COMPUTER

NETWORKS
NETWORK
FUNDAMENTALS
WHAT IS A NETWORK?
• A computer network is a group of computer systems and
other computing hardware devices that are linked
together through communication channels to facilitate
communication and resource-sharing among a wide
range of users.
• There are different types of computers.
• These include …
LAN - Local Area Network
• Covers a small geographical area; usually confined to one
building/site. Uses wired communications protocols like
Ethernet and extended with radio waves.
• Users connect to this network using client computers or
workstations
• Servers are used to provide services such as file storage,
sharing of hardware, providing security and such others
VLAN – Virtual Local Area Network
• This connects geographically separated computers or LANs
into one virtual network
• A VLAN allows a network of computers and users to
communicate in a simulated environment as if they exist in a
single LAN
VLAN – Virtual Local Area Network
WAN – Wide Area Network
• It covers a very large geographical area like multiple
cities or countries.
• A WAN is made of LANs connected together.
• A typical example of a WAN is the internet.
• WANs can also be used to connect the various offices of
a business in multiple cities.
 WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network
• This is a local area network
where the devices are
connected wirelessly.
• A WLAN typically extends an
existing wired local area
network.
• WLANs are built by attaching
a device called the access
point (AP) to the edge of the
wired network.
• Mobile devices that have
WLAN(WiFi) adapters are able
to connect to these networks
SAN – Storage Area Network
• A storage area network is a type of local area network (or sub
network) that is designed to handle large data transfers.
• A SAN typically supports data storage, retrieval and replication on
business networks.
• It does this using high-end servers, multiple disk arrays and Fibre
Channel interconnection technology.
 PAN – Personal Area Network
• This is created when a mobile device is connected to a computer.
• PANs typically involve a mobile computer, a cell phone or PDA.
• Data transferred on PANs include email, calendar appointments, etc
• Personal area networks can be constructed with cables (using USB
or FireWire) or be wireless (using Bluetooth or infrared).
• PANs generally cover a range of less than 10 meters (about 30 feet).
 VPN – Virtual Private Network
• A VPN utilizes public telecommunications networks such as the
internet to conduct private data communications.
• Most VPN implementations use the Internet as the public
infrastructure and a variety of specialized protocols
(tunnelling) to support private communications through the
Internet.
• A VPN is essentially an intranet that is mapped onto the Internet
or some network but not accessible by the general public.
 P2P – Peer to Peer network
• On a P2P network, all the computers have the same status and
also there is no central server.
• This direct connection allows each device to share files without
requiring the assistance of a remote server.
• The device that supplies the file plays the role of the server and
the device that requests the file plays the role of the client.
• The roles simply reverse when necessary.
Types of networks
 What are standards?
• A standard is a definition or format that has been
approved by a recognized standards organization or is
accepted by the related industry.
• Standards exist for programming languages, operating
systems, data formats, communications protocols, and
electrical interfaces.
• Bodies that set up standards include
o ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
o ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
o IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
o ISO (International Standards Organization)
o VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association)
o Standards may be accepted if a large group of
stakeholders use them
 Importance of computer standards
1. Interoperability: This is the ability of software and
hardware on different machines from different vendors
to share data.
• It makes it easy for manufacturers to produce devices that are
compatible with each other.
2. The use of standards reduces the risks attached with
using certain technology as it has to pass some tests
before being approved or endorsed by a large group of
experts.
THE OSI MODEL
Describe how communication over networks is broken
down into different layers.
VPN
VPN TECHNOLOGIES / PROTOCOLS
• Tunnelling protocols
Allows the data to be encapsulated/hidden whilst travelling
across the an insecure network e.g. internet
• Encryption protocols
Ensure the security of the data i.e. if hacked it will not be
understandable
• The use of gateways
This is used for authentication purposes to allow remote
connection to the VPN servers
FEATURES OF A VPN
Authentication
Legitimate users are required to provided valid login credentials
before accessing the VPN. This is accomplished through the
presence of a Gateway. The gateway ensures an attacker
cannot weaken the security of the VPN
Encryption
This changes data from plain text to cipher text to ensure
intercepted data will not be readable: encryption ensures data
security. Popular encryption protocols are IPsec (IP Security) ,
TLS (Transport Layer Security) or SSL (Secure Socket
Layer)
FEATURES OF A VPN
Tunnelling
Software is used to encapsulate the data packets to ensure privacy.
This creates a secure pathway through the public internet. Tunneling
protocols include IPsec, Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
(PPTP) and Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (LTTP)
Multiple exit nodes
The IP address used to access a resources can vary each time for a
user. This makes it hard to get the source of the requests and so
makes the VPN more secure or protects the user from attacks e.g.
phishing is less likely.
Source IP Masking/Hiding
Connecting to a VPN server hides the IP address of the user as
resources are accessed from the internet with the VPN server-
assigned IP address. This adds a layer of privacy.
Types of VPN - Site to Site VPN:
• This is the type of VPN where offices in different locations are
securely connected over a public network such as the internet.
• Encapsulation, encryption is done by the VPN and sent to recipient
over the internet through tunnelling.
• The recipient VPN then strips the headers, decrypts the content
and relays the packet towards the target host inside the private
network.
Types of VPN - Remote access VPN
• In a Remote-access VPN, clients, such as telecommuters, mobile
users, and extranet consumers, are able to access a company network
securely over the Internet.
• Each host and client typically have VPN client software loaded or uses
a web-based client.
• This software encapsulates and encrypts the information before
sending it over the internet to the VPN gateway at the edge of the
target network.
• On receiving the packet the VPN gateway strips the headers, decrypts
the content and relays the packet towards the target host inside the
private network.
DATA TRANSMISSION
Definitions
Protocol:
• A protocol defines the format and the order of messages
exchanged between two or more communicating entities,
as well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or
receipt of a message or other event.

Data:
• Data is anything in a form suitable for use with a
computer, such as binary. It’s information that has been
translated into a form that is more convenient to move or
process.
Definitions
Packet
• A packet is a collection of data that can be used by
computers which need to communicate with each other,
usually as part of a network.
• Each message sent between two network devices is
often divided into packets by the hardware and software.
• Packet formats generally include a header which lists the
destination of the packet and often indicates the length of
the message data; the body containing the message data
and sometimes a footer which contains data that signifies
the end of the packet.
 What are protocols?
• Network protocols are sets of rules computers follow
when communicating across a network.
• The exchange often begins with the client sending a
signal to the server, providing key information about what
kind of data he is requesting.
• Without them, no information can be transmitted as
computers don't know how to interpret the signals coming
through the network.
 Why are protocols important?
They are useful for enforcing flow control
• Flow control is the process of adjusting the flow of data
from one device to another to ensure that the receiving
device can handle all of the incoming data.
• This is particularly important where the sending device is
capable of sending data much faster than the receiving
device can receive it.
• Protocols are used to control the flow of the data.
• Signals are sent when receiving device cannot receive
data prompting the sending device stop sending data.
• When receiving device is ready to receive data, it then
sends a signal to the sending device to start sending data
again
 Why are protocols important?
Checking data integrity
• Refers to the validity of data.
• Protocols are used to check the validity of data that has
been transmitted over a network
• Information in the header and footer of data packets are
used to validate data that has been transmitted.
Error detection
• Error detection refers to a class of techniques for
detecting garbled messages.
• Two of the simplest and most common techniques are
called checksum and CRC.
• Protocols employ such techniques to check errors in
transmitted data.
 Why are protocols important?
Preventing deadlocks
• A deadlock is a situation in which two computer programs
sharing the same resource are effectively preventing
each other from accessing the resource, resulting in both
programs ceasing to function.
• Protocols are used to prevent conditions that might
create deadlocks
• These protocols also do not grant resource request if it
might lead to a deadlock
• The protocols are also used to check for the presence of
deadlock and then recover from it.
 Why are protocols important?
Preventing congestion
• Congestion is a state occurring in part of a network when
the message traffic is so heavy that it slows down
network response time.
• Protocols are used to detect and avoid congestion from
occurring on a network
Why network speeds vary
• Bandwidth: The maximum theoretical data transmission
speed that your network provider has allocated you. Eg You
can get more internet bandwidth by paying your ISP more.
Most LANs today run at 100Mbps or 1Gbps, depending on the
available network hardware.
• Transmission medium: Copper wire, fibre optic cable,
wireless, satellite, all have different maximum speeds.
• Network traffic: This is a measure of how much data is being
sent on the network. Networks can get congested just like
roads. Malware and viruses can make unauthorised
connections to other hosts and thereby increase network
traffic. A denial-of-service (DoS) attack is deliberately designed
to overload a portion of a network to stop it from functioning
properly.
• Interference and Errors: Errors in transmitted data means
retransmission that ultimately reduces network speed.
Data compression
• Compression is the reduction in size of data in order to
save space or transmission time.
• Compression can be performed on just data content or
on the entire transmission unit (including header data)
depending on a number of factors.
• Content compression can be as simple as removing all
extra space characters, inserting a single repeat
character to indicate a string of repeated characters, and
substituting smaller bit strings for frequently occurring
characters.
• This kind of compression can reduce a text file to 50% of
its original size.
Data compression
• Compression is performed by a program that uses a
formula or algorithm to determine how to compress or
decompress data.
• Graphic image file formats are usually designed to
compress information as much as possible (since these
can tend to become very large files).
• Compression can be either lossy (some information is
permanently lost) or lossless (all information can be
restored).
Why is data compression used on a network?
• Data compression is used to transmit data
because:
• the transmission of the data consumes less
bandwidth
• the transmission time is reduced
• the data occupies less storage space on servers /
receiving device.
• it can be used to secure data as some compressed
data is meaningless unless decompressed by
entering a key to unlock the compressed files.
Transmission media Types
 Transmission media - Fibre Optics
• An optical fibre is a thin, flexible medium which conducts
quick pulses of light which each represent one bit.
• Fibre optic cables can achieve a bandwidth of more than
2GHz
• It is not affected by electromagnetic interference, making
it the preferred choice of long-haul transmission media.
• They are expensive than other transmission media like
coaxial cables and twisted pair.
• They also are very secured.
 Transmission media – Metal conductors
Coaxial cable
• Used for cable television, LANs, telephony
• Has an inner conductor surrounded by a braided mesh
• Both conductors share a common center axial, hence the
term “co-axial”
• Less secured as it can be tapped easily
• Much less susceptible to interference than twisted pair
• It is relatively cheap as compared to fibre-optic and
expensive compared to twisted pair
• It has a bandwidth of about 1GHz
 Transmission media – Metal conductors
Twisted Pair
• Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular
spiral pattern to minimize the electromagnetic interference
between adjacent pairs
• Often used at customer facilities and also over distances to
carry voice as well as data communications
• It is the cheapest of transmission media and readily available
• It is highly susceptibility to interference and noise resulting in it
needing a lot of repeaters
• It is also very insecure
• It has bandwidth around 300MHz
Comparison of Guided media
Medium Cost Speed Interference Security

Not Susceptible to
Fibre Optics High 5 –100 Gbps EMI Very secure

Less Susceptible
Coaxial cable low 10 -100 Mbps Medium
to EMI

Twisted Pair medium 100Mbps–1Gbps Susceptible to EMI Medium

 Transmission media - Wireless
• This is usually referred to as unguided transmission
medium.
• It normally travels through air, water or a vacuum.
• Sending and receiving of signals are done by antennas.
• There are various forms of unguided transmission media
including
• terrestrial microwave
• satellite microwave
• broadcast radio
• infrared
 Comparison of wireless media
Medium Cost Speed Interference Security

Radio Medium 1-10M High Low

Microwave High 1M–10G High Medium

Satellite High 1 M–10G High Medium

Cellular High 9.6–19.2K Medium Low

Terrestrial Microwave
• used for long-distance telephone service
• uses radio frequency spectrum, from 2 to 40 Ghz
• parabolic dish transmitter, mounted high
• used by common carriers as well as private
networks
• requires unobstructed line of sight between
source and receiver
• curvature of the earth requires stations
(repeaters) ~30 miles apart
Satellite Microwave

Applications
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks
Disadvantages
• line of sight requirement
• expensive towers and repeaters
• subject to interference such as passing airplanes and
rain
Satellite Microwave Transmission
• a microwave relay station in space
• can relay signals over long distances
• geostationary satellites
• remain above the equator at a height of 22,300 miles
(geosynchronous orbit)
• travel around the earth in exactly the time the earth takes
to rotate
Transmission Links
• earth stations communicate by sending signals to the
satellite on an uplink
• the satellite then repeats those signals on a downlink
• the broadcast nature of the downlink makes it attractive
for services such as the distribution of television
programming
 Satellite Transmission Process

satellite
transponder

dish
22,300 miles
dish

uplink station downlink station

Satellite Transmission Applications
• television distribution
• a network provides programming from a central location
• direct broadcast satellite (DBS)

• long-distance telephone transmission

• high-usage international trunks

• private business networks

Principal Satellite Transmission Bands
• C band: 4(downlink) - 6(uplink) GHz
• the first to be designated

• Ku band: 12(downlink) -14(uplink) GHz

• rain interference is the major problem

• Ka band: 19(downlink) - 29(uplink) GHz

• equipment needed to use the band is still very expensive
Fiber vs Satellite
Radio
• radio is omnidirectional and microwave is directional
• Radio is a general term often used to encompass
frequencies in the range 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
• Mobile telephony occupies several frequency bands just
under 1 GHz.
Infrared
• Uses transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate
non-coherent infrared light.
• Transceivers must be within line of sight of each other
(directly or via reflection ).
• Unlike microwaves, infrared does not penetrate walls.
 Packet Switching
• In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into
small data packets.
• Each packet contains a header. This contains the address
of the destination node as well as a sequence for
reassembly at the destination computer so that the
packets are put back into the correct order. It also
contains the details of how many packets should be
arriving so that the recipient computer knows if one
packet has failed to turn up.
• The packets are sent out from the computer and they
travel around the network seeking out the most efficient
route to travel as circuits become available
 Packet Switching
• This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the
shortest route.
• Each packet may go a different route from the others.
• If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer sends a
message back to the computer which originally sent the
data, asking for the missing packet to be resent.
Advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks
Advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks
Hardware and software of wireless networks
Hardware and software of wireless networks
Characteristics of wireless networks
Characteristics of wireless networks
Characteristics of wireless networks
Characteristics of wireless networks
Characteristics of wireless networks
Characteristics of wireless networks

LTE - a 4G mobile communications standard.

o Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a standard for high-speed

wireless communication for mobile phones and data terminals.

o Users of the LTE network should see data speeds that are up to
10 times faster than the current 3G network
Characteristics of wireless networks
NETWORK SECURITY
• Use of User ID and passwords
• Using firewalls
• Physical security
• MAC ID filtering
• Static IP addressing
• SSID hiding (network cloaking)
• Layer 2 and 3 Encryption
• WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
• WPA (WiFi Protected Access) – WPA1 & WPA2
• End-to-end Encryption using SSL at the
application layer