NL3 - Building Diagnosis - Testing

Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Diagnosis and Testing
BUILDING DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING
Inspection of Concrete Defects

Initial Survey (normally limited to areas reached from the ground)
➢ visual inspection
➢ testing thickness of cover, reinforcement position, concrete strength by simple instrument using non-
destructive methods
➢ breaking off small concrete and then test the freshly exposed area by indicator solution to check
depth of carbonation
➢ collect dust sample by drilling small holes on concrete or collect concrete samples for testing
chloride content
More Detailed Survey (usually require access equipment)

➢ mapping the half-cell potential of the concrete
➢ measuring the surface water absorption of the concrete
➢ use ultrasonic pulse velocity technique to locate areas of delamination monitoring the changes in the
crack movement
➢ monitoring the changes in the crack movement
➢ measuring the electrical resistivity of the concrete to evaluate the corrosion environment
➢ testing the concrete core sample in order to determine its strength, permeability, contamination ,
composition and density
➢ measuring the deflection of structural members under known applied loads
Basic equipment to carry out initial survey includes:

1. drawings showing the structure of the building
2. camera – with zooming function; binoculars
3. steel ruler
4. magnifying lens
5. measurement tape
6. level sprit, plumb line
7. hand tools: hammer, chisel, etc.
8. power drill, collecting bags (to collect dust sample)
9. indicator solution e.g. phenolphthalein spray
10. torch
Specialised Equipment (All equipment needs to be CALIBRATED regularly in order to guarantee

they are accurate and reliable)
1. covermeter – to estimate thickness of concrete cover
2. rebound hammer – to measure concrete strength
3. low range voltmeter and half cell – to measure electrode potentials
4. resistively meter – to measure electrical resistance of concrete
5. ultrasonic pulse-velocity apparatus – for locating voids and delamination
6. mechanical strain gauge – for measuring crack movement
7. boring machine – to core out concrete sample for testing
8. others include thermography equipment (infra-red camera), impulse radar equipment, etc.
Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 1 of 18


Tests of Concrete
1. Tapping Test (Sounding the Concrete surface) – to test concrete spalling or tiles debonding
➢ by tapping the concrete surface with bare hand or a hammer, we can detect where the concrete/tile had
detached or delaminated – Hammer Tapping Test
➢ can only detect more serious delaminated concrete but the fresh detachment may not be discovered
➢ floor slabs can be tested by dragging a rod over it – delaminated area will give a different sound
➢ accessibility cost – ladder, scaffold, temporary platform
2.Test for Carbonation

➢ carbonation process reduce the alkalinity of the concrete
➢ simple test of alkalinity indicates level of carbonation
➢ test by spraying the concrete surface with the chemical indicator solution – phenolphthalein dissolved
in dilute alcohol
➢ the concrete surface tested must be freshly broken Co2 in air affects the accuracy
➢ chemical indicator will turn pink if the concrete is alkaline enough (pH>8.6) but remain colourless if
the concrete is no longer alkaline enough to protect the steel
➢ note that concrete which is contaminated with chlorides may fail to protect the reinforcement even if
no alkalinity has been lost through carbonation. Therefore, if reinforcement corrosion happens even if
the test shows that the concrete is still strongly alkaline then it is likely that chloride attack exists
3. Test for Chloride Content

➢ Concrete samples have to be collected on site, either by breaking off pieces of fresh concrete or by
drilling holes in the concrete and collect the concrete dust produced
➢ in order to determine the chloride content at different depth, samples of dust should be collected
separately at various depth
➢ site test on concrete powder – Quantab strips (indicative results, not very accurate)
❖ small plastic strip to be put into a solution of concrete powder
❖ will change colour to indicate the amount of chloride the length of white column formed = chloride contetn
➢ more accurate laboratory test: the samples will be dissolved into acid first in order to remove the
cement, then the chloride content will be determined by titration method against silver nitrate
silver chloride
drilling machine/coring machine

4. Determining the Thickness of Concrete Cover

➢ presence of steel will affect the magnetic field
➢ when the electromagnetic probe is swept over the concrete surface, the maximum deflection of the
moving coil meter pointer indicates the location of the reinforcement
➢ the readings is affected by the bar size and the thickness of cover, i.e. a small bar near the surface can
give the same reading as a larger bar at greater depth
➢ this can be solved by calibrate the meter on site by locate the reinforcement and then drill to
determine its depth
Working principle:
The probe emits electromagnetic field,
induce eddy current in rebar. By detecting the changes
of readings to determine the LC & depth of rebars
5. Measurement and Monitoring of Movement

measure electrical resistance at terminals
➢ measurement can be made by a demountable strain gauge or a crack width gauge to measure or
monitor crack movement higher: tension; lower: compression
➢ measurements requiring very accurate result can make use of linear variable displacement transducers
(LVDTs) which will convert movements into electrical signals
➢ 3-point method (fixing 3 screws on the wall across the crack) can be fixed to monitor the crack
movement but need to take the readings manually (sometimes more than 3 screws are used)
➢ live cracks - cracks are still moving and should be repaired as movement joints
➢ stagnant cracks - cracks are steady and therefore can be grouted or covered up
➢ a simple method for testing of live crack is to use a tell-tale (glass or plastic)
➢ thermal movement cracks move with change in temperature and therefore by measuring the cracks
several times throughout the day can prove it
➢ similarly, moisture movement varies with rainfall and humidity
➢ cracks due to applied loads will move immediately when the applied load is changed e.g. traffic
➢ deflection (usually used to monitor beam or slab defletion) can be measured by ‘deflection dial gauge’
Left:
Demountable
Mechanical
Strain Gauge
Below: crack
width gauge

Tell-tale:
two plates overlap partially,
one is calibrated in mm
overlapping one is marked
with hairline cursor
as crack width opens/closes,
plate move relative to the other.
fixed by screw/adhesive
# 2 photos (above and below) showing that movement of the joints are being monitored
by fixed screws on the all across the cracks in order to monitor crack movement

6. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity – Test for Concrete Strength, Crack Depth, Pile Integrity
➢ base on the principle that the velocity of wave propagation depends on (1) the modulus of elasticity of
the material; (2) density of the material pulse transmission
➢ the result gives an indirect measure of strength of the concrete, though not very accurate and normally
used as an indicative figure
➢ time of travel for an ultrasonic wave to pass through the concrete is measured
➢ the velocity can then be measured by dividing the travel distance by the transit time
➢ the higher the pulse velocity, the higher will be the compressive strength

increase transit time
➢ can also be used to find voids and internal cracks inside concrete because the air gap greatly increases
the transmission time
➢ 3 measuring methods:
o direct method is more accurate and should be adopted whenever circumstances permit
o semi-direct method and indirect method are less sensitive and the working distance between the
transmitter and the receiver is limited
➢ can also be used the check the crack depth
➢ used to check the consistency of concrete quality – any internal cracks or voids will heavily reduce
the transmission speed
➢ the technique is also applied to check the pile integrity where hollow pipes are left in the bored piles
for the travel of transmitter and receiver; delayed transmission time indicates that concrete quality
may be defective
➢ other factors affecting the velocity are age, curing conditions, moisture content

Above: sketch showing the use of ultrasonic pulse velocity technique to test the integrity of in-situ concrete pile
7. Concrete Core Samples (Coring Test)

➢ the only way to get more accurate information of the concrete is by cutting core sample directly from
the structure, but is a destructive test
➢ cylindrical concrete core is cut using a hollow drill barrel where the cutting edge of the barrel may be
tipped with industrial diamonds and is usually cooled by water
➢ the drill may be powered by electricity, petrol or by pneumatic means
➢ should use the cover-meter to check the location of reinforcement before cutting so as to avoid cutting
it because the presence of reinforcement in the core will affect the crushing strength
➢ normal sizes are 150mm or 100mm diameter
Above: concrete coring machine Above: concrete core samples

➢ each core samples must be clearly marked with the location, wrapped by film and sealed in air-tight
plastic bag so that they reach the laboratory in an uncontaminated condition
➢ information provided from the concrete core includes concrete strength (compressive and tensile
strength), density, permeability, modulus of elasticity, cement content, cement type, chloride content,
water-cement ratio, aggregate type and grading
➢ however, this testing method takes longer time to obtain the result, more expensive and it is an
destructive test
8. Surface Hardness Test (Rebound Hammer Test) Surface Hardness

➢ the measurement is taken by the rebound hammer (also known as Schmidt hammer)
➢ the hammer is a spring-loaded impacting device that incorporates a scale to measure the magnitude of
the rebound of the concrete following the impact
➢ the positioning of the hammer will affect the reading (on wall, slab soffit or floor)
➢ users need to check the graph (usually attached to the hammer) for the strength according to the
positioning of the hammer prevent errors due to angle of incidence
➢ the hammer must be applied perpendicular to the concrete surface
➢ the reading also gives an indicative figure of the concrete strength, but limited to the surface layer
➢ if the surface layer is carbonated, the hardness of the concrete will increase and thus gives higher
reading low strength & stiffness concrete absorbs more impact energy to generate a lower rebound value
➢ the surface finish will affect the measurement and therefore all the plaster, tile, paint, etc. should be
removed and the concrete surface need to be polished or grinded in order to get a flat surface
➢ moisture content will also affect the reading and its effect can be reduced by soaking or damping the
test area before testing, say for 24 hours
➢ the reading is sensitive to the presence of aggregate and voids immediately under the testing area
➢ therefore, 10 readings should be taken from each unit test area (e.g. 150mm x 150mm) with no two
testing points closer together than 25mm
➢ the average of the 10 readings will be taken as the correct reading unless there are some readings
which deviate significantly from the other readings (these readings should be discarded)
➢ main advantages: fast result, low cost, easy to use, can be used in all direction

9. Measuring Water Absorption and Permeability (ISAT Test)

➢ to determine the permeability of concrete easily
➢ higher permeability implies that contaminants (in gases or liquid forms) can attack the concrete more
readily absorption
➢ ISAT (Initial Surface Absorption Test) - it measures the rate of water movement per unit area into a
at
concrete surface subjected to a constant applied pressure, but limited to measure horizontal surface
➢ reading is affected by moisture content of concrete therefore the test is more meaningful for
measuring internal surfaces of building
➢ permeability can be measured in the laboratory on slices cut from concrete core samples
➢ limitation – testing surface must be laid horizontally
➢ simulated model can also be used – by using air instead of water (suction air pump is used to create a
vacuum on concrete surface with air pressure monitored; the faster the increase in pressure indicates
high concrete permeability) – this method can be used to test vertical surface
Initial Surface Absorption Test (ISAT)
10. Half-Cell Potential Measurement to test probabiltiy of corrosion

➢ also known as the electrode-potential survey
compare the difference of electrical potential between 2 cells
➢ the electrical potential of steel which is protected by the very thin oxide layer (the oxide is formed
under strong alkaline condition) is different from the electrical potential of steel which is in a
condition where it can rust
➢ the half-cell is usually a copper/copper sulphate or silver/silver nitrate (or silver/silver chloride) cell
and the other half-cell is the reinforcement and the concrete
➢ a hole will be drilled on the concrete surface to expose the reinforcement so that a wire is connected
to it (minor destructive test)
➢ the concrete need to be moistened in order to have good electrical contact
Row of Half-Cells for Speedy Measurement
➢ mark grid lines on concrete surface and take readings at the grid junctions

only indicate the presence of corrosion
➢ by moving the probe along the concrete surface and taking readings at various locations, equi-
potential contour diagrams can be plotted which will indicate zones of varying degrees of corrosion
➢ however, the measurement does not show the rate of corrosion but only the existing condition
➢ to survey large areas, a number of half-cells may be mounted together to speed up the measurement
11. Moisture Meter identify damp areas & source of water leakage
➢ moisture meter based on a similar principle to detect
the surface moisture content of materials in order to
detect dampness or water leakage defects
➢ 2 pins are protruded from the meter so that direct
measurement can be made by pointing the 2 pins on
the materials to be tested
➢ can be used on timber, plaster, brick, concrete
➢ since ambient moisture content will affect the reading,
the reading can be used to measure and compare
relative dampness
12. Microwave Moisture Meter water leakage

➢ weak microwave energy is emitted through the material

energy is absorbed, less energy is reflected
➢ as the dielectric constant of water is higher than other materials, energy will be lost and the signal will
decrease (in direct proportion to the moisture content of the materials) higher moisture>lower signal
➢ the dielectric constant of water is 4-8 times greater than that of cement and aggregates
➢ signal will be picked up by detector and the microprocessor will then estimate the moisture content
13. Pull-Off Tests (Bond Test)

➢ test the bonding strength at the interface of 2 materials (e.g. tile bonded to concrete)
➢ measure the force required to extract a metal adhered on the surface (is used to measure the adhesion
bond strength between the finishes and the substrate e.g. plaster on concrete surface)
➢ will cause minor damage to the concrete and should be repaired immediately after testing
➢ reference bonding strength: >= 1.7 N/mm2 (very good); 0.7-1.7 N/mm2 (fair to good); < 0.7 N/mm2
(poor)
➢ 3 types of bond failure: 1) substrate failure; 2) bond failure (directly measured the bonding strength);
and 3) surface material failure
➢ For type (1) and type (3) failure: although the bonding strength is unknown we can deduce that the
bonding strength is higher than the reading → if the reading is higher than the required strength it
passes the test
➢ if failure happens at the gluing area, use a stronger glue and re-do it again
Tapping test for debonding

tapped by tapping hammer
if delaminated
> hollow sound

14. Infra-Red Thermographic Survey

➢ measure the surface temperature variations of the concrete under test
➢ equipment: scanning camera and TV type monitor
➢ can be used to detect the following defects:
➢ debonding of rendering and tile works
➢ delaminated concrete, e.g. caused due to reinforcement corrosion spalling concrete
➢ roof leakage
➢ energy loss surveys, i.e. to detect areas of maximum heat loss
➢ e.g. when sunlight heat up the external wall, debond render/tile or delaminated concrete will be at a
higher temperature than the surrounding areas because air is trapped behind it. Therefore, hot ‘zone’
or hot ‘spot’ can be identified with the scanning camera (working principle)
➢ conversely during the cool-down stage, the debonding areas will be the cold ‘spot’
➢ advantages:
➢ non-destructive
➢ large areas can be tested in short period of time
➢ can test areas where access is difficult
➢ limitations:
➢ affected by weather – rain, sunlight, wind
➢ equipment is very expensive (cheaper infra-red cameras are available but at lower resolution and
therefore less accurate)
➢ may be obstructed, e.g. building services, advertisement signage
➢ may have interference e.g. heat source behind concrete like cooking
➢ emissivity of surface finish will affect the result (colour, texture of surface finish)
➢ tilting angle should less than 60 degree from the horizontal

15. Impulse Radar Technique

➢ can be used to search for location of reinforcement or cracks
➢ searching depth is much deeper than covermeter
➢ pulses of electromagnetic wave (microwave band) are sent by transmitter
➢ reflected signal received by receiving antenna

➢ reinforcement or other embedded materials will reflect the EM pulse underground utilities
➢ an interface between two materials will also reflect the EM pulse, e.g. voids, cracks
➢ concrete of different water content will give different signals and therefore can also be used to detect
moisture in concrete emit stronger EMP
➢ Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey can be used to detect underground utilities and services
before excavation so as to prevent accidental damage

16. Impact Echo Test

➢ used to detect voids, honeycomb and other
flaws inside concrete
➢ a pulse is sent by impacting the concrete
surface
➢ the pulse will be reflected (echo) at external
boundaries or at defects
➢ reflection pulse or echo is detected by
receiver or transducer
➢ echo signal received will be converted into
frequency spectrum and then be analyzed by
computer for the probability and depth of
defects
Non-Destructive Test (NDT)

➢ techniques used to inspect or observe materials or construction elements without causing alternation,
damage or destruction to the fabric of the building
➢ usually incur lower cost (but may need high capital cost to acquire specialize equipment) minimal
disturbance and nuisance against the occupiers
Summary of Tests
A) Strength of Concrete
Speed of Damage (Destructive Representative- Reliability of
Test Method Cost Test or NDT) ness Result
Cores High Slow Destructive Moderate Very Good
Penetration Moderate Fast Minor-destructive Near Surface Moderate
Resistance Only
Pull-Out Test Moderate Fast Minor-destructive Near Surface Moderate
Only
Rebound Very Low Fast NDT Surface Only Test quality of
Hammer cover concrete
Ultrasonics Low Fast NDT Good Moderate
B) Other Tests
Speed of Damage (Destructive Representative- Reliability of
Test Method Cost Test or NDT) ness Result
Alkalinity / Minimum Immediate NDT Limited to test area Good ( must test
Carbonation on fresh exposed
Depth surface)
Cover Meter Negligible Immediate NDT Limited to test area Good
Chloride Minimum Immediate Minor-destructive Limited to test area Moderate
Content Test Laboratory Test
(‘Quantab’ Strip more accurate
Test)
Selection Criteria of Test Methods

1. Availability and reliability of calibrations
2. Effects and acceptability of surface damage
3. Practical limitations
❖ member size and type
❖ surface condition
❖ depth of test zone required
❖ location of reinforcement
❖ accessibility
4. Degree of accuracy required
5. Budget available
6. Destructive or non-destructive tests
7. Disturbance to users/tenants
8. Safety

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management

BUILDING DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING

Inspection of Concrete Defects

More Detailed Survey (usually require access equipment)

Basic equipment to carry out initial survey includes:

Specialised Equipment (All equipment needs to be CALIBRATED regularly in order to guarantee

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 1 of 18

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 2 of 18

2.Test for Carbonation

3. Test for Chloride Content

drilling machine/coring machine

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 3 of 18

4. Determining the Thickness of Concrete Cover

5. Measurement and Monitoring of Movement

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 4 of 18

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 5 of 18

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 6 of 18

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 7 of 18

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 8 of 18

7. Concrete Core Samples (Coring Test)

Above: concrete coring machine Above: concrete core samples

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 9 of 18

8. Surface Hardness Test (Rebound Hammer Test) Surface Hardness

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 10 of 18

9. Measuring Water Absorption and Permeability (ISAT Test)

Initial Surface Absorption Test (ISAT)

10. Half-Cell Potential Measurement to test probabiltiy of corrosion

Row of Half-Cells for Speedy Measurement

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 12 of 18

12. Microwave Moisture Meter water leakage

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 13 of 18

13. Pull-Off Tests (Bond Test)

Tapping test for debonding

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 14 of 18

14. Infra-Red Thermographic Survey

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 15 of 18

15. Impulse Radar Technique

➢ reflected signal received by receiving antenna

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 16 of 18

16. Impact Echo Test

Non-Destructive Test (NDT)

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 17 of 18

Selection Criteria of Test Methods

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 18 of 18

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