ASSIGNMENT NUMBER: 1

Question 1

Fatty acids long unbranched chains of either straight saturated, or cis unsaturated aliphatic
non polar hydrocarbons with a terminal polar carboxyl group (COOH).(Bettelheim, F.A et al,
2010)

Figure 1: a) saturated fatty acid b) Unsaturated fatty acid.

Question 2

Up to carbon 16 (C16) chains of fatty acids hydrocarbons, the pathway in the biosynthesis 0f
fatty acids occurs and is completed in the cytosol. Further addition of carbon atoms like in
the biosynthesis of stearic acid occurs on the cytosolic surface of smooth endoplasmic
rediculum(SER).

 Firstly, the acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), the product of glycolysis, and it is the
fundamental carbon source for fatty acids biosynthesis is transported from the inner
mitochondria matrix into the cytosol via the inner mitochondria membrane. For this
to happen, the acetyl CoA condenses with the oxaloacetate( a 4 carbon molecule
found in the mitochondrion matrix) to form citrate which is thentransported into the
cytosol where it is catalysed back to acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate by ATP-citrate
lyase.
Figure 2: The transportation of acetyl CoA from mitochondrion matrix into ctytosol.

 Second is the carboxylation of 0f acetyl CoA ( the carboxylic acid group is added to
acetyl CoA) to form malonyl CoA using HCO 3- .This reaction is catalysed by acetyl CoA
carboxylase and one molecule of ATP is generated. i.e.

 The next step is the formation of acety-acyl carrier protein (acetyl- ACP) and
malonyl-acyl carrier protein(malonyl-ACP) from acetyl CoA and malonyl CoA by the
enzymes acetyl transacylase and malonyl transacylase respectively.The acetyl carrier
protein, ACP, the protein molecule to which the growing chain of fatty acids is
bonded, picks up the acetyl group from the acetyl CoA to generate the acyl- ACP. The
reaction is catalysed by acety transacylase.i.e

The similar transformation happens with malonyl CoA where malonyl transacylase is the
catalysing enzyme. i.e
  The generation of acetyl- ACP and malonyl-ACP is subsequently followed by the
elongation cycle in which more carbon atoms are added in a series of multienzyme
catalysed transformations. This elongation happens in four stages and 2 molecules of
NADPH are used. The elongation happens in the following way:
 Condensation of acetyl-ACP with malonyl-ACP to form aceto acly-ACP and CO 2. This
reaction is catalysed by acyl malonyl- condensing enzyme.i.e

 Then the reduction of aceto acyl-ACP into D-3-hydroxyl-butyryl-ACP using NADPH as

a reductant by the catalysis of β-ketoacyl reductose i.e

 D-3-hydroxyl-butyryl-ACP is dehydrated to produce crotonyl-ACP. The reaction is

catalysed by 3-hydroxylacyl-ACP dehydratase.i.e

 Then lastly crotonyl-ACP is reduced by the second NADPH molecule to give butyryl-
ACP. The reaction is catalysed by Enoyl-ACP reductose.i.e

This series of transformations repeats itself until a 16-Carbon fatty acid (palmitic acid) is
biosynthesised in the cytosol. Further elongation occurs in the cytosolic surface of SER by
enzymes located there forming a 18-Carbon stearic acid. The malonyl CoA enzyme serves as
the additional 2-carbon donor.(Hames and Hooper(2005); Horton el.al(2012)).

QUESTION 3

The two sources of NADPH required for fatty acids synthesis are:
 1) The pentose phosphate pathway which occurs in the cytosol where glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase(cytosolic enzyme) catalyses an oxidation of glucose-6-
phosphate and NADP+ acts as the hydrogen acceptor andit is reduced to NADPH.
2) The citrate-malate shuttle between the mitochondria and the cytosol where the
oxaloacetate is converted to malate before crossing the inner mitochondria
membrane.

QUESTION 4

During their intravascular lifespan, mature erythrocytes require energy for a number of vital
cell functions. These include:

 Maintenance of glycolysis – a sequence of reactions that metabolises one molecule

of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate with the net production of two molecules
of ATP.
 Maintenance of electrolyte gradient between plasma and red cell cytoplasm through
the activity of ATP-driven membrane pumps.
 Maintenance of haemoglobins iron in its reduced ferrous state. And
 Preservation of membrane phospholipids asymmetry.

Because of the lack of nuclei and mitochondria (hence the biconcave shape), mature
erythrocytes are incapable of generating energy via the oxidative Krebs cycle (which is the
biochemical cycle in the second stage of cellular respiration that completes the metabolic
the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecule to CO 2). Instead, the erythrocytes depend on
the unaerobic conversion of glucose by the Embden-Meyerhof pathway (as shown on the
figure 3 below) for the generation of high energy phosphates. Oxygen transport would be
less efficient if erythrocytes were aerobic and would consume some of the oxygen they
carry.(Horton,2012)
Figure3: The Embden-Meyerhof pathway

Glucose enters the erythrocytes freely by facilitated diffusion and is broken down in this
unaerobic glycolytic pathway(Embden-Meyerhof pathway) in wkich a series of enzymatic
reactions convert glucose unaerobically to lactic acid resulting in energy in the form of ATP.

QUESTION 5

Molecular oxygen has two unpaired electrons in the outer p-orbital with parallel spins.

Figure 4: The orbital diagram depicting the electronic structure of molecular oxygen.

The parallel spine state prevents hydrocarbon based organisms such as human from
spontaneously igniting in the atmospheric oxygen. The parallel electron spins prevent
oxidation by two electron transfers. Oxidation by molecular oxygen can only occur by the
transfer of single electron. Organic molecules that serve as substrates for oxidation do not
contain unpaired electrons.(Lee, JD, 1996).

QUESTION 6

A)Triacyglycerol is the simplest lipid formed by 3 fatty acids ester linked to a single glycerol
backbone. There are simple and mixed triacyglycerols. Simple ones have have 3 identical
fatty acids esterified to the glycerol backbone, while mixed triacyglycerols have 2 more fatty
acid chain.

b) Types of cells and sites in those cells involved in the synthesis of triacyglycerols in the
adult human.

Types of cells Site in the cells

Intestinal cells In the enterocytes
Adipocytes White adipocytes
Liver cells Hepatocytes
c) Triacyglcerols are stored in the adipose tissue in humans.

QUESTION 7

The importance of phosphorylated monosaccharides such as glucose-6-phosphate (glucose

phosphorylared on the corbon 6) is that they provide energy for metabolic pathways such as
glycolysis by contributing to the formation of glyceroldehyde-3-phosphate- an important
intermediate in glycolysis. Again the phosphorylated monosaccharides can be stored as
glycogen when blood glucose levels are high. When the fall in the blood sugar level occurs,
the stored glucose-6-phosphate in the form of glycogen is converted back to glucose which
enters the blood stream again. The conversion is catalysed by hormone glucagon. Since
glucose enters the cells by simple diffusion across the membrane, the addition of bulky
polar group of phosphate prevents it from diffusing right back out.

QUESTION 8

a) PH= ‾log[H+]
[H+]=antilog (PH)
[H+]=10-PH
[H+]=10-7.4
[H+]=3.9X10-8M (In blood plasma)

b) [H+]=10-6.7
[H+]=6.3X10-7M (In human urine)

QUESTION 9

CH3COOH + C2H3O3ˉ↔ COOHˉ + H2O (a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate)

a) PH= pKa + log¿ ¿

(0.1)
=4.76 + log
(0.25)

=4.36.

b)PH= Pka+log(x), where x is the ration of lactate to lactic acid.

Logx=PH-PKa

X=10PH-PKa=101.14=13.80
BIBLOGRAPHY

Alan, D., Lieberman,M. and Smith,C. (2007) Essentials of Medical Biochemistry.2nd edition.
Lippincott William and Wilkins; Bonsten.pg 345.

Bettleheim,F.A., Brown, W.H., Campbell,M.K. and Farrell,S.O.,(2010) Introduction to

organic and Biochemistry 7th edition. Brookes/Cole; Belmont USA. Pg 298.

Hames, D. and Hooper, N. (2005) Instant notes in Biochemistry 3rd edition. Taylor and
Francis Group; New York. Pg 345-347.

Horton,H.R, Moran,L.A, Perry,D.M and Scrimgeour,K.G (2012). Principles of Biochemistry

5th edition, Pearson Publishers; New York pg 475-477.

Lee, JD. (1996). Concise Inorganic Chemistry 5th edition. Black Science ltd; Hong-Kong.