Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198

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Petroleum Research
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Formation mechanism of high-quality reservoirs of Lower Cretaceous

volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Songliao Basin
Huafeng Tang a, *, Tan Kong a, Xiang Liu b, Di Yang a, Hongyu Huo b, Yulong Huang a
a
College of Earth Science, Jilin University, Jilin 130061, China
b
Exploration and Development Institute of PetroChina Jilin Oilfield Company, Jilin 138000, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: High abundance gas reservoirs were discovered in the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks of Wangfu
Received 10 August 2016 faulted depression in Songliao Basin, but the distribution pattern and formation mechanism of this type
Received in revised form of high-quality reservoirs were not clear. In the Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6 in Wangfu faulted
4 January 2017
depression, the void space type, reservoir property, pore throat and pore diameters were studied by
Accepted 11 January 2017
means of the casting thin section, helium intrusion porosimetry, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)
and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods, moreover, formation mechanism and main controlling
factors of the high-quality reservoirs were discussed. Results showed that lithology of high-quality
Keywords:
Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks
reservoirs consisted of the volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate and the volcaniclastic sedimentary
High-quality reservoirs breccia, and exhibited the coarsening-upward characteristics. Furthermore, three types (seven subtypes)
Void space of void spaces were identified, among which the intragranular vesicles with primary abundant pores
Formation mechanism were uniquely developed in the high-quality reservoirs of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, indicating
Shahezi Formation this high-quality reservoir belonged to the large-pore and small-throat reservoir; porosity and perme-
Songliao Basin ability of volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate were slightly higher than those of volcaniclastic
sedimentary breccia, and both were significantly higher than those of sedimentary rock in the Shahezi
Formation, the porosity was closely related with the burial depth. Formation mechanisms of reservoirs in
the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks were release of volatile matters in parent rocks, grain support,
dissolution and tectonic modification, among which the former two were the main controlling factors.
The high-quality reservoirs over the study area were mainly distributed in the central part of the fan of
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, among which the grain-supported, coarse-grained volcaniclastic
sedimentary rocks with high content of intragranular vesicular detritus and burial depth less than
3000 m were the most favorable area for development of the high-quality reservoirs.
© 2017 Chinese Petroleum Society. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction the lava-ignimbrite-volcaniclastic rock-volcaniclastic sedimentary

Volcaniclastic sedimentary rock was a type of transitional rocks
between volcaniclastic rock and sedimentary rock, and was formed
by double actions of volcanic and sedimentary modifications. Vol-
caniclastic sedimentary rocks were widespread in volcanic basins
as an important part of volcanic strata, such as strata of Songliao
Basin (Huoshiling Formation, Shahezi Formation and Yingcheng
Formation), Shahejie Formation of Liaohe depression, and Strom-
boli Volcano of Italy (Casalbore et al., 2010; Qu et al., 2014; Huang
et al., 2014). Horizontally, there were three distribution types, i.e.,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tanghfhc@jlu.edu.cn (H. Tang).
rock, volcaniclastic rock-volcaniclastic sedimentary rock and vol-
caniclastic sedimentary rock (Tang et al., 2011, 2012; Wang et al.,
2011). Compared with other lavas and volcaniclastic rocks, the
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks were more favorable to form the
source-reservoir-caprock assemblage with mudstones in basin
centers (Wang et al., 2011) and to develop lithologic hydrocarbon
reservoirs or structural-lithologic hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Field outcrops and shallow boreholes revealed that good res-
ervoirs could be developed in the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks.
For example, porosity and permeability of volcaniclastic sedimen-
tary rocks from Well Y-8 in Yellowstone National Park were com-
parable to those of volcaniclastic rocks, but significantly better than
those of ignimbrites and lavas (Dobson et al., 2003); in Jiutai area of
Songliao Basin, Member 3 and Member 1 of Yingcheng Formation

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ptlrs.2017.01.002
2096-2495/© 2017 Chinese Petroleum Society. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198
in Well D1 showed that the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks of
Yingcheng Formation reservoirs were slightly worse than that of
Well Y-8 in Yellowstone National Park (Min et al., 2007; Wu et al.,
2007), but both were better than volcanic rocks in Xujiaweizi
faulted depression and Changling faulted depression in Songliao
Basin (Wang and Chen, 2015), indicating that volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary rocks could formed good reservoirs. Meanwhile, hydro-
carbon reservoirs and oil-gas shows were also found in
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks worldwide (Schutter, 2003),
demonstrating that volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks had a good
exploration potential. But given the same source-rock supply
conditions in a basin, exploration breakthroughs were only ach-
ieved in a small number of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks. In
2011, a gas reservoir was discovered in volcaniclastic sedimentary
rocks of Shahezi Formation in Well CS6 of Wangfu faulted
depression in the southern Songliao Basin, and the testing single-
well gas production was up to 150  103 m3/d, the controllable
reserve was up to 50  109 m3; this gas reservoir had the single
largest reserve and highest abundance of volcaniclastic sedimen-
tary rocks up to now, as compared with reservoirs in Yingtai faulted
depression of Songliao Basin, Bohai Bay Basin (Jin and McCabe,
1998), Hailar Basin (Wang et al., 2005), Erlian Basin (Gao et al.,
2006), Santanghu Basin (Chen et al., 2014), Jiuquan Basin (Li
et al., 2004), Taranaki Basin in New Zealand (Batchlor, 2000;
Hart, 2001)and Great Basin in the United States (Grabb, 1994).
The discovered high-quality reservoir of volcaniclastic sedimentary
rocks indicated a good exploration prospect of volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary rocks in Songliao Basin. Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks
were widely developed in strata of faulted depressions of Songliao
Basin, but exploration breakthroughs were only achieved in a few
regions, because characteristics, formation mechanism and pattern
of high-quality reservoirs of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks had
not yet been well identified. In the case of Well Block CS6, petro-
logical characteristics, reservoir characteristics and formation
mechanism of the high-quality reservoir in volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary rocks were well studied, so as to provide references for
efficient exploration and production of hydrocarbon reservoirs in
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks.
Fig. 1. Location of the study area.
187
2. Lithological characteristics
The volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks referred to those rocks
undergoing water transportation as well as compaction and
cementation diagenesis with a pyroclast content of 50e90% (Sun
et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2007). Detrital particles were of variable
psephicity but usually poor sorting. According to particle size, such
rocks could be classified into tuffite, volcaniclastic sedimentary
breccia, volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate and transitional
type between the breccia and the agglomerate; according to
component, the rocks could be divided into compound component
and single component rocks, of which the single component rocks
included rhyolitic, andesitic, basaltic and the transitional type
among them.
The Songliao Basin mainly experienced three different evolution
stages, i.e., the faulting depression stage, the depression stage, and
the tectonic inversion stage. Among them, strata of the faulting
depression stage consisted of Huoshiling Formation, Shahezi For-
mation and Yingcheng Formation, strata of the depression stage
consisted of Denglouku Formation, Quantou Formation, Qing-
shankou Formation, Yaojia Formation and Nenjiang Formation, and
strata of the tectonic inversion stage consisted of Sifangtai Forma-
tion, Mingshui Formation and Yi'an Formation (Wang et al., 2015).
The Well Block CS6 was located in the Wangfu faulted depression in
the central and eastern Songliao Basin (Fig. 1), where the core
samples from Wells CS6 and CS601 revealed that the regional
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks were mainly volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary agglomerate and volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia
(Fig. 2). The volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Shahezi Formation
of Well Block CS6 mainly underwent two phases of tectonic
inversion, i.e., the post-depositional Yingcheng Formation and the
post-depositional Nenjiang Formation. Breccia and agglomerate
components were mainly trachyandesite (85%) with minor
amounts of quartzite (5%) and rhyolite (10%). Most agglomerates
and breccias were of subangular to subrounded shapes with
unobvious particle orientation, poor sorting and grain-supported to
matrix-supported texture, the matrix was mostly coarse-grained
tuff. The above characteristics indicated that the volcaniclastic
sedimentary rocks should be a product of short-distance transport
188 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198
Fig. 2. Types and characteristics of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Well Block CS6, Wangfu faulted depression. (a) Volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate with grain-supported
texture, the breccias were composed of greenish grey trachyandesite, the sample was from Shahezi Formation at depth of 2523.0 m of Well CS6; (b) volcaniclastic sedimentary
breccia with grain-supported texture, the breccia were composed of greenish grey trachyandesite, the sample was from Shahezi Formation at depth of 2530.0 m of Well CS6.
and fast deposition.
The volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Well Block CS6 exhibi-
ted a nearly NS-trending fan horizontally (Fig. 3a). The seismic
profile revealed that volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks were pre-
sented as wedge shapes or mounded shapes, and amplitudes in the
rocks were weak to moderate with good connectivity (Fig. 3b).
According to well-seismic-integration wave impedance inversion,
the maximum thickness was up to 200 m, the volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary rocks mainly were distributed in Well CS602 and the south
side of Well CS6. The volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerates were
mainly distributed in Well CS6, CS601 and CS603, while the vol-
caniclastic sedimentary breccias were developed in other boreholes
(Fig. 3a and b). With the underlying coal seam as a reference sur-
face, and through the lithology and logging curve correlation, the
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks could be divided into four units,
and two lithological sequences could be identified vertically: thick-
bedded volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia/agglomerate and thin-
bedded volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia/agglomerate inter-
bedded with mudstone. The volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks were
more developed in the upper strata, but relatively restricted in the
lower strata, and showed the coarsening-upward sequence
(Fig. 3c). At present, gas production intervals were mainly in the
Unit 3.
3. Reservoir characteristics
3.1. Void space types
According to previous studies, based on porosity genesis, the
void space of volcanic rocks could be classified into four types, i.e.,
primary pores, primary fractures, secondary pores, and secondary
fractures (Wang et al., 2003; Gao et al., 2007; Sruoga and
Rubinstein, 2007; Liu et al., 2010). According to this classification,
by means of core macroscopic observation and microscopic iden-
tification of casting thin sections, three types of space were iden-
tified totally, i.e., primary pores, secondary pores and secondary
fractures. Among them, the primary pores mainly consisted of
intragranular vesicles and intergranular pores with a reservoir
contribution rate of about 54.9%; the secondary pores mainly
consisted of moldic pores, spongy dissolution pores, sieve-shaped
dissolution pores and interparticle-dissolution pores with a reser-
voir contribution rate of about 34.6%; the secondary fractures were
mainly structural fractures with a reservoir contribution rate of
about 10.5%.
3.1.1. Primary pore
(1) During denudation and transportation of vesicle-enriched
parent rocks, a number of vesicles were still kept in volca-
nic detritus (e.g., breccia or agglomerate), resulting in for-
mation of primary pores. In the study area, these irregular-
shape pores were scattered with the diameter of 0.1e1.0 mm
and a low pore-filling degree (Fig. 4a and b). This type of pore
was a significant characteristic to distinguish the volcani-
clastic sedimentary rocks from terrigenous clastic rocks; it
was mainly distributed in the agglomerate and breccia of
trachyte in volcanic sedimentary agglomerate/breccia, and
was widespread in Well CS6 and Well CS601.
(2) Intergranular pores were grain-supported pores that were
not completely filled by matrix. Such the irregular-shape
intergranular pores were scattered in the study area, most of
them underwent dissolution for enlargement, and it also was
a major kind of the void space in the volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary rocks.
3.1.2. Secondary pore
(1) Minerals in detritus experienced intense erosive dissolution,
after secondary minerals were dissolved, mineral crystal
were only preserved and moldic pores were formed. In the
study area, only some rhombic moldic pores with a diameter
of 50 mm were developed (Fig. 4c and d), and it were formed
by dissolution of hornblendes based on inference of pris-
matic shapes.
(2) Sieve-shape dissolution pores were mesh-like pores which
were developed on mineral surface under relatively intense
dissolution. Sieve-shape dissolution pores existed in alkali
feldspar (Fig. 4d) of trachyandesitic breccia in the study area.
(3) Spongy dissolution pores were pores formed by minor
dissolution of secondary minerals or micropores formed in
the crystallization process of secondary minerals due to weak
erosive dissolution of detritus. Spongy dissolution pores
were developed in rhyolitic crystal tuff breccia in the study
area (Fig. 4e and f), and the casting fluid could be injected
 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198 189

Fig. 3. Distribution characteristics of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6 in Wangfu faulted depression. (a) Distribution characteristics of
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks; (b) the seismic reflection characteristics of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks; (c) the correlation profile of volcaniclastic sedimentary rock.
Fig. 4. Void space characteristics of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks from Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6, Wangfu faulted depression. (a) Intragranular vesicles and fractures
at depth of 2524.8 m of Well CS6; (b) intragranular vesicles and intergranular pores at depth of 2523.5 m of Well CS6; (c) intergranular pores and intragranular dissolution pores
(moldic pores) at depth of 2522.85 m of Well CS6; (d) intraparticle-dissolution pores and fractures at depth of 2528.23 m of Well CS6; (e) intraparticle-dissolution pores and
intergranular pores at depth of 2526.75 m of Well CS6; (f) intraparticle-dissolution pores and matrix dissolution pores at depth of 2524.90 m of Well CS6; (g) conjugated fractures
and intragranular vesicles at depth of 2528.3 m of Well CS6; (h) fractures, minor intraparticle-dissolution pores and matrix dissolution pores at depth of 2529.95 m of Well CS6.
 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198
into this kind of pore, but their color were lighter than other
types of pores.
(4) Interparticle-dissolution pores were the compound pores
formed by enlargement of primary intergranular pores due
to dissolution of interparticle matrix-filled minerals, volcanic
ash and volcanic glass. It was difficult to distinguish inter-
granular pores and dissolution enlargement pores, thus they
were all called the interparticle-dissolution pores. Abundant
interparticle-dissolution pores with a diameter of
0.1e0.5 mm existed in the study area, and should have a high
contribution rate to porosity (Fig. 4c).
3.1.3. Secondary fractures
Secondary fractures were epigenetic fractures which were
formed under tectonic stress or burial compaction, it could cut
through volcanic detritus or minerals, and mostly occurred in
groups or conjugated state. Scratches were developed in coal-
bearing tuffite with flat and straight morphology and low filling
degree (Fig. 4g and h).
Besides, two types of fractures were developed, e.g., (1) struc-
tural fractures with no filling or low filling degree (small-scale
faults) (Fig. 4g), (2) fractures with some fillings. Fracture planes of
the latter fracture type squarely cut through breccias and quartz
detritus, and the fractures were filled by quartz with the pore-
filling degree of 50e95% (Fig. 4h), playing an important role in
connecting rock pores.
3.2. Porosity and permeability
The testing samples were cylinders of 2.5 cm in diameter and
about 3 cm in length, the porosity-permeability test was carried out
by helium injection method in the Testing Center of Exploration
and Development Institute of PetroChina Jilin Oilfield Company.
According to the test results (Fig. 5a), porosity values ranged from
1.27% to 11.40% and permeability values varied from 0.0003 mD to
3.2300 mD. The average porosity and average permeability of vol-
caniclastic sedimentary agglomerate were slightly higher than
those of volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia and significantly higher
than those of Shahezi Formation sedimentary rock (Table 1);
permeability ratios (ratios of maximum permeability to minimum
permeability) of volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate,
Fig. 5. Porosity and permeability characteristics and capillary pressure curves of the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6, Wangfu faulted
depression. (a) Distribution of porosity and permeability of different rock types; (b) capillary pressure curves of different rock types of Well CS6 showing the volcaniclastic
sedimentary rocks belonged to the small throat reservoir, and the dashed lines represented the volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate samples, the solid lines represented the
volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia samples; 4.5/0.009 represented porosity/permeability.
191
volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia and glutenite were 10766, 800,
and 16.1 respectively, indicating that reservoir heterogeneity of
volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate was stronger than that of
volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia, and rather stronger than that of
glutenite. Therefore, the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks had
higher physical property but stronger heterogeneity than adjacent
glutenite.
3.3. Pore throat characteristics
Samples for capillary pressure test were cylinders of 2.5 cm in
diameter and about 3 cm in length, and it were tested in the Testing
Center at the Langfang Branch of PetroChina Research Institute of
Petroleum Exploration and Development. According to the test
results (Fig. 5b), the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks belonged to
the small pore throat reservoir as a whole, the displacement
pressure ranged from 0.52 MPa to 55.30 MPa, the maximum mer-
cury injection saturation was from 15% to 82%, and the mercury
withdrawal efficiency varied from 12.3% to 49.3%, indicating great
variations in reservoir pore throats. In Fig. 5b, the dashed lines
represented the volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate samples,
and the solid lines represented the volcaniclastic sedimentary
breccia samples. Through a comparison in capillary pressure curves
of two rock types, shapes of capillary pressure curves were not
obviously related with rock types, and both the volcaniclastic
sedimentary agglomerate and the volcaniclastic sedimentary
breccia were characterized by small pore throats, among which the
volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate had the average throat
diameter from 0.014 mm to 0.480 mm while the volcaniclastic
sedimentary breccia had the average throat diameter from 0.16 mm
to 0.43 mm.
3.4. Pore diameter characteristics
NMR test samples are cylinders of 2.5 cm in diameter and about
3 cm in length, and were tested in the Testing Center at the Lang-
fang Branch of PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Explo-
ration and Development. According to the test results (Fig. 6), most
of samples had spectral width of relaxation time from 0.1 ms to
3000 ms, indicating a large range of pore diameter distribution.
Through the curve shape, the curve could be divided into the
moderate to high amplitude bimodal curve and the moderate to
192 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198

Table 1
Porosity and permeability of shallow-buried volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, deep-buried volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, and deep-buried volcanic rocks. The values
following “/” were the average values, and each number in “[]” was sample number.

Lithology Locality and stratum Porosity/% Permeability/mD

Shallow buried volcaniclastic Well Y-8 in Yellowstone National Park (Dobson et al., 2003) 15.5e31.6/27.2 [5] (<0.10)-(>5000)/
sedimentary rocks 346 [39]
Member 3 of Yingcheng Formation of Well D1 in Jiutai, Jilin (Min et al., 2007) 16.9e24.0/21.1 [7] 0.64e1.29/1.02
[7]
Member 1 of Yingcheng Formation of Well D1 in Jiutai, Jilin (Wu et al., 2007) 9.6e25.1/21.3 [4] 0.02e2.43/0.47
[4]
Deep buried volcaniclastic Member 2 of Yingcheng Formation in Yingtai faulted depression Tuffite: 0.1e11.2/5.1 [250] 0.001e6.60/0.12
sedimentary rocks [249]
Volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia: 0.9 0.003e1.00/0.14
e11.4/6.7 [25] [24]
Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6 in Wangfu faulted depression Volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia: 1.3 0.002e1.60/0.22
e10.6/6.6 [42] [42]
Volcaniclastic sedimentary 0.0003e3.23/
agglomerate: 3.9e11.4/8.2 [39] 0.29 [39]
Deep buried volcanic rocks Yingcheng Formations in Xujiaweizi faulted depression and Changling faulted Lava: 0.3e21.9/7.4 [249] 0.004e17.3/0.08
depression (Wang and Chen, 2015) [249]
Ignimbrite: 0.2e15.6/6.4 [300] 0.002e5.33/0.05
[300]
Pyroclastic rock: 0.7e14.3/4.6 [62] 0.004e4.64/0.03
[62]

Fig. 6. NMR characteristics of the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6, Wangfu faulted depression. (a) The relaxation time and amplitude of
samples with good reservoir property, showing large and small diameter pores were developed in all samples, and the dashed lines represented the volcaniclastic sedimentary
agglomerate samples, and the solid lines represented the volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia samples; 8.8/0.12 represented porosity/permeability; (b) the relaxation time and
amplitude of samples with poor reservoir property, showing just small pores were developed in samples.

high amplitude unimodal curve. The former curve type indicated
pores with large diameter and small diameter (Fig. 6a), while the
latter curve type suggested few pores with large diameter but most
pores with small diameter (Fig. 6b). The volcaniclastic sedimentary
agglomerates all had large pores, while the volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary breccias had some large pores and some small pores, this
was because the volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate samples
developed intragranular vesicles, intergranular pores or fractures,
whereas only a part of the volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia
samples developed the above pores. Through comparison of dif-
ferences among storage space types, the area with the relaxation
time <10 ms corresponded to dissolution pores, most of which
were spongy-sieve-shaped dissolution pores formed under selec-
tive dissolution; the area with the relaxation time of 10e1000 ms
corresponded to intragranular vesicles, intergranular pores, frac-
tures or moldic pores; the pore diameter was up to 1 mm according
to core comparative analysis. In combination with capillary pres-
sure curves, it was known that the volcaniclastic sedimentary rock
was the reservoir with large pores and small throats.
3.5. Distribution characteristics of high-quality reservoirs
Through calibration with measured porosity, the porosity was
interpreted on the basis of density, acoustic and resistivity curves,
then it was compared between wells. The highest average porosity
belt was distributed in areas of Well CS6 and CS603 and reduced to
the periphery (Fig. 7). The high porosity intervals were mainly
distributed in the middle and upper parts of Well CS6, the top of
Well CS601 and the middle part of Well CS603, logging interpre-
tation porosity in most of well intervals ranged from 6% to 9%
(Fig. 7b and c). At the distribution edge of the volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary rock, the porosity mostly was less than 6%, and for most of
 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198 193

Fig. 7. Distribution characteristics of log interpretation porosity of the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6 of Wangfu faulted depression,
showing the highest porosity belt was distributed in the areas of Well CS6 and Well CS603 horizontally, and the high porosity intervals were distributed in the middle-upper part of
Well CS6, the top of Well 601 and the middle part of Well 603 vertically.

thin-bedded volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, the porosity was

also less than 6%, indicating that the reservoir had a relation with
particle size. Horizontally, the above distribution characteristic was
similar to reservoir distribution characteristic of volcanic rock to
some extent, i.e., the center of a geological body had a good prop-
erty (Tang et al., 2008); but in the vertical distribution, reservoirs of
the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks were not constrained by
boundary, and was inconsistent with lava reservoirs controlled by
boundary (Tang et al., 2015; Yi et al., 2015).

4. Reservoir formation mechanism of volcaniclastic

sedimentary rocks

4.1. Volatile matter release of parent rocks

During the condensation, consolidation and diagenesis of parent

rocks of the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, volatile matters, such
as water, carbon dioxide, fluorine and chlorine components,
released from the magma when temperature and pressure of
magma decreased. As lavas migrated, these volatile matters
expanded, emplaced and amalgamated (Lovejoy et al., 2004;
Gaonac'h et al., 2005; Lockwood and Hazlett, 2010), then were
captured by cooled magma to form vesicles which were preserved
during the denudation, transportation and depositional dispersion
process. According to surface porosity analysis, intragranular vesi-
cles could had the surface porosity up to 7.8% and a contribution
rate of 80% to porosity, but interparticle-dissolution pores just had a
contribution rate of 20% only, as shown in Fig. 8. Thus, release of
volatile matters of parent rocks played a vital role in the formation
of high-quality reservoirs of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in the
study area. Breccias in Well CS6 and CS14 were both trachyandesite,
while breccia in Well CS601 was rhyolite, where intragranular
vesicles were not developed. One prerequisite of intragranular
vesicle preservation was that the detritus diameter should be large
enough, that was because as long as vesicles were exposed, the
detritus would disappear due to erosion, or even though being kept,
it was hardly to form effective pores due to filling of fine detritus. As
shown in Fig. 9, particles with the diameter greater than 8 mm
contained intragranular vesicles, whereas particles with the
diameter less than 3 mm contained no intragranular vesicles. The
larger the particles were, the higher the percentage of intragranular
vesicles would be, and vice versa. These might because short
Fig. 8. Constitute characteristics of void space in the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks
showing surface porosity of intraclast vesicles, interparticle dissolution pores and
sieve-shape dissolution pores were 7.8%, 1.8% and 0.3% respectively; and the intra-
granular vesicles had a contribution rate of 80% to porosity, but the interparticle-
dissolution pores just had a contribution rate of 20% only; the interpretation results
were based on the sample in Fig. 4b at depth of 2523.5 m of Well CS6.
distance from volcanic field would resulted in large particle for-
mation and low extraclast content, long distance from volcanic
provenance would resulted in small particles formation and high
extraclast content; the core samples from Well CS601 contained
rhyolite breccia which had no intragranular vesicles. Therefore, the
good preservation condition of intragranular vesicles was the large
diameter detritus, and the larger the particles were, the better they
would be preserved, this was also an important factor for reservoir
of the volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate/breccia better than
that of the tuffite in the relative intense burial compaction areas.
The interaction of intragranular vesicles and interparticle-
dissolution pores, sieve-shape dissolution pores, spongy dissolu-
tion pores or secondary fractures could be able to improve the
reservoir quality significantly.
4.2. Grain support
The grain support was referred to pyroclastic particles sup-
porting each other to form rock framework. Formation of the rock
194 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198

Fig. 9. Relationship between particle diameters and void space types of volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks showing high percentage of intragranular vesicles in large particles, low
percentage of intragranular vesicles in small particles. (a) Samples from Well CS6; (b) samples from CS14; (c) sample from CS601. “n” represented number of particles.

framework had two effects on reservoir formation: (1) the frame-
work was not filled or filled at a low pore-filling degree to formed
intergranular pores; (2) support of particle reduced damage of
intergranular pores and matrix dissolution pores by compaction. As
shown in Fig. 4b and c as well as Fig. 8, the lineeconcavo-convex
contacts occurred among particles, indicating relatively obvious
mechanical compaction, but fortunately, there were some grains
which had stronger ability to resist the compaction to form the rock
framework, and the interparticle-dissolution pores in matrix were
well protected, and pore images showed that the surface porosity
was about 1.8%, especially the surface porosity was about 5% in
Fig. 4c. Therefore, the grain support played an important role in the
preservation of pores in the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, and
particles with concave edges had better protection of pores.
significantly, and the acid-labile components could dissolve again;
during the early deposition of Quantou Formation, the study area
entered into this stage, and acidic materials kept expelling until the
late deposition of Nenjiang Formation, the dissolution might occur
during the early deposition of Quantou Formation to the middle-
late deposition of Nenjiang Formation (Fig. 10). Quartz deposited
during the dissolution process, for example, in Fig. 4e, the irregular
enlargement edges were developed on the edge of quartz crystal
fragments in rhyolitic tuff, indicating that the study area underwent
acid dissolution and deposition of SiO2.
The dissolution pores of the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks

4.3. Dissolution

Abundant acid-labile components, such as hornblende, feldspar,

detritus and tephra, were developed in the volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary rocks (Zhao et al., 2005; Zhong et al., 2006; Zhu et al.,
2007; Lockwood and Hazlett, 2010; Wang et al., 2010; Meng
et al., 2011), which provided a material basis for occurrence of
dissolution in volcaniclastic sedimentary rock. The underlying
strata of the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in the study area were
coal-bearing dark mudstone, and the dark mudstone was the good-
quality source rock (Zhang, 2013; Ye, 2014), the acidic materials
would be expelled during the thermal evolution of both source rock
and coal. A large amount of acids would be produced in two stages
according to the coal formation process: (1) during the conversion
process from plant relics to peat and then lignite at the burial depth
of 200e400 m, the pH value of formation water could be 3.3e4.6
(Zheng and Ying, 1997). As known from Fig. 3c, when the burial
depth of underlying coal seam reached 200 m, the coal seam
evolved into the early acid expulsion stage, and had the ability to Fig. 10. Burial-geothermal history evolution of Well CS6 showing the dissolution
provide acidic fluids for dissolution of overlying volcaniclastic might occur during the early deposition of Quantou Formation to the middle-late
deposition of Nenjiang Formation. J3h represented Huoshiling Formation, K1sh rep-
sedimentary rock. (2) When the geotemperature reached 80- resented Shahezi Formation, K1yc represented Yingcheng Formation, K1d represented
120  C, as organic matter of mudstone and coal evolved and Denglouku Formation, K2q represented Quantou Formation, K2qn represented Qing-
expelled acidic materials, the pH value of formation water declined shankou Formation, K2y represented Yaojia Formation, K2n: Nenjiang Formation.
 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198
Fig. 11. Chlorite in alkali feldspar dissolution pores of the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks. The lithology of the sample was the trachyandesitic volcanic sedimentary breccia at the
depth of 2545 m of Well CS6.
could be classified into five types of secondary pores: (1) moldic
pores formed by hornblende dissolution, (2) sieve-shaped spongy
pores formed by dissolution of potash feldspar, (3) spongy pores
formed by dissolution of rhyolitic tuff lava detritus, (4) spongy
pores formed by dissolution of trachyandesite detritus, and (5)
intergranular pores enlarged by dissolution of tuffaceous intersti-
tial materials. Most of authigenic clay minerals filling in the pores
were chlorite (Fig. 11), which probably were from three sources as
follows: (1) the hornblende alteration process could generate
chlorite; (2) a large amount of spherulitic siderite in trachyandesitic
detritus suggested high contents of iron and magnesium ions in
fluids, and a sufficient amount of iron and magnesium ions guar-
anteed chlorite generation when potash feldspar or tuffaceous
matter were dissolved; (3) for mudstone at the depths of
2500e2900 m in the study area, Ro values ranged from 1.4% to 1.7%,
and according to the classification of clastic rock diagenesis of
acidic water media (coal-bearing strata), this area evolved into the
middle diagenesis phase B period, which was also one of factors for
conversion of clay minerals (e.g., illite) into chlorite. The moldic
pores and sieve-shaped pores formed by dissolution were large
diameter pores, most of spongy pores were small diameter pores,
resulting in formation of large pore-small throat reservoirs;
dissolution pores in the study area might have a limited contribu-
tion to porosity, but occurrence of such pores indicated good
reservoir connectivity (Cai et al., 2010; Luo et al., 2012, 2013; Zhang
et al., 2012), which could improve reservoir effectiveness, especially
connection of intragranular vesicles.
4.4. Tectonism
The volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Well Block CS6 mainly
underwent two tectonic modification processes: (1) the parent rock
zone underwent uplift tectonism from the middle and late sedi-
mentary period of Huoshiling Formation to the early sedimentary
period of Shahezi Formation, which might cause formation of
fractures; such fractures were formed prior to rock burial and
experienced complex modification processes; as shown in Fig. 4h,
the fractures underwent late siliceous matter filling and their sur-
face porosity decreased greatly. (2) As a result of Nenjiang move-
ment, the volcaniclasti sedimentary rocks experienced compressive
195
reversal structure, which also might produce structural fractures;
the fractures were formed under the compressive condition which
could be corresponded to the scratches in Fig. 4g, despite low pore-
filling degree, the core at the depth of 2528.3 m of Well CS6 (Fig. 4g)
had a low development degree of fractures as a whole, and most
fractures were closed, thus the fractures under the burial condition
had a limited contribution to porosity, but it probably enhanced
connection among various types of pores to improve reservoir
effectiveness.
5. Exploration of high-quality reservoirs
Through comparison of measured porosity and logging inter-
pretation porosity with petrological characteristic, the reservoirs
were mainly controlled by grain support type, particle size, burial
depth of pyroclasts and content of trachyandesite breccia with
development of intragranular vesicles. For example, the maximum
porosity of Well CS6 was 10e11%, higher than that of Well CS14
(8e9%) (Fig. 12a-b). The comparison of imaging logging data with
core data showed why porosity difference between two wells was
that lithology of Well CS6 was the volcaniclastic sedimentary
agglomerate and breccias with grain support and a large amount of
intragranular vesicles, while lithology of Well CS14 was the volca-
niclasitic sedimentary breccia and tuff with particle/matrix support
and few intragranular vesicles (Figs. 12d and 13a-d). Well CS601
had two porosity peaks, both of which were lower than that of Well
CS6 (Fig. 12a and c); core data revealed that different content of
trachyandesite breccia/agglomerate with a large amount of intra-
granular vesicles caused this difference, i.e., 90% for Well CS6 but
only 55% for Well CS601 (Figs. 12d, 13c and 13e). Therefore, the
high-quality reservoirs were distributed in the areas with high
content of volcaniclasitic sedimentary agglomerate or high content
of volcaniclasitic sedimentary agglomerate/breccia with intra-
granular vesicles, indicating that high-quality reservoirs were
mainly controlled by release of volatile matters in parent rocks and
grain support action. The high-quality reservoirs were distributed
in the central part of fan body of volcaniclasitic sedimentary rocks.
In combination with source rock distribution, the fan front would
be more prone to form the good source-reservoir-caprock assem-
blages. According to relationship between porosity and burial
196 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198

Fig. 12. Logging interpretation porosity characteristics and main controlling factors of reservoirs of volcaniclasitic sedimentary rocks in Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6,
Wangfu faulted depression. (a) the porosity distribution of Well CS6 showing the main range of porosity was from 10% to 11%; (b) the porosity distribution of Well CS14 showing the
main range of porosity was from 8% to 9%; (c) the porosity distribution of Well CS601 showing the main range of porosity was from 4% to 5% and 8%e9%; (d) the controlling factor of
reservoirs indicating that high-quality reservoirs were mainly controlled by release of volatile matters in parent rocks and grain support action.

Fig. 13. Correlation between imaging logging and cores of the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks in Shahezi Formation of Well Block CS6, Wangfu faulted depression. (a) Agglomerate
(blue arrow) and breccia (purple arrow) with low resistivity in the imaging logging of Well CS6; (b) breccia (blue arrow) with moderate to high resistivity in imaging logging of Well
CS14; (c) vesicles and fractures were developed in the volcaniclastic sedimentary grain-supported agglomerate at depth of 2523.6 m of Well CS6, the sample location seen in
Fig. 13a; (d) the volcaniclastic sedimentary matrix-supported breccia at depth of 2845 m of Well CS14, the sample location seen in Fig. 13b; (e) the volcaniclastic sedimentary grain-
matrix-supported breccia with moderate resistivity and vesicles at depth of 2608.5 m of Well CS601. Agglomerate was the particle with a diameter greater than 64 mm; for Wells
CS6 and CS14, the borehole diameter was 25.4 cm, and the well wall perimeter was about 79.8 cm, which was equal to the width of each image; each logging image reflected the
cylindrical surface, and as converted, only particles with a diameter greater than 65 mm in each image were called agglomerates.

depth, when burial depth was less than 3000 m, the tuffite, vol-
caniclasitic sedimentary breccia and agglomerate would be avail-
able to form reservoirs; and when burial depth was greater than
3000 m, the volcaniclasitic sedimentary breccia and agglomerate
would be more favorable to form reservoirs (Fig. 14). Therefore,
areas of the maximum exploration potential for high-quality res-
ervoirs were fan central part of the volcaniclasitic sedimentary
rocks with burial depth less than 3000 m, development of volatile
matters escaping from parent rock, short-distance transportation
and large diameter particles, followed by fan front part.
 H. Tang et al. / Petroleum Research 2 (2017) 186e198
Fig. 14. Relationship between porosity and burial depth of the volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary rocks showing when burial depth was less than 3000 m, the tuffite, volca-
niclasitic sedimentary breccia and agglomerate were all reservoirs; when burial depth
was greater than 3000 m, the volcaniclasitic sedimentary breccia and agglomerate
were favorable reservoirs.
6. Conclusions
(1) Core samples from Well Block CS6 revealed that the volca-
niclasitic sedimentary rocks mainly consisted of volcanicla-
sitic sedimentary agglomerate and volcaniclastic
sedimentary breccia, and horizontally it occurred in the NS-
trending fan shape with the maximum thickness up to
200 m, and two lithological sequences (the thick-bedded
volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia/agglomerate and the
thin-bedded volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia/agglomerate
interbedded with mudstone) were well developed.
(2) Three types of pores were totally identified in the study area,
i.e., primary pores, secondary pores and secondary fractures.
The primary pores included intragranular vesicles and
intergranular pores, the secondary dissolution pores
included moldic pores, spongy dissolution pores, sieve-shape
dissolution pores and interparticle dissolution pores, while
the secondary fractures mainly included structural fractures;
among which, the intragranular primary vesicle was one
significant characteristic to distinguish the volcaniclastic
sedimentary rock from terrigenous clastic rock.
(3) Reservoir property and heterogeneity of the volcaniclastic
sedimentary agglomerate were higher than those of the
volcaniclastic sedimentary breccia, and both of them were
characterized by small pore throat. The areas with a relaxa-
tion time less than 10 ms corresponded to dissolution pores;
while those with a relaxation time of 10e1000 ms corre-
sponded to intragranular vesicles, interparticle dissolution
pores, fractures or moldic pores. The reservoirs of the vol-
caniclastic sedimentary rocks were characterized by large
pores and small throats. At the burial depth of 2500e3000 m,
the volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate and breccia,
tuffite differed insignificantly in porosity; but at the burial
depth deeper than 3000 m, porosity of these three rock types
were quiet different.
197
(4) The formation mechanism of reservoirs of the volcaniclastic
sedimentary rocks mainly were release of volatile matters in
parent rocks, grain support, organic acid dissolution and
tectonism. Due to reservoirs primarily controlled by grain
support type, particle size and trachyandesite breccia con-
tent of pyroclasts, the release of volatile matters in parent
rocks and grain support were the main factors controlling
reservoirs. High-quality reservoirs were distributed in the
areas with the volcaniclastic sedimentary agglomerate, high
content of agglomerate/breccia containing intragranular
vesicles, and horizontally in the central part of fan body of
the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by National Key Basic Research Pro-
gram of China (973 Program) (No. 2012CB822002), National Nat-
ural Science Foundation of China (No. 41472304), and Outstanding
Young Teachers Training Program of Jilin University.
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