CELL

RESPIRATION
BY LENNY ANN KATE REYES
CELLULAR RESPIRATION IS A PROCESS THAT
CONVERTS GLUCOSE INTO ENERGY WHERE
ALONG THE WAY OF THE ENTIRE PROCESS
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) IS
CAPTURED.
GLYCOLYSIS
THE FIRST STEP IN THE BREAKDOWN OF GLUCOSE TO EXTRACT
ENERGY FOR CELLULAR METABOLISM
THE WORD GLYCOLYSIS LITERALLY MEANS BREAKING DOWN OR
SPLITTING OF SUGAR MOLECULE
GLYCOLYSIS OCCURS N THE CYTOSOL OF THE PLANT AND DOESN’T
NEED THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN THUS IT IS ANAEROBIC
THE PROCESS HAS TEN STEPS ENDING UP WITH A PRODUCT OF TWO
PYRUVIC ACID
GLYCOLYSIS CONSISTS OF TEN STEPS DIVIDED INTO TWO DISTINCT
HALVES. THE FIRST HALF OF THE GLYCOLYSIS IS ALSO KNOWN AS
THE ENERGY-REQUIRING STEPS. THE SECOND HALF OF
GLYCOLYSIS IS ALSO KNOWN AS THE ENERGY-RELEASING STEPS
ENERGY-REQUIRING PHASE
ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE
 STEP 1
 A PHOSPHATE GROUP IS TRANSFERRED FROM ATP TO GLUCOSE,
MAKING GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE. GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE IS MORE
REACTIVE THAN GLUCOSE, AND THE ADDITION OF THE PHOSPHATE
ALSO TRAPS GLUCOSE INSIDE THE CELL SINCE GLUCOSE WITH A
PHOSPHATE CAN’T READILY CROSS THE MEMBRANE
 STEP 2
GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE IS CONVERTED INTO ITS ISOMER,
FRUCTOSE-6-PHOSPHATE
 STEP 3
A PHOSPHATE GROUP IS TRANSFERRED FROM ATP TO FRUCTOSE-6-
PHOSPHATE, PRODUCING FRUCTOSE-1,6-BISPHOSPHATE. THIS STEP IS
CATALYZED BY THE ENZYME PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE, WHICH CAN
BE REGULATED TO SPEED UP OR SLOW DOWN THE GLYCOLYSIS
PATHWAY
 STEP 4 
FRUCTOSE-1,6-BISPHOSPHATE SPLITS TO FORM TWO THREE-CARBON
SUGARS: DIHYDROXYACETONE PHOSPHATE (DHAP) AND
GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE. THEY ARE ISOMERS OF EACH
OTHER, BUT ONLY ONE—GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE—CAN
DIRECTLY CONTINUE THROUGH THE NEXT STEPS OF GLYCOLYSIS
 STEP 5
DHAP IS CONVERTED INTO GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE. THE
TWO MOLECULES EXIST IN EQUILIBRIUM, BUT THE EQUILIBRIUM IS
“PULLED” STRONGLY DOWNWARD, IN THE SCHEME OF THE DIAGRAM
ABOVE, AS GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE IS USED UP. THUS, ALL
OF THE DHAP IS EVENTUALLY CONVERTED
ENERGY-RELEASING PHASE
 STEP 6
TWO HALF REACTIONS OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY:
1) GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE (ONE OF THE THREE-CARBON SUGARS
FORMED IN THE INITIAL PHASE) IS OXIDIZED, AND 2) NAD+ IS REDUCED
TO NADH AND H+. THE OVERALL REACTION IS EXERGONIC, RELEASING
ENERGY THAT IS THEN USED TO PHOSPHORYLATE THE MOLECULE,
FORMING 1,3-BISPHOSPHOGLYCERATE
 STEP 7
 1,3-BISPHOSPHOGLYCERATE DONATES ONE OF ITS PHOSPHATE
GROUPS TO ADP MAKING A MOLECULE OF ATP AND TURNING INTO
3-PHOSPHOGLYCERATE IN THE PROCESS
 STEP 8
 3-PHOSPHOGLYCERATE IS CONVERTED INTO ITS ISOMER,
2-PHOSPHOGLYCERATE
 STEP 9
 2-PHOSPHOGLYCERATE LOSES A MOLECULE OF WATER, BECOMING
PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE (PEP). PEP IS AN UNSTABLE MOLECULE, POISED TO
LOSE ITS PHOSPHATE GROUP IN THE FINAL STEP OF GLYCOLYSIS
 STEP 10
PEP READILY DONATES ITS PHOSPHATE GROUP TO ADP MAKING A
SECOND MOLECULE OF ATP. AS IT LOSES ITS PHOSPHATE, PEP IS
CONVERTED PYRUVATE, THE END PRODUCT OF GLYCOLYSIS
 SUMMARY
GLUCOSE—A SIX-CARBON SUGAR—UNDERGOES A SERIES
OF CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.
IN THE END, IT GETS CONVERTED INTO TWO MOLECULES
OF PYRUVATE, A THREE-CARBON ORGANIC MOLECULE.
IN THESE REACTIONS, ATP IS MADE, AND NAD+ IS
CONVERTED TO NADH.
PYRUVATE OXIDATION
THE NEXT STEP IN CAPTURING THE REMAINING ENERGY IN
THE FORM
OF ATP
 PYRUVATE OXIDATION CAN ONLY HAPPEN IF OXYGEN IS
AVAILABLE
PYRUVATE IS PRODUCED BY GLYCOLYSIS IN THE
CYTOPLASM, BUT PYRUVATE OXIDATION TAKES PLACE IN
THE MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX (IN EUKARYOTES)
IN PROKARYOTES, IT HAPPENS IN THE CYTOPLASM
THIS PROCESS IS PREPARATION TO UNDERGO THE
NECESSARY REACTIONS TO ENTER THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE
 STEP 1
A CARBOXYL GROUP IS SNIPPED OFF OF PYRUVATE AND RELEASED AS A
MOLECULE OF CARBON DIOXIDE, LEAVING BEHIND A TWO-CARBON
MOLECULE
 STEP 2
THE TWO-CARBON MOLECULE FROM STEP 1 IS OXIDIZED, AND
THE ELECTRONS LOST IN THE OXIDATION ARE PICKED UP BY
NAD+ TO FORM NADH
 STEP 3
THE OXIDIZED TWO-CARBON MOLECULE—AN ACETYL GROUP,
HIGHLIGHTED IN GREEN—IS ATTACHED TO COENZYME A (COA), AN
ORGANIC MOLECULE DERIVED FROM VITAMIN B5, TO FORM ACETYL
COA. ACETYL COA IS SOMETIMES CALLED A CARRIER MOLECULE,
AND ITS JOB HERE IS TO CARRY THE ACETYL GROUP TO THE CITRIC
ACID CYCLE
 SUMMARY
EACH PYRUVATE FROM GLYCOLYSIS GOES INTO THE
MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX—THE INNERMOST COMPARTMENT
OF MITOCHONDRIA.
IT’S CONVERTED INTO A TWO-CARBON MOLECULE BOUND
TO COENZYME A, KNOWN AS ACETYL COA.
IN THE END, CARBON DIOXIDE IS RELEASED AND NADH IS
GENERATED
KREBS CYCLE
THE CENTRAL DRIVER OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 IT IS THE SECOND PATHWAY IN CELLULAR RESPIRATION
THE PROCESS IS ALSO KNOWN AS CITRIC ACID CYCLE AND
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID (TCA) CYCLE
THE CYCLE IS A CLOSED LOOP
THE PROCESS ALSO TAKES PLACE IN THE MITOCHONDRIA
THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE IS CONSIDERED AN AEROBIC
PATHWAY
 STEP 1
ACETYL COA COMBINES WITH OXALOACETATE IN A REACTION
CATALYZED BY CITRATE SYNTHASE. THIS REACTION ALSO TAKES A
WATER MOLECULE AS A REACTANT, AND IT RELEASES A SH-COA
MOLECULE AS A PRODUCT
 STEP 2
CITRATE IS CONVERTED INTO ISOCITRATE IN A REACTION
CATALYZED BY ACONITASE
 STEP 3
ISOCITRATE IS CONVERTED INTO Α-KETOGLUTARATE IN A
REACTION CATALYZED BY ISOCITRATE DEHYDROGENASE. AN
NAD+ MOLECULE IS REDUCED TO NADH + H+ IN THIS REACTION,
AND A CARBON DIOXIDE MOLECULE IS RELEASED AS A PRODUCT
 STEP 4
Α-KETOGLUTARATE IS CONVERTED TO SUCCINYL COA IN A REACTION CATALYZED
BY Α-KETOGLUTARATE DEHYDROGENASE. AN NAD+ MOLECULE IS REDUCED TO
NADH+ H+ IN THIS REACTION, WHICH ALSO TAKES A SH-COA MOLECULE AS
REACTANT. A CARBON DIOXIDE MOLECULE IS RELEASED AS A PRODUCT
 STEP 5
SUCCINYL COA IS CONVERTED TO SUCCINATE IN A REACTION CATALYZED BY THE
ENZYME SUCCINYL-COA SYNTHETASE. THIS REACTION CONVERTS INORGANIC
PHOSPHATE, PI, AND GDP TO GTP AND ALSO RELEASES A SH-COA GROUP
 STEP 6
SUCCINATE IS CONVERTED TO FUMARATE IN A REACTION CATALYZED BY
SUCCINATE DEHYDROGENASE. FAD IS REDUCED TO FADH2 IN THIS REACTION
 STEP 7
FUMARATE IS CONVERTED TO MALATE IN A REACTION CATALYZED BY THE ENZYME
FUMARASE. THIS REACTION REQUIRES A WATER MOLECULE AS A REACTANT
 STEP 8
MALATE IS CONVERTED TO OXALOACETATE IN A REACTION
CATALYZED BY MALATE DEHYDROGENASE. THIS REACTION
REDUCES AN NAD+ MOLECULE TO NADH+ H+
 SUMMARY
THE ACETYL COA MADE IN THE LAST STEP COMBINES WITH A
FOUR-CARBON MOLECULE
GOES THROUGH A CYCLE OF REACTIONS, ULTIMATELY
REGENERATING THE FOUR-CARBON STARTING MOLECULE
ATP, 3 MOLECULES OF NADH, AND FADH2​ARE PRODUCED
AND 2 MOLECULES OF CARBON DIOXIDE IS RELEASED
ELECTRON TRANSPORT
CHAIN
WHERE MOST ATP FROM GLUCOSE IS GENERATED
IT IS A SERIES OF PROTEINS & ORGANIC MOLECULES FOUND IN
THE INNER MEMBRANE OF THE MITOCHONDRIA
IT IS THE ONLY PART OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION THAT
DIRECTLY CONSUMES OXYGEN
IN EUKARYOTES IT TAKES PLACE IN THE INNER
MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE
IN PROKARYOTES THE PROCESS OCCURS IN THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
IT IS MADE UP OF 4 PROTEINS ALONG THE MEMBRANE AND A
PROTON PUMP
 COMPLEX I
IS COMPOSED OF FLAVIN MONONUCLEOTIDE (FMN) AND AN IRON-
SULFUR (FE-S) CONTAINING PROTEIN.
THE ENZYME IN COMPLEX I IS NADH DEHYDROGENASE AND IS A VERY
LARGE PROTEIN, CONTAINING 45 AMINO ACID CHAINS.
COMPLEX I CAN PUMP FOUR HYDROGEN IONS ACROSS THE
MEMBRANE FROM THE MATRIX INTO THE INTERMEMBRANE SPACE,
AND IT IS IN THIS WAY THAT THE HYDROGEN ION GRADIENT IS
ESTABLISHED AND MAINTAINED BETWEEN THE TWO COMPARTMENTS
SEPARATED BY THE INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE.
 Q AND COMPLEX II
IT DIRECTLY RECEIVES FADH2, WHICH DOES NOT PASS THROUGH
COMPLEX I.
THE Q MOLECULE IS A COMPOUND CONNECTING THE FIRST AND
SECOND COMPLEXES TO THE THIRD CALLED UBIQUINONE IT IS LIPID
SOLUBLE AND FREELY MOVES THROUGH THE HYDROPHOBIC CORE
OF THE MEMBRANE.
Q RECEIVES THE ELECTRONS DERIVED FROM NADH FROM COMPLEX
I AND THE ELECTRONS DERIVED FROM FADH2 FROM COMPLEX II,
INCLUDING SUCCINATE DEHYDROGENASE.
 COMPLEX III
IS COMPOSED OF CYTOCHROME B, RIESKE CENTER (2FE-2S
CENTER), AND CYTOCHROME C PROTEINS
THIS COMPLEX IS ALSO CALLED CYTOCHROME
OXIDOREDUCTASE
COMPLEX III PUMPS PROTONS THROUGH THE MEMBRANE
AND PASSES ITS ELECTRONS TO CYTOCHROME C FOR
TRANSPORT TO THE FOURTH COMPLEX OF PROTEINS AND
ENZYMES
 COMPLEX IV
IS COMPOSED OF CYTOCHROME PROTEINS C, A,
AND A3 AND CONTAINS TWO HEME GROUPS AND 3
COPPER IONS THE REMOVAL OF THE HYDROGEN
IONS FROM THE SYSTEM CONTRIBUTES TO THE ION
GRADIENT USED IN THE PROCESS OF
CHEMIOSMOSIS.
 CHEMIOSMOSIS
THE PROCESS IN WHICH ENERGY FROM A PROTON GRADIENT IS USED TO
MAKE ATP
IT CAN REFER TO ANY PROCESS IN WHICH ENERGY STORED IN A PROTON
GRADIENT IS USED TO DO WORK
IT IS ACCOUNTED FOR OVER 80% OF ATP MADE DURING GLUCOSE
BREAKDOWN IN CELLULAR RESPIRATION, IT’S NOT UNIQUE TO
CELLULAR RESPIRATION.
FOR INSTANCE, CHEMIOSMOSIS IS ALSO INVOLVED IN THE LIGHT
REACTIONS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
 IMPORTANT
FUNCTIONS
OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
 REGENERATES ELECTRON CARRIERS.
THE OXIDIZED FORMS OF THESE ELECTRON CARRIERS
ARE USED IN GLYCOLYSIS AND THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE
AND MUST BE AVAILABLE TO KEEP THESE PROCESSES
RUNNING
MAKES A PROTON GRADIENT
THIS GRADIENT REPRESENTS A STORED FORM OF ENERGY,
AND, AS WE’LL SEE, IT CAN BE USED TO MAKE ATP
 ATP YIELD
STAGE DIRECT PRODUCTS (NET) ULTIMATE ATP YIELD (NET)

GLYCOLYSIS
2 ATP 2 ATP

2 NADH 3-5 ATP

PYRUVATE OXIDATION
2 NADH 5 ATP

CITRIC ACID CYCLE

2 ATP/GTP 2 ATP
6 NADH 15 ATP
2 FADH2 3 ATP

TOTAL 30-32 ATP

 SUMMARY
THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN IS MADE UP OF 4 PROTEINS ALONG
THE MEMBRANE AND A PROTON PUMP
A COFACTOR SHUTTLES ELECTRONS BETWEEN PROTEINS I TO III
IF NAD IS DEPLETED, SKIP I: FADH2 STARTS ON II

IN CHEMIOSMOSIS, A PROTON PUMP TAKES HYDROGENS FROM INSIDE

MITOCHONDRIA TO THE OUTSIDE; THIS SPINS THE “MOTOR” AND THE
PHOSPHATE GROUPS ATTACH TO THAT. THE MOVEMENT CHANGES FROM
ADP TO ATP, CREATING 90% OF ATP OBTAINED FROM AEROBIC GLUCOSE
CATABOLISM