3/9/2021 Cell site - Wikipedia
Cell site
A cell site, cell tower, or cellular base station is a cellular-
enabled mobile device site where antennas and electronic Cell towers
communications equipment are placed—typically on a radio mast,
tower, or other raised structure—to create a cell (or adjacent cells) in
a cellular network. The raised structure typically supports antenna
and one or more sets of transmitter/receivers transceivers, digital
signal processors, control electronics, a GPS receiver for timing (for
CDMA2000/IS-95 or GSM systems), primary and backup electrical
power sources, and sheltering.[1]
In Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) networks, the
correct term is Base Transceiver Station (BTS), and colloquial
synonyms are "mobile phone mast" or "base station". Multiple
cellular providers often save money by mounting their antennas on a
common shared mast; since separate systems use different
frequencies, antennas can be located close together without
interfering with each other. Some provider companies operate
multiple cellular networks and similarly use colocated base stations A cell tower carrying antennas of
for two or more cellular networks, (CDMA2000 or GSM, for four cellular networks (separated
example). vertically on the supporting pole)
(Cellular Installation (AWS))
Some cities require that cell sites be inconspicuous; they can be
blended with the surrounding area[2] or mounted on buildings[3] or Type cellular telephone
advertising towers. Preserved treescapes can often hide cell towers site
inside an artificial or preserved tree. These installations are First 20th century
generally referred to as concealed cell sites or stealth cell sites. production
Contents
Overview
Operation
Range
Practical example of range
Channel reuse
Signal limiting factor
Geolocation
Radio power and health
Temporary sites
Employment
Spy agency setup
Off-grid systems
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Camouflage
Miniature
See also
References
External links
Overview
A cellular network is a network of handheld mobile phones (cell phones) in which each phone
communicates with the telephone network by radio waves through a local antenna at a cellular base
station (cell site). The coverage area in which service is provided is divided into a mosaic of small
geographical areas called "cells", each served by a separate low power multichannel transceiver and
antenna at a base station. All the cell phones within a cell communicate with the system through that
cell's antenna, on separate frequency channels assigned by the base station from a common pool of
frequencies used by the system.
The purpose of cellular organization is to conserve radio bandwidth by frequency reuse; the low power
radio signals used within each cell do not travel far beyond the cell, so the radio channels can be reused
in geographically separated cells. When a mobile user moves from one cell to another, their phone is
automatically "handed off" to the new cell's antenna, and assigned a new set of frequencies, and
subsequently communicates with this antenna. This background handoff process is imperceptible to the
user and can occur in the middle of a phone call without any service interruption. Each cell phone has an
automated full duplex digital transceiver and communicates with the cell antenna over two digital radio
channels in the UHF or microwave band, one for each direction of the bidirectional conversation, plus a
control channel which handles registering the phone with the network, dialing, and the handoff process.
Typically a cell tower is located at the edge of one or more cells and covers multiple cells using
directional antennas. A common geometry is to locate the cell site at the intersection of three adjacent
cells, with three antennas at 120° angles each covering one cell. The type of antenna used for cellular
base stations (vertical white rectangles in pictures), called a sector antenna, usually consists of a vertical
collinear array of dipoles. It has a flat fan-shaped radiation pattern, which is tilted slightly down to cover
the cell area without radiating at higher angles into further off cells which reuse the same frequencies.
The elevation angle of the antenna must be carefully adjusted, so the beam covers the entire cell without
radiating too far. In modern sector antennas beam tilt can usually be adjusted electronically, to avoid the
necessity of a lineman climbing the tower to mechanically tilt the antenna when adjustment is needed.
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Cell site atop a Cell tower of Elkhorn Cell Tower - Indoor Cell Site of
lookout tower Deutsche Telekom panoramio Deutsche Telekom
atop a building in in Germany
Karlsruhe, Germany
A short-mast cell Antennas atop a An antenna array A mobile phone
site atop a mountain concrete plant in atop an electricity tower in Kangaroo
in Wyoming, USA Germany pylon Point, Queensland,
painted to resemble
an Aboriginal talking
stick.
This 100 feet tall Cell site placed atop A standard A cell tower carrying
cross at Epiphany an existing building American cell tower antennas of two
Lutheran Church, in in Gainesville, cellular networks in
Lake Worth, Florida Virginia. Richmond Hill,
conceals equipment Ontario.
for T-Mobile US.
Operation
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Range
The working range of a cell site (the range which mobile devices connects reliably to the cell site) is not a
fixed figure. It will depend on a number of factors, including, but not limited to:
Height of antenna over surrounding terrain (Line-of-sight propagation).
The frequency of signal in use.
The transmitter's rated power.
The required uplink/downlink data rate of the subscriber's device[4]
The directional characteristics of the site antenna array.
Reflection and absorption of radio energy by buildings or vegetation.
It may also be limited by local geographical or regulatory factors and weather conditions.
In addition there are timing limitations in some technologies (e.g., even in free space, GSM would be
limited to 150 km, with 180 km being possible with special equipment)
Generally, in areas where there are enough cell sites to cover a wide area, the range of each one will be
set to:
Ensure there is enough overlap for "handover" to/from other sites (moving the signal for a mobile
device from one cell site to another, for those technologies that can handle it - e.g. making a GSM
phone call while in a car or train).
Ensure that the overlap area is not too large, to minimize interference problems with other sites.
In practice, cell sites are grouped in areas of high population density, with the most potential users. Cell
phone traffic through a single site is limited by the base station's capacity; there is a finite number of
calls or data traffic that a base station can handle at once. This capacity limitation is commonly the factor
that determines the spacing of cell mast sites. In suburban areas, masts are commonly spaced 1–2 miles
(2–3 km) apart and in dense urban areas, masts may be as close as ¼-½ mile (400–800 m) apart.[5]
The maximum range of a mast (where it is not limited by interference with other masts nearby) depends
on the same considerations. In any case the limiting factor is the ability of a low-powered personal cell
phone to transmit back to the mast. As a rough guide, based on a tall mast and flat terrain, it may be
possible to get between 50 and 70 km (30–45 miles). When the terrain is hilly, the maximum distance
can vary from as little as 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) due to encroachment of
intermediate objects into the wide center fresnel zone of the signal.[6] Depending on terrain and other
circumstances, a GSM Tower can replace between 2 and 50 miles (80 km) of cabling for fixed wireless
networks.[7] In addition, some technologies, such as GSM, have an additional absolute maximum range
of 35 kilometres (22 mi), which is imposed by technical limitations. CDMA and IDEN have no such limit
defined by timing.
Practical example of range
3G/4G/5G (FR1) Mobile base station tower: it is technically possible to cover up to 50 km-150 km.
(Macrocell)[8]
5G (FR2) Mobile base station: the distances between the 5G base-station is about 250–300 m, due
to the use of millimetre waves.[9]
Channel reuse
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The concept of "maximum" range is misleading in a cellular network. Cellular networks are designed to
support many conversations with a limited number of radio channels (slices of radio frequency spectrum
necessary to make one conversation) that are licensed to an operator of a cellular service. To overcome
this limitation, it is necessary to repeat and reuse the same channels at different locations. Just as a car
radio changes from one local station to a completely different local station with the same frequency when
traveling to another city, the same radio channel gets reused on a cell mast only a few miles away. To do
this, the signal of a cell mast is intentionally kept at low power and in many cases tilted downward to
limit its reach. This allows covering an area small enough not to have to support more conversations
than the available channels can carry. Due to the sectorized arrangement of antennas on a tower, it is
possible to vary the strength and angle for each sector depending on the coverage from other towers in
the area.
Signal limiting factor
A cellphone may not work at times because it is too far from a mast, or because the phone is in a location
where cell phone signals are attenuated by thick building walls, hills, or other structures. The signals do
not need a clear line of sight but greater radio interference will degrade or eliminate reception. When
many people try to use the cell mast at the same time, e.g. during a traffic jam or a sports event, then
there will be a signal on the phone display but it is blocked from starting a new connection. The other
limiting factor for cell phones is the ability to send a signal from its low powered battery to the cell site.
Some cellphones perform better than others under low power or low battery, typically due to the ability
to send a good signal from the phone to the mast.
The base station controller (a central computer that specializes in making phone connections) and the
intelligence of the cellphone keeps track of and allows the phone to switch from one mast to the next
during conversation. As the user moves towards a mast it picks the strongest signal and releases the mast
from which the signal has become weaker; that channel on that mast becomes available to another user.
Geolocation
Cellular geolocation is less precise than by GPS, but it is available to devices that do not have GPS
receivers and where the GPS is not available. The precision of this system varies and is highest where
advanced forward link methods are possible and is lowest where only a single cell site can be reached, in
which case the location is only known to be within the coverage of that site.
An advanced forward link is where a device is within range of at least three cell sites and where the
carrier has implemented timing system use.
Another method is using angle of arrival (AoA) and it occurs when the device is in range of at least two
cell sites, produces intermediate precision. Assisted GPS uses both satellite and cell phone signals.
In the United States, for emergency calling service using location data (locally called "Enhanced 911"), it
was required that at least 95% of cellular phones in use on 31 December 2005 support such service.
Many carriers missed this deadline and were fined by the Federal Communications Commission.[10]
Radio power and health
The Federal Communications Commission, says:
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"Measurement data obtained from various sources have consistently indicated that 'worst-
case' ground-level power densities near typical cellular towers are on the order of 1 µW/cm²
(or 10 mW/m²) or less (usually significantly less)."[11]
Cell phones, cell towers, wi-fi, smart meters, DECT phones, cordless phones, baby monitors and other
wireless devices all emit non-ionizing radio frequencies, which the World Health Organization (WHO)
has classified as a "potential" carcinogen,[12] although according to the National Cancer Institute "No
mechanism by which ELF-EMFs or radiofrequency radiation could cause cancer has been identified."[13]
Temporary sites
Although cell antennas are normally attached to permanent structures, carriers also maintain fleets of
vehicles, called cells-on-wheels (COWs), that serve as temporary cell sites. A generator may be included
for use where network electrical power is not available, and the system may have a wireless backhaul link
allowing use where a wired link is not available.
COWs are also used at permanent cell sites—as temporary replacements for damaged equipment, during
planned outages, and to augment capacity such as during conventions.
Employment
Cell site workers are called tower climbers or transmission tower workers.
Transmission tower workers often work at heights of up to 1,500 feet
(450 m), performing installation, maintenance and repair work for cellular
phone and other wireless communications companies.
Spy agency setup
According to documents leaked to Der Spiegel, the NSA sells a $40,000
"active GSM base station" to be used as a tool to mimic a mobile phone
tower and thus monitor cell phones.[14] Cell on wheels (COW)
In November 2014, The Wall Street Journal reported that the Technical
Operations Group of the U.S. Marshals utilizes spy devices, known as "dirtboxes", to mimic powerful cell
tower signals. Such devices are designed to cause mobile phones to switch over to the tower, as it is the
strongest signal within reach. The devices are placed on airplanes to effectively create a "dragnet",
gathering data about phones as the planes travel above populated areas.[15][16]
Off-grid systems
An off-grid cell site is not connected to the public electrical grid. Usually the system is off-the-grid
because of difficult access or lack of infrastructure. Fuel cell or other backup power systems are added to
critical cell sites to provide day-today and emergency power. Traditionally sites have used internal-
combustion-engine-driven generator sets,[17][18] however, being less efficient than public power, they
increase operating expense and are a source of pollution (atmospheric, acoustic, etc.) and some are in
areas protected by environment and landscape conservation.
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Renewable sources, such as solar power and wind power[19] may be
available where cell sites are placed. This can reduce the cost of fuel
to the cell site or telecom tower by upto 75% They can be backed up
by a fuel generator system which allows the cell site to work when
the renewable sources are not enough. One such energy production
system consists of:
Solar power generator
Wind generator
Electro-chemical generator fuel cells
In a recent case study, Ryse Energy (https://www.ryse.energy/small
-wind-enery-and-hybrid-renewables-in-the-telecoms-sector/)
reduced a cell sites monthly opex spend from US$1,300-1,500 using
traditional diesel generations, to US$150 using a wind, solar and
battery storage installation.[20]
Electrical energy from intermittent sources is stored in secondary
batteries which are usually designed to have an average of 2 days of Ryse Energy Small Wind Turbine &
self-sufficiency, also known as autonomy, to allow time for Solar PV on a telecom tower
maintenance personnel to arrive at site when a repair is needed.
The renewable energy systems supply electrical power when available. The fuel cells are activated only
when the natural sources are not enough to supply the energy the system needs. The emergency power
supply (the fuel cells) is designed to last an average of 10 days. In this way the structure is completely
self-sufficient: this enables the maintenance team to pay only few visits to the site, since it is usually hard
to get to.
Camouflage
There is often local opposition to new masts for reasons of safety and
appearance. The latter is sometimes tackled by disguising the mast as
something else, such as a flag pole, street lamp, or a tree (e.g. palm trees,
pine trees, cypress) or rooftop structures or urban features such as
chimneys or panels.
These concealed cell sites can distinguish themselves by foliage shape and
bark type. The foliage of all these antennas is composed of leaves made of
plastic material accurately designed, taking into consideration quantity,
shape and array suitable to completely conceal the antennas and all
accessory parts in a natural manner. The materials used guarantee absolute
radio-electric transparency and resistance to UVA rays. Nicknames include
"monopalm" for a monopole disguised as a palm tree or "Pseudopinus
telephoneyensis" for a mast disguised as a pine tree.[21] In monopoles, the Camouflaged monopole,
directional antennas are sometimes hidden in a plastic housing near the top called "monopalm", in
of the pole so that the crossbars can be eliminated. Tucson, Arizona
Rooftop structures such as concealment chimneys or panels, 6 to 12 meters
high, may conceal one or more mobile telephone operators on the same station. Roofmask panels can be
fixed to existing rooftop structures, restyling them quickly and cheaply.
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Mobile telephone base stations are becoming a contemporary symbol,
connected and intertwining with material and immaterial networks.
Telestyles are architecturally blended cell towers, the result of cooperation
with designers and architects.
Miniature
Researchers at Alcatel-Lucent have developed a cell site called lightRadio
that fits in the palm of hand. It is the size of a Rubik's cube. It is capable of
relaying 2G, 3G and 4G signals. They are more energy efficient and deliver
broadband more efficiently than current cell sites. They could be used in
very populated urban areas to make room for more radio space.[22] An antenna colored to
blend in with its host
See also building, in Sopot, Poland
Cellular network
Node B
OpenBTS
Mobile phone radiation and health
Telecom infrastructure sharing
Base transceiver station
Radio masts and towers
Mobile cell sites
Distributed antenna system
Telecommunications lease
Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations
In re Application of the United States for Historical Cell Site Data
Tower climber
References
1. "Learn about what is on a cell tower: Without the Cat" (http://www.withoutthecat.com). Retrieved
9 December 2010.
2. Rubenstein, BY Carin (11 July 2004). "The Girded, The Bland And the Prickly" (https://www.nytimes.
com/2004/07/11/nyregion/the-girded-the-bland-and-the-prickly.html) – via NYTimes.com.
3. Buckley, Cara; Richtel, Matt (20 August 2010). "Good Cellphone Service Comes at a Price" (https://w
ww.nytimes.com/2010/08/21/nyregion/21celltower.html) – via NYTimes.com.
4. J. Andrews, A. Gohsh (2007). Fundamentals of WiMAX, p. 43
5. "Understanding Small-Cell Wireless Backhaul" (https://www.electronicdesign.com/communications/u
nderstanding-small-cell-wireless-backhaul). Electronic Design. 3 April 2014.
6. Frequently Asked PCS Questions (http://www.arcx.com/sites/faq.htm) undated, URL retrieved 14
August 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060509174612/http://www.arcx.com/sites/faq.
htm) 9 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine
7. NTIA Seeks Input on Broadband Stimulus Money (http://www.accel-networks.com/blog/2009/03/ntia-
seeks-input-on-broadband-stimulus.html) undated, URL retrieved 3 March 2009. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20091122053748/http://www.accel-networks.com/blog/2009/03/ntia-seeks-input-o
n-broadband-stimulus.html) 22 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine
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8. "Mobile Phone Base Stations, How do mobile base stations work, Mobile Base Stations in Australia,
Cell Tower, Mobile Phone Tower" (https://mobilenetworkguide.com.au/mobile_base_stations.html).
mobilenetworkguide.com.au.
9. "Full Page Reload" (https://spectrum.ieee.org/video/telecom/wireless/everything-you-need-to-know-a
bout-5g). IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News.
10. "Sprint, Alltel, USC fined for missed e911 deadline" (https://www.fiercewireless.com/wireless/sprint-al
ltel-usc-fined-for-missed-e911-deadline). FierceWireless.
11. Questions and Answers about Biological Effects and Potential Hazards of Radiofrequency
Electromagnetic Fields Fourth Edition. (http://transition.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Do
cuments/bulletins/oet56/oet56e4.pdf) FCC. August 1999. Page 21. Retrieved 7 April 2013
12. Hardell, Lennart (21 June 2017). "World Health Organization, radiofrequency radiation and health—a
hard nut to crack" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5504984). International Journal of
Oncology. 51 (August 2017): 405–413. doi:10.3892/ijo.2017.4046 (https://doi.org/10.3892%2Fijo.201
7.4046). PMC 5504984 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5504984). PMID 28656257
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28656257).
13. "Electromagnetic Fields and Cancer" (https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/r
adiation/electromagnetic-fields-fact-sheet). National Cancer Institute. 7 January 2019.
14. Appelbaum, Jacob; Horchert, Judith; Stöcker, Christian (29 December 2013). "Shopping for Spy
Gear: Catalog Advertises NSA Toolbox" (https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/catalog-reveals-n
sa-has-back-doors-for-numerous-devices-a-940994.html) – via Spiegel Online.
15. Devlin Barrett (13 November 2014). "Americans' Cellphones Targeted in Secret U.S. Spy Program:
Devices on Planes that Mimic Cellphone Towers Used to Target Criminals, but Also Sift Through
Thousands of Other Phones" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/americans-cellphones-targeted-in-secret-
u-s-spy-program-1415917533?tesla=y&mg=reno64-wsj). The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved
14 November 2014.
16. Kate Knibbs (13 November 2014). "WSJ: A Secret U.S. Spy Program Is Using Planes to Target Cell
Phones" (https://gizmodo.com/secret-u-s-spy-program-targeted-cell-phones-1658573067). Gizmodo.
Retrieved 14 November 2014.
17. Ballard fuel cells to power telecom backup power units for motorola (http://fr.chfca.ca/itoolkit.asp?pg=
BALLARD_07132009) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110706172302/http://fr.chfca.ca/itool
kit.asp?pg=BALLARD_07132009) 6 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
18. "India telecoms to get fuel cell power" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101126130543/http://cleantec
h.com/news/3674/india-telecom-get-fuel-cells). Archived from the original (http://cleantech.com/new
s/3674/india-telecom-get-fuel-cells) on 26 November 2010.
19. Such as Wind-it tower (http://www.wind-it.fr/bte.html)
20. "TowerXchange - telecom tower industry Wind takes off for telecom power - TowerXchange –
telecom tower industry" (https://www.towerxchange.com/wind-takes-off-for-telecom-power/).
www.towerxchange.com. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
21. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110726103809/http://www.watsonia.org.uk/BSBINew
s80.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.watsonia.org.uk/BSBINews80.pdf) (PDF) on
26 July 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2010.
22. The tiny cube that could cut your cell phone bill (https://money.cnn.com/2011/03/21/technology/light_
radio/), CNN Money, 21 March 2011, David Goldman
External links
Maps of All Towers Across the United Kingdom (https://web.archive.org/web/20130507082443/http://
www.sitefinder.ofcom.org.uk/search)
FCC: Universal Licensing Information (http://wireless.fcc.gov/uls/index.htm?job=transaction&page=w
eekly)
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3/9/2021 Cell site - Wikipedia
FCC: Information On Human Exposure To Radio frequency Fields From Cellular and PCS Radio
Transmitters (http://www.fcc.gov/oet/rfsafety/cellpcs.html)
Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) Base Station Survey 2007-
2011 (https://web.archive.org/web/20110422082732/http://www.arpansa.gov.au/RadiationProtection/
BaseStationSurvey/index.cfm)
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