CELLULAR RESPIRATION

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
the primary role is to release energy stored in glucose
molecules to produce ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
use oxygen gas to break glucose to produce ATP
mostly animals and photosynthetic organism

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
can yield ATP molecules without oxygen
mostly microbes
MITOCHONDRIA
“Powerhouse of the cell”
site of cellular respiration
STRUCTURE OF
MITOCHONDRIA
 Chemical reaction that Power
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
chemical reaction that involves the transfer of
energy in the form of electrons from glucose

OXIDATION occurs when molecule loss energy-rich electrons

occurs when a molecule gains energy by receiving
REDUCTION electrons
 Chemical reaction that Power
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
2. Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation

PHOSPHORYLATION
addition of Phosphate group to any molecule
DEPHOSPHORYLATION
removing of Phosphate group to any molecule
 Chemical reaction that Power
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
3. Enzyme Actions
specialized protein that speeds up chemical reaction

SUBSTRATE molecules that undergo reactions with enzymes.

it can undergo reaction if it fits in the active enzyme

Most enzymes will not be able to work if there are no cofactors (inorganic
substances) and coenzymes (vitamins or derivative vitamins) to help them
 GLYCOLYSIS

1. Phosphorylation of Glucose
This is the first step of the
preparatory phase where glucose is
activated by the involvement of the
enzyme called hexokinase and
converted into glucose 6 phosphate.
An ATP molecule is used during this
step as a phosphate donor.
Hexokinase requires Mg2+ to
catalyze the reaction.
 GLYCOLYSIS

2. Conversion of Glucose 6
Phosphate to Fructose 6 phosphate
Phosphohexose isomerizes (Phosphogulco
isomerase) catalyze the reaction in the
presence of Mg2+ which leads to reversible
isomerization of glucose 6 phosphates
(aldose) to fructose 6 phosphate (ketos).
This isomerization plays an important role
in completing the overall pathway of
glycolysis. The rearrangement of the
carbonyl and hydroxyl group at C1 and C2
is a crucial step to carry forward the
pathway further.
 GLYCOLYSIS

3. Phosphorylation of Fructose 6
phosphate
This step utilizes ATP as a phosphate donor
and by the help of the enzyme
phosphofructokinase – 1 (PFK-1) enzyme
(which catalyzes the reaction), one
phosphoryl group is transferred to fructose 6
phosphate and produces fructose 1,6 bis-
phosphate. This is an irreversible reaction
that occurs at the cellular level and it is also
considered as the first committed step
towards glycolysis as glucose 6 phosphate
and fructose 6 phosphate has other different
involvement while fructose 1, 6 bis-
phosphate is targeted only for glycolysis.
 GLYCOLYSIS

4. Cleavage of Fructose 1,6 bis-

phosphate

Here, fructose 1,6 bisphosphate is cleaved

and produces two different triose
phosphates such as glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate and dihydroxyacetone
phosphate. The aldol condensation reaction
is reversible and catalyzed by the enzyme
fructose 1,6 bis-phosphate aldolase
(commonly known as aldolase).
 GLYCOLYSIS

5. Interconversion of the Triose

phosphates

Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate, produced at

the previous step, goes through different
biochemical reactions of the pathway. While,
dihydroxyacetone phosphate, on the other
hand, rapidly and reversibly converted into
glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate by the
involvement of the enzyme triose phosphate
isomerize.
 GLYCOLYSIS

6. Oxidation of Glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate to 1,3, Bisphospho
glycerate

This is the first step of the payoff

phase. The reaction is catalyzed by
the enzyme glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate dehydrogenase. Along
with 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate,
NADH+ H+ is also produced during
this phase. NADH is also an energy
molecule.
 GLYCOLYSIS

7. Phosphoryl transfer form 1,3

bisphosphoglycerate to ADP

3 Phosphoglycerate is produced in
this step by the involvement of the
enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase.
The enzyme transfers the high
energy phosphoryl group from the
carbonyl group of 1,3
bisphosphoglycerate to ADP. It leads
to the formation of ATP.
 GLYCOLYSIS

8. Conversion of 3 phosphoglycerates to
2 phosphoglycerate

In this step, the phosphoryl group in 3

phosphoglycerates is shifted to the
C-2 position which yields 2
phosphoglycerates. The reaction is
catalyzed by the enzyme
phosphoglycerate mutase which
requires Mg2+ ion for its activity.
 GLYCOLYSIS

9. Dehydration of 2 phosphoglycerates
to Phosphoenolpyruvate

Phosphoenol pyruvate is produced

by 2 phosphoglycerates due to the
release of water molecules. The
reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme
enolase.
 GLYCOLYSIS

10. Transfer of the phosphoryl group

Pyruvate kinase catalyzes the last

reaction of glycolysis where the
phosphoryl group is released from
phosphoenolpyruvate and joins with
ADP and leads to the production of
ATP.
 KREB CYCLE /
GLYCOLYSIS
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
In prokaryotic cells, the citric acid
cycle occurs in the cytoplasm; in
eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle
takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondria.

The cycle was first elucidated by scientist

“Sir Hans Adolf Krebs” (1900 to 1981).
He shared the Nobel Prize for physiology
and Medicine in 1953 with Fritz Albert
Lipmann, the father of ATP cycle.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE

1. Formation of Citrate

The first reaction of the cycle is the

condensation of acetyl-
CoA with oxaloacetate to form citrate,
catalyzed by citrate synthase.

Once oxaloacetate is joined with acetyl-

CoA, a water molecule attacks the
acetyl leading to the release of
coenzyme A from the complex.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE

2. Formation of Isocitrate
The citrate is rearranged to form an
isomeric form, isocitrate by an
enzyme acontinase.
In this reaction, a water molecule is
removed from the citric acid and
then put back on in another location.
The overall effect of this conversion is
that the –OH group is moved from
the 3′ to the 4′ position on the
molecule. This transformation yields
the molecule isocitrate.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE
3. Oxidation of Isocitrate to α-
Ketoglutarate
In this step, isocitrate dehydrogenase
catalyzes oxidative decarboxylation
of isocitrate to form α-ketoglutarate.
In the reaction, generation of NADH
from NAD is seen. The enzyme isocitrate
dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation
of the –OH group at the 4′ position of
isocitrate to yield an intermediate which
then has a carbon dioxide molecule
removed from it to yield alpha-
ketoglutarate.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE
4. Oxidation of α-Ketoglutarate
to Succinyl-CoA
Alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized,
carbon dioxide is removed, and
coenzyme A is added to form the 4-
carbon compound succinyl-CoA.

During this oxidation, NAD+ is reduced

to NADH + H+. The enzyme that
catalyzes this reaction is alpha-
ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE
5. Conversion of Succinyl-CoA to
Succinate
CoA is removed from succinyl-
CoA to produce succinate.

The energy released is used to make

guanosine triphosphate (GTP) from
guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and Pi by
substrate-level phosphorylation. GTP can
then be used to make ATP. The
enzyme succinyl-CoA synthase catalyzes
this reaction of the citric acid cycle.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE
6. Oxidation of Succinate to
Fumarate

Succinate is oxidized to fumarate.

During this oxidation, FAD is reduced to

FADH2. The enzyme succinate
dehydrogenase catalyzes the removal of
two hydrogens from succinate.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE
7. Hydration of Fumarate to
Malate
The reversible hydration
of fumarate to L-malate is catalyzed
by fumarase (fumarate hydratase).

Fumarase continues the

rearrangement process by
adding Hydrogen and Oxygen back
into the substrate that had been
previously removed.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE
8. Oxidation of Malate to
Oxaloacetate

Malate is oxidized to
produce oxaloacetate, the starting
compound of the citric acid
cycle by malate dehydrogenase.
During this oxidation, NAD+ is
reduced to NADH + H+.
KREB CYCLE / CITRIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS
CYCLE

Total ATP = 12 ATP

•3 NAD+ = 9 ATP
•1 FAD = 2 ATP
•1 ATP = 1 ATP