each vertical zone of the paleokarst reservoir
showed that the epikarst zone was primarily characterized
by weathering residues and dissolution fractures, the va-
dose zone was mainly characterized by high-angle frac-
tures, and the run-off zone was characterized by multi-
layered paleocaves filled by sediments and collapse brec-
cias.
The structure and fill characteristics of the paleokarst
reservoirs were significantly controlled by the paleogeo-
morphology. Using a 3D seismic volume that was flattened
on the Carboniferous Yingshan Formation mudstone, the
early Hercynian karstic paleogeomorphology was restored
and divided into highlands, slopes and depressions. Pa-
leokarst structures preferentially formed in the highlands
and slopes, and relatively fewer fractures and caves form
in the depressions in the catchment areas. The caves in the
highlands were mainly filled of breccias, the large multi-
layered caves in the slopes were associated with drainage
systems and were mainly filled with sediments, and the
few small caves in the karst depressions were filled with
sediments.
Acknowledgement: This study was supported by the Chi-
nese National Major Fundamental Research Developing
Project (Grant No. 2017ZX05008-004), the Chinese Na-
tional Natural Science Foundation (Grant No. 41502149,
No. 41372151 and No. 41102078), and the China Postdoc-
toral Foundation Funded Project (Grant No. 2015M570148).
We are deeply grateful to the Tahe Oilfield Branch Com-
pany SINOPEC for supplying the data and allowing this
paper to be published. We thank three anonymous review-
ers for their thorough and critical reviews and suggestions,
which have improved the manuscript.
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