Feedback

ORAL COMMUNICATION the reactions, responses, or information provided

PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER by the receiver
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION Context
COMMUNICATION—------------------------------------------------- the environment where communication takes place
a process of sharing and conveying messages or Barrier
information from one person to another within and across the factors that affect the flow of communication
channels, contexts, media, and cultures -McCornack, 2014 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION BASED ON THE
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION—------------------------------- SYMBOLS USED—---------------------------------------------------
1. Communication is a process. Verbal Communication
2. Communication occurs between two or more Words are used to relay a message.
people. ● Oral communication
3. Communication can be expressed in written or ● Written communication
spoken words, actions, or both at the same time Nonverbal Communication
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION—-------------------------- Behavior and graphics are used to convey and
Regulation/Control represent meanings.
Used to control one’s behaviour.
Social Interaction
Used to interact with others and produce social
relationships; used to express oneself; used for
giving and g​​etting information.
Motivation
Used to motivate or to encourage people to live
better.
Information Dissemination
Used to convey information.
Emotional Expression
Used to facilitate people’s expression of their
feelings and emotions.
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION—---------------------------
Speaker
Source of information or message
Message
the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by
the speaker in words or in actions
Encoding
the process of converting the message into words,
actions, or other forms that the speaker
understands
Channel
the medium or the means, such as personal or
non-personal, verbal or nonverbal, in which the encoded
message is conveyed
Decoding
The process of interpreting the encoded message
of the speaker by the receiver
Receiver
the recipient of the message, or someone who
decodes the message
 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION Examples:
7C’S OF COMMUNICATION—------------------------------------- Shannon-Weaver Model
The message must include ● American scholars Shannon and Weaver (1949)
everything the receiver ● Considered as the “mother of all communication
Completeness models”
needs to know for them to respond
properly. ● first model to highlight the role of noise
Insignificant or redundant information
Conciseness
should be eliminated.
The speaker should always consider
Consideration relevant information about his/her
receiver.
The message must be concrete and
Concreteness supported by facts, figures, and
real-life examples and situations.
The speaker must show courtesy by
Courtesy respecting the culture, values, and
beliefs of his/her receivers.
The speaker must use of simple and
specific words to express ideas. The
Clearness
speaker focuses only on a single
objective in his/her speech.
Correctness in grammar eliminates Interactive
negative impact on the audience and ● Communication and feedback flow between
Correctness
increases the credibility and sender and receiver (two-way process).
effectiveness of the message. ● “Communication is an ongoing process.”
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION—------------------------------ ● Field of experience refers to how environment,
3 General Types of Communication Models experiences, culture, and even heredity can
Linear influence how a sender constructs a message.
● primary communication model
● a one-way interaction where feedback is not
present
● The sender communicates with the receiver
without receiving feedback.
● “Communication is static.”

● Usually used in new communications, like the

Internet.
Limits:
● Roles are strictly defined.
● Feedback is not simultaneous. It isslow and
indirect.
● Usually used in mass communication (ex. Radio, ● Can be linear too, if the receiver doesn’t give a
television, etc.) feedback.
Limits:
● Receivers are just passive listeners.
● provides only one channel for only one message
● “Communication is static.”
Examples:

Transactional
● Most dynamic communication model
● Refers both sender and receivers as
communicators
● Communicators co-create the process, outcome
and effectiveness of the interaction.
● “Communication is dynamic.”

● Communicators inhabit a shared field of

experience. (shared meaning)
● Messages are connected to and build upon one
another.
● Communicators can respond simultaneously.
● Human conversations apply this model.
Examples:

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1
PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER
INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL RESEARCH
WHAT DOES IT MEAN?—------------------------------------------
These are various ways to find information about a topic
● You may seek experts’ advice and opinions. This
is the case when you look at published reference
materials or talk to known authorities about the
topic.
● You may gain an understanding of the topic
through personal experiences.
● You may also gain understanding through
intellectual activity. This means that through logic
and inspiration, you may come up with your own
realizations and conclusions about a particular
topic.
RESEARCH: DEFINITION & CHARACTERISTICS—-------
Research is defined as an investigation done in a
systematic manner to reveal a particular truth about a
topic, phenomenon, or reality.
It is an investigation
It involves inquiry and looking deeper into a topic.
It is an activity that involves discovering truths, facts, or
aspects of reality.
It is systematic
This means that there is logic, discipline, and a
procedure in going about it. The procedure usually entails
developing research questions, reviewing related literature
or references about the topic, collecting data, and
analyzing them to form conclusions that address
questions.
● In doing research, we want to be as accurate,
thorough, and definitive as we could be in coming
up with our conclusions. We want to be sure that
what we discovered is indeed true.
● Establishing facts or truths by following a strict,
organized, and exhaustive process makes the
research valid and reliable.
It reveals the truth
Research aims to unearth a fact, an insight, or a
realization about reality.
It is about a topic, phenomenon, or reality
Research revolves around a particular area of
interest. This focal area narrows down the attention of our
inquiry, allowing us to plan feasible steps to find out more
about it.
WHAT MAKES RESEARCH DIFFERENT FROM OTHER
WAYS OF KNOWING?-----------------------------------------------
It is systematic in character
Research requires several steps which usually include:
● clarifying research questions,
● learning from other people who have worked on
similar topics before,
● producing a plan for data collection and analysis
and executing them.
The research process would require you to tap several
sources of information.
Usually, you need to go and learn from authorities in the
field you are investigating. You can do this by:
● reading reference materials,
● doing interviews,
● observing,
● and sometimes, even living in the community
where those authorities reside.
It would require you to “think things through” and to
produce your own realization. It also entails working
together with experts or people knowledgeable about your
topic, so that you can be certain that the aspect of truth
you have discovered is indeed true.
RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT—-------------------------------------
It involves searching for simple and definitive
information such as looking into the characteristics of the
planets in the solar system.
RESEARCH—----------------------------------------------------------
● The research pertains to the systematic way of
gathering information and knowledge about a
topic.
● Research is more in line with discovering people’s
experiences, perceptions, and opinions.
● A methodical procedure is used to clarify the
research questions – investigate related literature,
plan how to approach the topic, and gather and
analyze data.
TYPES, PURPOSES, AND PROCESSES OF RESEARCH
TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH—-----------------------------------
Qualitative
Qualitative studies rely on personal accounts or
documents that illustrate in detail how people think or
respond within society.
Quantitative
Quantitative studies rely on numerical or
measurable data.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH—------------------------
It must give factual and exact data
which should be correctly and
Accurate appropriately documented or
acknowledged in the footnotes, notes,
and bibliographical entries.
It must deal with facts and not mere
opinions arising from assumptions,
Objective
generalizations, predictions, or
conclusions.
It must work on a fresh, new, and
Timely
exciting topic for the present society.
 Its topic must be instrumental in
improving society or in solving
Relevance
problems affecting the lives of people
in a community.
It must succeed in expressing its
central point or discoveries by using
Clarity
simple, direct, concise, and correct
language.
It must take place in an organized
Systematic
or orderly manner.
It must be geared toward what is
advantageous or beneficial rather
than what is detrimental by respecting
Ethical
preferences on matters of
confidentiality, independence, or
freedom.
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH—------------------------------------
Individuals engage in research for various purposes.
Babbie (2005) notes that there are three main purposes of
research:
To Explore
● Exploratory research is best utilized in pioneering
studies that focus on topics that have not been
investigated before or that use new techniques in
collecting and analyzing data. It allows the
researcher to become familiar with the topic,
produce new ideas, direct research questions, and
find out how to best approach the topic under
study.
● Before designing a full-blown procedure on how to
investigate the area of interest, especially a pilot
study, some researchers would try to “get a grip”
on the topic first and explore what would be the
best way to study it.
To Describe
● Another purpose of research is to describe a topic
of interest or an event. The researcher dives into
the field of study and simply describes what he or
she has found out about it. This is done by painting
a vivid picture of the scenario or phenomenon
using detailed descriptions of what the researcher
sees, feels, hears, tastes, and smells.
To Explain
● Another reason why people conduct research is to
explain things, events, and phenomena,
discovering the answers to “why” it has become
so. Such research can be utilized to support or
refute an explanation and link issues to existing
theories and frameworks.
PROCESS OF RESEARCH—--------------------------------------
There are various ways to approach research. However, it
often follows a common procedure and process.
1. Identifying a research problem
The problem – Research must start somewhere,
and it usually begins with a problem. The problem could be
a real-world problem that needs to be solved. It can also
be a knowledge gap that needs to be addressed. It could
be something we do not know or have not yet explored
about a particular topic.
2. Exploring Existing Literature about the
Problem
What has already been discovered and learned
about it? What are other people’s take or understanding of
the topic? Reading this literature also entails looking into
how the ideas across references are similar and different.
The process will lead you to do a lot of reading – books,
journal articles, and reliable websites. It also entails a lot of
discoveries. You may find that someone has already
studied your topic.
3. Developing the Research Design
The plan – Now that you know the existing
knowledge about your research topic and have some ideas
about how other researchers went about with their
research, you would need to dig deeper into your own
study to produce your research design.
This means you need to determine how you will
conduct your study. This usually entails looking into
sampling, data collection, and data analysis methods and
deciding on them. In this step, you also try to clearly
explain why you have chosen a particular methodology
over another and why it is more appropriate for your
purposes. You would be able to produce a research plan in
this step.
4. Collecting Data
The fieldwork – After producing your research
plan, you would now need to execute it. In what is
commonly known as fieldwork, you would need to go out to
the real world and visit the location, people, event, or
phenomenon you want to study. You would have to interact
and get to know your research participants or informants.
Afterward, you need to collect the data or
information you need. In qualitative research, these
typically take the form of experiences, opinions, or
observations.
There are various ways of collecting data.
Interviews and observation are common methods. By
interviewing people, observing, and collecting information,
you not only acquire data but also a good perspective on
the topic you are studying.
5. Analyzing Data
The interpretation – After getting information –
observations, experiences, and opinions from your
research participants – you would need to process and
analyze all the data you have gathered.
 Here, you would investigate the similarities and ● Qualitative analysis can also focus on other
differences of the data, their convergence, and divergence, “softer” data points, such as body language or
until you find themes and patterns. This is the part where visual elements.
you try to make sense of the data. Quantitative
6. Forming Conclusions, Implications, and ● Quantitative research focuses on measurement
Recommendations and testing using numerical data.
The bigger picture – In this step, you would need COMPARING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
to summarize and synthesize all that you have learned. RESEARCH—----------------------------------------------------------
This conclusion is the part where you need to answer your QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
research questions. This might entail comparing your
Deduction
findings with those in the existing literature. Induction
● Tests theory
In addition, you would need to state and explain ● Generates theory
through
the implications of your research to the field of study, as from observations.
observations
● Oriented to
well as to the understanding of the phenomenon you are ● Oriented to cause
discovery,
studying. You may also be interested to point out several and effect
exploration.
recommendations brought about by your study. They may ● Predetermined
● Emergent design.
design
be about aspects for further investigation, practical ● Merges data
● Separates data
implications, and application of your research. collection and
collection and
7. Reporting Findings analysis.
analysis
The report and presentation – In academic
Subjectivity Objectivity
research, the researcher is expected to produce a final ● Emphasizes ● Emphasizes things
output, usually in the form of a written research report. This meanings, that can be
report contains the description of the steps outlined here interpretation. measured.
and the decision taken all throughout the study. It also ● Tries to understand ● Results do not
contains your findings, conclusions, and recommendations. others’ perspective. depend on beliefs.
In order to share your findings and make it known ● Researcher is ● Researcher is
involved, close to detached, distant
to a wider audience, you usually need to present it in
the data. from the data
different venues. This could be in an oral presentation with ● Researcher is the ● Relies on
a panel. It could be a report to a class or to an even bigger “research standardized
audience such as a forum, seminar, or conference. instrument.” protocols
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND ETHICS OF RESEARCH Context Generality
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY—---------------------------------- ● Emphasizes ● Emphasizes
Practical “how” of any given piece of research specific depth and generalization and
● A researcher systematically design a study detail replication
● To ensure valid and reliable results that address ● Analyzes holistic ● Analyzes variables
systems ● Uses experimental
the research aims and objectives
● Uses a naturalistic and statistical
For example, how did the researcher go about deciding: approach controls
● What data to collect (and what data to ignore) ● Relies on a few ● Works across a
● Whom to collect it from (in research, this is called purposively chosen larger number of
“sampling design”) cases. cases
● How to collect it (this is called “data collection PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE—-----------------------------
methods”) Quantitative leans toward a more positivist stance.
● How to analyze it (this is called “data analysis (Raddon, 2016, 5-6; Creswell, 2014, 7-8)
methods”) Positivist: The Researcher as a Scientist
There are different types of methodologies, distinguished ● Believes that reality can be discovered in the world
by whether they focus on words, numbers, or both. and that the world is bound by laws and theories
Qualitative research ● Aims to acquire objective knowledge and places
● Qualitative research refers to research that value on a numerical measure to observe and
focuses on collecting and analyzing words (written describe a phenomenon.
or spoken) and textual data ● In order to understand reality, the approach
reduces the aspect of reality into discrete items,
 usually called variables. These are carefully
measured and their relationships are determined.
● Commonly addresses problems of cause and
effect.
● Usually starts its investigation with a theory, and
conducts test to validate or disprove it, and
perform additional tests.
On the other hand, the Qualitative embodies an
interpretivist stance. (Raddon, 2016, 5-6; Creswell, 2014,
7-8)
Interpretivism: The Researcher as a Detective
● Believes that reality is socially constructed and that
people develop the meaning of certain things out
of their experience.
● Aims to acquire subjective knowledge and places
value on people's views.
● In order to understand reality, the approach looks
into the complexity of perspective rather than
limiting them to a few categories. It does so
because it recognizes that meanings are many
and also diverse.
● Commonly addresses problems involving
interactions and processes.
● Usually does not start with existing theory. It tries
to build theory by seeing patterns and common
themes in the meanings linked with phenonmenon.
RESEARCH ETHICS—----------------------------------------------
RESEARCH ETHICS is rules of behavior based on ideas
about what is morally good and bad.
Voluntary Participation
● Voluntary participation means that all research
subjects are free to choose to participate without
any pressure or coercion.
● All participants are able to withdraw from or leave,
the study at any point without feeling an obligation
to continue. Your participants don’t need to provide
a reason for leaving the study.
● It’s important to make it clear to participants that
there are no negative consequences or
repercussions to their refusal to participate. After
all, they’re taking the time to help you in the
research process, so you should respect their
decisions without trying to change their minds.
Potential for harm
As a researcher, you have to consider all possible sources
of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different
forms.
○ Psychological harm
Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative
emotions such as shame or anxiety.
○ Social harm
Participation can involve social risks, public
embarrassment, or stigma.
○ Physical harm
Pain or injury can result from the study
procedures.
○ Legal harm
Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or
a breach of privacy.
Anonymity
● Anonymity means that you don’t know who the
participants are and you can’t link any individual
participant to their data.
● You can only guarantee anonymity by not
collecting any personally identifying
information—for example, names, phone numbers,
email addresses, IP addresses, physical
characteristics, photos, and videos.
Confidentiality
● Confidentiality means that you know who the
participants are, but you remove all identifying
information from your report.
● All participants have a right to privacy, so you
should protect their personal data for as long as
you store or use it.
● Even when you can’t collect data anonymously,
you should secure confidentiality whenever you
can.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY—---------------------------------------------------
RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS—---------------
● The nature of your research aims, objectives, and
research questions
● Would you like to describe a certain process and
discover individuals' perspectives about reality or
expound on the meaning they have attributed to
the phenomenon?
Qualitative Research Method
If you want to capture insights into a problem to develop
ideas for a solution, you will use qualitative data.
You will use qualitative tools such as open-ended
interviews to collect data from the target audience.
Qualitative research
utilizes data that is not numbers-based. In other words,
qualitative research focuses on words, descriptions,
concepts or ideas Qualitative research investigates the
“softer side” of things to explore and describe.
Quantitative Research Method
If you want to measure the aspect of reality to determine
the relationship among variables through statistical
analysis, you may want to conduct a qualitative study.
Quantitative research makes use of numbers and
statistics. It focuses on the “hard numbers”, to measure
differences between variables and the relationships
between them.
Research Methodologies
They have distinctly different purposes
Qualitative research methods are typically used to explore
and gain a deeper understanding of the complexity of a
situation – to draw a rich picture. In contrast to this,
quantitative methods are usually used to confirm or test
hypotheses.
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE—--------------------------------------
● The researcher’s own experiences and
background play an important role because we
can be skilled on words or statistics that will affect
our analysis.
● Our interests, trainings, and skills are factors that
will benefit our studies.
AUDIENCE—-----------------------------------------------------------
The target audience of the study is a factor to consider.
● Fellow students
● Teachers
● Other members of the academe
Even the venue where it should be shared is for the class
or for the wider audience like seminars, forums, and
conference?
● Their expectations
● The qualities of the recommendations
● The implications (the conclusion that can be drawn
from something although it is not explicitly stated)
of your study
All these will affect them directly or indirectly.
ADDITIONAL THINGS TO CONSIDER—-----------------------
Practicalities
When you’re evaluating your methodological
options, you need to consider the following constraints:
● Data access
● Time
● Money
● Equipment and software
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH—---
Human Understanding and Interpretation
Data analysis results show an individual’s mental,
social, and spiritual understanding of the world. Hence,
through their worldviews, you come to know what kind of
human beings he or she is, including their values, beliefs,
likes, and dislikes.
Active, Powerful and Forceful
A lot of changes occur continuously in every stage
of qualitative research. As you go through the research
process, you find the need to amend or rephrase interview
questions and consider varied ways of getting answers,
like shifting from mere speculating to traveling to places for
data gathering. You are not fixated on a certain plan.
Rather, you are inclined to discover your qualitative
research design as your study gradually unfolds or reveals
itself in accordance with your research objectives.
Multiple Research Approches and Methods
Qualitative research allows you to approach or
plan your study in varied ways. You are free to combine
this with quantitative research and use all gathered data
and analysis techniques. Being a multi-method research, a
qualitative study applies to all research types: descriptive,
exploratory, explanatory, case study, and so on.
Specific to General
Specific ideas in qualitative research are directed
to a general understanding of something. It follows an
inductive or scientific method of thinking where you start
thinking of a particular or specific concept that will
eventually lead you to more complex ideas such as
generalizations or conclusions.
Provides Contextualization
A quantitative research involves all variables,
factors, or conditions affecting the study. You goal here is
to understand human behavior. Thus, it is crucial for you to
examine the context or situation of an individual’s life – the
who, what, why, how and other circumstances – affecting
his or her way of life.
Diversified Data in Real-life Situations
A qualitative researcher prefers collecting data in
a natural setting like observing people as they live and
work, analyzing photographs or videos as they genuinely
appear to people, and looking at the classroom unchanged
or adjusted to people’s intentional observations.
Abound with Words and Visuals
Words, words, and more words come in big
quantities in this kind of research. Data gathering through
interviews or library reading, as well as presentation of
data analysis results, is done verbally. In some cases, it
resorts to quoting some respondents’ answers. Likewise,
presenting people’s world views through visual
presentation, e.g., pictures, videos, drawings, and graphs,
are significantly used in qualitative research.
In-depth: Internal Analysis
You examine the data yielded by the internal traits
of the subject individuals like their emotional, mental, and
spiritual characteristics. You study people’s perceptions or
views about your topic and not the effects of their physical
existence on your study. In the case of objects, e.g., books
and artworks, that are subjected to qualitative research,
the investigation centers on the underlying theories or
principles that govern these materials and their usefulness ● Its open-ended questions yield “data overload” that
to people. requires long-time analysis.
STRENGTHS—--------------------------------------------------------- ● It involves several processes and results, greatly
Qualitative data can provide depth and details. depending on the researcher’s views or
● does not focus on standardized answers and interpretations.
quantifiable data POSSIBLE TOPICS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH—---
● reveals and explains facets that are not evident What can be studied based on aspects?
● and can highlight advantages habits and customs
Practices
Qualitative research can highlight complexities and
subtleties about the research participants, setting, and Episodes life events or scenarios
phenomenon under study.
● it is subjective and complex Encounters meeting between people
● it recognizes various views
Roles behaviors related to positions
● it entertains contradicting ideas
Flexibility. Relationship actions between pairs
● information emerges from the field
● can adapt to directions, frameworks, and methods Groups set of people with common
● unveils comprehensive views of reality characteristics
It values the voices of the participants. Organizations formal organizations
● reports showcase direct quotations (with respect to
participants' words) Settlements smaller units of society
(community and neighborhood)
● thoughts, perspectives, and feelings of the
participants are highlighted Social Worlds ambiguous social entities with
● experiences are reflected in this methodology vague boundaries and populations
Qualitative research can adapt to various scenarios and Lifestyles and the way of living
situations and the needs of the participants by… Subcultures
● not using experiments and laboratories What can be studied based on fields?
● simply using actual settings ● Education (community, organization, or school)
● being sensitive to the context ● Sociology (cultures and subcultures)
ADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH-----------— ● Psychology
● It adopts a naturalistic approach to the subject ● History
matter which means that the participants are ● Evaluation (Programs)
involved in real settings. ● Medicine and healthcare
● It promotes a full understanding of human behavior
or personality traits in their natural setting.
● It is instrumental in positive societal changes.
● It engenders respect for people’s individuality as it
demands the researcher’s careful attentive stand
towards people’s world views.
● It is a way of understanding and interpreting social
interactions.
● It increases the researcher’s interest in the study
as it includes the researcher’s experience or
background knowledge in interpreting verbal and
visual data.
● It offers multiple ways of acquiring and examining
knowledge about something.
DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH—------
● It involves a lot of researcher subjectivity in data
analysis.
● It is hard to know the validity or reliability of the
data.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES
PHILOSOPHY OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH—------------
Philosophy of qualitative research is “interpretive,
humanistic, and naturalistic” (Creswell, 2007)
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES—----------------
David Silverman, 2013
Naturalism
● Social reality can be observed, grasped, and
understood is a perspective of the Naturalistic
Approach. Watching behavior in real-world setting
without trying to manipulate the situation
● Watching behavior in real-world setting without
trying to manipulate the situation
● According to Silverman (2013,106), the tasks in a
naturalist research involve:
○ Entering the setting
○ Establishing rapport
○ Recording observations with an eye
toward social scientific concepts (e.g.
social status and group dynamics)
○ Presenting findings
● Naturalistic observation is a research method that
involves observing subjects in their natural
environment.
● Pros: Naturalistic observation is a valuable tool
because of its flexibility, external validity, and
suitability for topics that can’t be studied in a lab
setting.
● Naturalist study provides vivid and engaging
accounts of its object but ignores how participants
develop meaning.
● Cons: The downsides of naturalistic observation
include its lack of scientific control, ethical
considerations, and potential for bias from
observers and subjects.
● Data Collection Methods
● Researchers use different techniques to collect
and record data from naturalistic observation.
○ Audio or video recordings (filming)
○ Observer narrative (note-taking)
○ Tally counts (how many times)
● How Often Is Data Collected?
● It is rarely practical—or even possible—to observe
every moment of a subject's life. Therefore,
researchers often use sampling to gather
information through naturalistic observation.
○ Time sampling (period, duration)
○ Situation sampling (real-life situations)
○ Event sampling (events to build up a
pattern)
Contructionism
● Knowledge is not regarded as an insight into some
objective reality but instead constructed by
humans, partly through social interactions.
Seeking to understand the experience of research
participants in order to discover the participants'
subjective truth or perceptions.
● Constructionism emphasizes that facts are not just
simply facts but are "socially constructed"
(Silverman, 2013, 107)
● “Constructivism is the recognition that reality is a
product of human intelligence interacting with
experience in the real world. As soon as you
include human mental activity in the process of
knowing reality, you have accepted constructivism”
-Davis Elkind
● Constructionism is utilized by several qualitative
studies:
○ Grounded Theory
A qualitative method enables a researcher to study
a particular phenomenon or process and discover
new theories that are based on the collection and
analysis of real- world data.
No prior hypothesis before extensive analysis
Develops theory through patterns, themes, and
categories
○ Narrative Analysis
Narrative research involves in-depth interviews
and document analysis. Typically, one or two
participants are interviewed over a long perio of
time — from weeks to months to years.
Looks into people's accounts as stories and
recognizes that these serve the following
functions:
● stories are formulated around
particular scenarios and settings
● stories are shared with the
audience in mind
● stories involve a series of events
● stories continue to evolve as they
are told
○ Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is a qualitative method of
analysis, which explores the meanings produced
by language use and communication, the contexts
and processes of these meaning and practices
caused by these meanings.
As Wodak and Krzyżanowski (2008) put it:
“discourse analysis provides a general framework
to problem- oriented social research”. Basically,
discourse analysis is used to conduct research on
the use of language in context in a wide variety of
 social problems (i.e., issues in society that affect
individuals negatively).
Therefore, you may consider discourse analysis if
you are researching:
● Some form of power or inequality (for
example, how affluent individuals interact
with those who are less wealthy
● How people communicate in a specific
context (such as in a social situation with
colleagues versus a board meeting)
● Ideology and how ideas (such as values
and beliefs) are shared using language
(like in political speeches)
● How communication is used to achieve
social goals (such as maintaining a
friendship or navigating conflict)
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES—----------------------------------
Ethnography
● is derived from the Greek terms' ethnos which
means “people, folk, or nation; and grapho which
means “to write.”
● comes largely from the field of anthropology
● emphasis on studying an entire culture
Phenomenology
This is sometimes considered a philosophical
perspective as well as an approach to qualitative
methodology. It has a long history in several social
research disciplines including psychology, sociology, and
social work. Phenomenology is a school of thought that
emphasizes a focus on people’s subjective experiences
and interpretations of the world. That is, the
phenomenologist wants to understand how the world
appears to others.
When you want to describe an event, activity, or
phenomenon, the aptly named phenomenological study is
an appropriate qualitative method. In a phenomenological
study, you use a combination of methods, such as
conducting interviews, reading documents, watching
videos, or visiting places and events, to understand the
meaning participant's place on whatever’s being examined.
Field Research
This can also be considered either a broad
approach to qualitative research or a method of gathering
qualitative data. the essential idea is that the researcher
goes “into the field” to observe the phenomenon in its
natural state or in a situation. As such, it is probably most
related to the method of participant observation. The field
researcher typically takes extensive field notes which are
subsequently coded and analyzed in a variety of ways.
QUALITATIVE METHODS—----------------------------------------
Observations
Observation research creates a detailed recording of your
participants' actions. Through observation, researchers are
paying careful attention to how people behave in a
particular environment.
● Naturalistic observation - occurs directly in the
environment where the phenomenon occurs.
● Participant observation -researchers actively
participate in the study itself.
● Structured observation - researchers do not
observe in the natural setting, but instead in a lab
or a simulated environment
Interviews
Interviews are among the most challenging and rewarding
forms of measurement. They require personal sensitivity
and adaptability as well as the ability to stay within the
bounds of the designed protocol.
Unstructured interviews: These are interviews that take
place with few if any, interview questions. They often
progress in the manner a normal conversation would,
however, it concerns the research topic under review.
Semistructured interviews: These are interviews that use
an interview protocol to help guide the researcher through
the interview process. While this can incorporate
conversational aspects, it is mostly a guided conversation
between the researcher and the participant. It does
maintain some structure (hence the name semistructured),
but it also provides the researcher with the ability to probe
the participant for additional details.
Structured interviews: These are interviews that strictly
adhere to the use of an interview protocol to guide the
researcher. It is a more rigid interview style, in that only the
questions on the interview protocol are asked. As a result,
there are not a lot of opportunities to probe and further
explore topics that participants bring up when answering
the interview questions.
One-on-one Interviews
Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common
qualitative research methods. It is a personal interview that
is carried out with one respondent at a time.
Focus Groups
A focus group is a research method that brings together a
small group of people to answer questions in a moderated
setting.
A focus group usually includes a limited number of
respondents (6-10) from within your target market. The
main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why”
“what” and “how” questions. One advantage of focus
groups is, you don’t necessarily need to interact with the
group in person.
Case Study Research research.
case study is a general term for the exploration of an SELECTING A TOPIC—---------------------------------------------
individual, group, or phenomenon. Manageable, Related to your personal interests, and must
It involves a comprehensive examination of a particular have sources.
subject, person, or event. This method is used to obtain Guidelines for choosing a Research Topic:
in-depth data and complete knowledge of the subject. The ● Interest in the Subject Matter
data is collected from various sources like interviews and ● Availability of Information
observation to supplement the conclusion. ● Timeliness and Relevance of the Topic
Businesses can use case studies to show their business ● Limitations on the Subject
solutions effectively and when they introduce any new ● Personal Resources
product in the market. It will help customers identify how Research Topics to Be avoided by Research Beginners:
the brand’s offering can solve a particular problem for the subjects that heavily rely on the writer's
subject. Controversial perspective, which may be biased or
Record Keeping topics prejudicial. The research cannot use
This method makes use of the already existing reliable facts to support such claims.
documents and similar sources of information as the data Issues that demand significant study,
Highly
source. This data can be used in the new research. technical knowledge, and extensive
Technical
This is similar to going to a library. There one can go over experience are challenging for a
Subjects
books and other reference material to collect relevant data beginner.
that can likely be used in the research. topics that are too broad will hinder you
Too Broad
IDENTIFYING AND NARROWING DOWN RESEARCH TOPICS from providing a focused or in-depth
Subjects
studyof the paper's subject matter.
RESEARCH TOPIC—------------------------------------------------
is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested in when themes are so narrow or precise that
Too Narrow
conducting research. A well-defined research topic is the substantial or thorough research or
Subjects
starting point of every successful research project. reading is required.
Choosing a topic is an ongoing process by which such themes will hinder you from
researchers explore, define, and refine their ideas. developing a clear focus for your
STRATEGIES IN CHOOSING RESEARCH TOPIC—------- Vague Subjects paper. For example, titles that begin
with indeterminate adjectives such as
One: Loon into you rown/personak experience several, many, some, or others.
● Consider your own/ personal background,
experiences, and history, and see if you can come the subject is difficult to investigate if
Hard to
there are no available reading
up with a few ideas about the research topic. Investigate
materials or if the available materials
● You may also find possible research topics in the Subjects
are out of the current.
challenges you encounter in daily life. SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS—--------------------------
● Something that you are genuinely curious about. It is also necessary for you to know where a good research
Two: Reading Literature in your Field of Study topic may come from. (Silverman, 2013)
● Reading scholarly work, existing research, and ● Mass media communication – press (newspapers,
studies may also help you come up with ideas ads, TV, radio, films)
about your research topic. Decide the possible ● Books, internet, peer-reviewed journals,
area to focus on. Ask yourself what subject or field government publications
do you find interesting? ● Professional periodicals like College English
● Literature in this case pertains to the existing Language Teaching Forum, English Forum, The
research, studies, and other scholarly work. Economist, Academia, Business Circle, Law
Literature can be: Review
○ Sources of criticism ● General periodicals such as Reader’s Digest,
○ Sources of new ideas Women’s Magazine, Panorama Magazine, Time
○ Sources of interdisciplinary insight Magazine, and World Mission Magazine
Three: Tackling Political and Social Issues ● Previous reading assignments in your other
● You may also get inspiration from existing political subjects
and social concerns affecting society. You may feel ● Work experience – clues to researchable topic
the social obligation to address the social issue from full-time or part-time jobs, OJT (on-the-job
and to do something about it through your training) experience, and fieldwork
SOME THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A
TOPIC—------------------------------------------------------------------
How long does you rpaper need to be?
A shorter paper will need a more narrowly focused idea. A
longer paper will allow for a more complex exploration of a
topic.
How much time do you have?
If you have several weeks, it’s likely your instructor is
expecting you to do a lot of research.
Do you need a particular number or type of
references?
Scholarly books and articles take time to write and publish,
so topics focused narrowly on a very recent event can be
problematic. If you need primary sources, choosing a topic
focused on a region whose language you do not speak will
be difficult.
NARROWING TOPIC—----------------------------------------------
● begin your research work by identifying a
topic/problem to work on.
● finalize which topic/problem will you be studying;
you must engage in higher-order-thinking
strategies (HOTS) of interpretive, critical,
integrative / synthesis, and creative thinking.
● ensure it is researchable if the knowledge and
information about it are supported by evidence that
is observable, factual, and logical.
HERE ARE SOME IDEAS TO HELP YOU NARROW
YOUR TOPIC:----------------------------------------------------------
● Talk to a friend to get ideas. They may give you
ideas that didn't occur to you.
● Use the 5W questions
● Turn your topic into a question. You will be trying to
answer this question with your research. Think
about something you would like to try to prove or
argue.
● Make sure to pick a topic that will have enough
information available. Do a preliminary search to
see if there is enough information about your topic.
HERE ARE SOME STRATEGIES TO HELP NARROW
YOUR TOPIC:----------------------------------------------------------
● Aspect - choose one lens through which to view
the research problem or look at just one facet of it
● Components - determine if your initial variable or
unit of analysis can be broken into smaller parts,
which can then be analyzed more precisely
● Methodology - the way in which you gather
information can reduce the domain of interpretive
analysis needed to address the research problem
● Place - generally, the smaller the geographic unit
of analysis, the narrower the focus
● Relationship - ask yourself how two or more
different perspectives or variables relate to one
another. Designing a study around the
relationships between specific variables can help
constrict the scope Of analysis
● Time - the shorter the time period of the study, the
narrower the focus
● Type - focus your topic on terms of a specific type
or class of people, places, or phenomena
● Combination - use two or more of the above
strategies to focus your topic more narrowly.
WRITING AN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PAPER:--------
There is no one right style or manner for writing an
education paper. Content aside, the writing style and
presentation of papers in different educational fields vary
greatly.
Nevertheless, certain parts are common to most papers:
1. Title/Cover Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction and Statement of the Problem
4. Limitations of Study
5. Methodology
6. Literature Review
7. Main Body of Paper/Argument
8. Conclusion
9. Works Cited/Bibliography
10. Appendices
DEVELOPING RESEARCH TITLE
RESEARCH TITLE—-------------------------------------------------
A major road sign in research. (Creswell, 2014, 26)
● an orienting device
● an aid (focus)
The title is without doubt the part of a paper that is read the
most, and it is usually read first.
DRAFTING THE RESEARCH TITLE—--------------------------
If the title is too long it usually contains too many
unnecessary words, e.g., "A Study to Investigate the...."
On the other hand, a title that is too short often uses words
that are too general.
The following parameters can be used to help you
formulate a suitable research paper title:
1. The purpose of the research
2. The narrative tone of the paper [typically defined
by the type of the research]
3. The methods used
The purpose of the research - identify the main ideas
behind the research topic
The purpose of the research - mention several features
such as purpose, approach, and method.
Start by completing the statement: "My study is about..."
According to Wilkinson (1991) Avoid unnecessary words
like: "An Approach to..." or "A Study of..."
It can alsp provide additional context, temporal scope,
main theory, approach, and methodology.
Effective titles in academic research papers have several
characteristics.
● Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the
study.
● Avoid using abbreviations.
● Use words that create a positive impression and
stimulate reader interest.
● Use current nomenclature from the field of study.
● Identify key variables, both dependent and
independent.
● May reveal how the paper will be organized.
● Suggest a relationship between variables that
supports the major hypothesis.
● Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.
● Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar
constructions.
● Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can
also be in the form of a question.
● Use correct grammar and capitalization with all
first words and last words capitalized, including the
first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the
first and last words of the title are also capitalized.
● In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by an
exclamation mark.
● However, a title or subtitle can be in the form of a
question.
The Subtitles
Subtitles are quite common in social science research
papers. Examples of why you may include a subtitle:
1. Explains or provides additional context
2. Adds substance to a literary, provocative, or
imaginative title
3. Qualifies the geographic scope of the research
4. Qualifies the temporal scope of the research
5. Focuses on investigating the ideas, theories, or
work of a particular individual
A title should be…
● descriptive, direct, accurate, appropriate,
interesting, concise, precise, unique, and should
not be misleading
● summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study.
● A good title contains the fewest possible words
that adequately describe the contents and/or
purpose of your research paper.
WRITING THE INTRODUCTION OF THE RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION FOR RESEARCH PAPERS—--------------
Introductions are parts of essays whose function is to
create a reference framework for the reader. Introductions
establish the scope and boundaries of the research
project. Additionally, they let readers know the relevance of
the problem discussed in the writing piece.
Several keys include:
● Background of the Study
● Purpose of the Study
● Research Questions
● Significance of the Study
● Scope and Delimitation
THE FIVE PARTS OF INTRODUCTIONS—--------------------
John W. Creswell
● establishing the problem (leading to the study)
● reviewing the literature (about the problem)
● identifying deficiencies (in theliterature about the
problem)
● targeting an audience and noting thesignificance of
the problem (for this audience) and
● identifying the purpose of the proposed study
First Part
Its two main functions.
● it limits the research area and disciplinary
approach to the issue
● it states a particular problem and its relevance.
A problem might be understood as the difference between
the current state of affairs and the desired one.
Second Part
Sums up the most important findings about the problem of
the article. It presents the current controversies around the
studied issue.
The literature review has three main purposes.
● it positions the research project within a certain
scientific tradition.
● it strengthens the ethos of the researcher by
exhibiting his/her knowledge about the field.
● it part establishes the course of the research as
the continuation of a discussion among the
members of a discursive community.
Third Part
After the literature review, show that there is a gap in the
current literature that needs to be filled up. In other words,
in this part, you establish that the knowledge of the
discipline is incomplete and, therefore, it needs to be
completed.
To sum up, show that the lack of knowledge on the topic
that you’re planning to research it’s extremely negative
and, as a consequence, it needs urgent action.
Fourth Part
Explain why your study is relevant and necessary for a
specific group of specialists. In this section, you should
stress not only the benefits of your research to the
community you're addressing but also the opportunity to
increase the understanding of the field and some of the
major implications of the study
Fifth Part
Explain what you want to accomplish by doing your
research. This element is crucial for your essay since it
sums up the whole purpose of the Endeavor. In other
words, the purpose statement conveys the central point of
the project.
The five parts of the introduction might be represented in
the following way (Creswell, 2014, p. 112).
1. State the research problem
2. Review the studied that addressed the problem
3. Indicate deficiencies of the studies
4. Advance significance of the study for the audience
5. Write the purpose statement
WRITING INTRODUCTIONS—------------------------------------
Narrative Style
characterized mainly by five factors:
● setting: it expresses the time and the location of
the event or phenomenon (Hillier, Kelly & Klinger
2016, para 12);
● Narrative perspective: the narrator is made explicit
through the use of personal pronouns “such as I,
we, and our”(2016, para 13);
● sensory language: the narrator utilizes resources
that express mental events such as sensations,
feelings, emotions, beliefs, among others (2016,
para 14);
● conjunctions: the narrator connects the events
logically using “a temporal or causal ordering of
events” (2016, para 15); connectivity: it includes
words that refer back to events already described
in the text to create textual cohesion (2016, para
16);
● appeal: the narrator addresses the reader in a
“moral or evaluative orientation” (2016, para 17).
Note:
● Most of the time they include the following
elements:
○ a general problem that needs a solution;
○ a brief review of solutions that didn’t work
out;
○ a research question;
○ a hypothesis that answers the research
question.
● First, the problem addressed in the introduction
should be common to many people and potentially
urgent. In other words, it has to be a genuine and
relevant issue. Additionally, the problem has the
purpose to contextualize the discussion. Second,
the review of past solutions should make explicit
how others have tried to solve the problem and
why their solutions did not work out. Third,
although you might pose different types of
questions, it’s a good idea to create “why” and
“how” questions since they will give you the
chance to show your argumentative prowess.
Finally, hypothesis might be descriptive or
normative. In other words they might describe how
things work but also how things should work.
The Inverted Pyramid
This is the easiest type of introduction. The inverted
pyramid starts from a broad theme and then gradually
narrows it down to focus on a particular problem. The
starting theme should not be too broad or too far from the
destination topic. The inverted pyramid usually has a
three-tier structure. The first level is the most general. The
second one connects the general topic with a smaller set
of cases. The third level situates the problem in the context
of the paper's discussion.
The turnabout
This type of introduction is useful because it takes
advantage of the surprise factor. First, you should state the
common lore about a certain subject to make it look
plausible. After adding a couple of sentences to support
the point of departure, then you introduce a sharp contrast
by using the adverb “however” and several sentences that
show the problems of the initial view by looking at it under
another light. In other words, you should mention a
common opinion and then, show that in fact is not as
persuasive as they might initially believed.
Background of the Study
Content:
● Research Topic - get the interest of the reader and
state the research topic
● Studies that have tackled the problem - discuss
existing research about the topic
● Deficiencies in the previous studies - discuss the
summary of existing literature and talk about the
insufficiency of these literature.
Writing the Purpose of the Study
Found in the latter part of the background and presented in
a separate section
It emphasizes the intent of the entire study.
● clear
● specific
● Informative
1. Utilize the words: purpose, intent, objective
2. Focus on a single idea or concept
3. Use action words
4. Briefly mention the Qualitative approach
5. State participants of the study
6. Point out where the research will take place
7. Lastly, describe the scope of your study concisely
 MAN-MADE HAZARDS—-------------------------------------------
DISASTER READINESS & RISK REDUCTION ● Conflicts/war
PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER ● Famine
THE NATURE OF DISASTER AND DISASTER RISKS ● Displaced populations
PHILIPPINE SCENARIO—------------------------------------------ ● Industrial accidents
● Cited as among the top countries at risk to ● Transport accidents
disaster. ● Environmental degradation
● While disasters can arise from man-made sources, ● Pollutions
the most inevitable come from natural phenomena. EFFECTS OF DISASTER—----------------------------------------
● Filipino is familiar with the impacts of typhoons, Primary
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and fires to direct situations arising from the disaster itself
everyday life and to national development. ● typhoon > flooding, destruction of houses and
● This makes learning about disaster preparedness properties, loss of life, etc.
aligned with everyone’s interests. Secondary
Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction (DRRR) is situations resulting from the primary effects
multi-disciplinary in nature, bringing together physical, ● typhoon > disruption of electrical and water
psychological, biological, sociocultural, political, and services due to damaged power and water lines
economic factors. Tertiary
TERMS—----------------------------------------------------------------- not experienced during the disaster but can be felt
Hazard some time after the disaster. It can happen when primary
a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human or secondary effects become permanent.
activity, or condition that MAY CAUSE loss of life, injury or ● typhoon > flooding (primary) > change in the river
other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods channel (which may then result to lack of water to
and services, social and economic disruption, or the area around the old channel)
environmental damage. AFFECTED COMPONENTS—-------------------------------------
Disaster ● People
a serious DISRUPTION of the functioning of a ● Economy
community or a society involving widespread human, ● Buildings and infrastructures
material, economic, or environmental losses and impacts ● Environment
which exceeds the ability of the affected community to DISASTER RISK PERSPECTIVES—----------------------------
cope using its own resources. visible or tangible materials, whether
Disaster Risk natural or man-made
Physical
● Determines the TENDENCY of a community to ● Cracks on main roads /
face disasters buildings
● Specific to a location or condition of a community people’s emotional, cognitive, or
TYPES OF HAZARD—----------------------------------------------- interpersonal reaction to difficulties
Psychological
NATURAL HAZARDS—--------------------------------------------- ● Mental retardation, trauma,
● Biological anxiety
○ Pathogens response of people, whether victims or
○ Toxins not, to emergency situations and to the
○ Bioactive substances Sociocultural kind of assistance they receive
● Religions, customs, beliefs,
● Geological
attitudes and values
○ Seismic activities
○ Volcanism disruption of economic activities in the
○ Landslides community
Economic ● Disruption of flow of goods and
● Hydrometoerological services, destruction of fixed
○ Floods assetsnand infrastructures
○ Cyclones
how government services are used to
○ Storm surge reduce loss or damage by preparing for
○ Wildfire Political and preventing disasters
○ Avalanche ● Poverty reduction strategies,
DRRM system, urban planning
 potential for infectious or
communicable diseases
Biological ● Presence of medical and
sanitation facilities and
services
EXPOSURE, VULNERABILITY, AND HAZARDS
VULNERABILITY—---------------------------------------------------
● “The diminished capacity of an individual or group
to anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover from
the impact of a natural or man-made hazard.”
(International Federation of Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies)
● “Characteristics and circumstances of a
community, system, or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.”
(United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction)
● Situation specific
○ Ex. Earthquake in a particular region
○ It does not mean that all provinces in that
region are vulnerable
○ Vulnerability differs in the way they
prepare for the hazard and the amount of
resources hey have to prevent and
manage it.
● Hazard specific
○ A community that is vulnerable to
earthquakes does not necessarily mean
that it is also vulnerable to typhoons
FACTORS IN ASSESSING THE LEVEL
VULNERABILITY—---------------------------------------------------
● Proximity
● Population density
● Capacity and efficiency to reduce disaster risk
● Building codes and disaster policies
EXPOSURE—----------------------------------------------------------
● “The elements at risk from a natural or man-made
hazard event.” (Geoscience Australia)
● The more a community is exposed to hazard
factors, the higher the disaster risk.
● A community can be exposed to earthquakes but
is not necessarily vulnerable (e.g. Buildings in
Japan)
ELEMENTS EXPOSED TO HAZARDS—-----------------------
tangible and visually seen
Physical elements ● landscapes, inhabitants,
buildings, other structures
institutional and government
systems that dictate the well-being
and lifestyles of communities
Socioeconomic
● communications,
elements
transportation, delivery of
goods and services,
network of market and
trade, peace and order
ecosystems and natural processes
that are exposed to hazard events
Environmental
● Deforestation, exploitation
elements
of natural resources,
overgrazing
PROFILING HAZARDS—-------------------------------------------
Magnitude or strength of the event
Can be assessed by measurements obtained from
scientific instruments
Frequency
It tells the proneness of a community to that
hazard, usually associated with geographical
location or topographical condition
Duration of Impact
Either short or long
Causality of events
Whether the exposed element receives the
disaster directly or indirectly
HAZARD-PRONE AREAS—---------------------------------------
A location where a natural hazard is likely to happen if
preventive measures are not implemented.
RELATIONSHIP OF HAZARDS, EXPOSURE, AND
VULNERABILITY—---------------------------------------------------
OF
COMPONENTS FOR ASSESSING RISK—--------------------
Hazard
The likelihood, probability, or chances of a
potentially destructive phenomenon
Exposure
The location, attributes, and values of assets
That are important to communities
Vulnerability
The likelihood that assets will be damaged or
destroyed when exposed to a hazard event
Impact
For use in preparedness, an evaluation of what
might happen to people and assets from a single
event
Risk
Is the composite of the impacts of ALL potential
events [100’s or 1000’s of models]
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER
PEH II
PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER
MODIFIABLE RISK FACTORS OF LIFESTYLE DISEASES
The WHO’s Western pacific region declares non-
communicable diseases (NCD) as the top killers in the
Philippines.
NCD’S
are non- infectious illnesses but can be inherited or
developed based on the individual’s lifestyle.
SMOKING—-------------------------------------------------------------
● Around 5 million die yearly from tobacco, and one
individual dies every eight seconds.
● Each stick of cigarette has more than 4,000
chemicals and consuming it would cut an
individual’s life for at least five minutes.
● Others who are exposed to cigarette smoke are
also at risk from its chemical effects.
● The smoke contains hydrogen cyanide (a deadly
substance used in gas chambers), insecticides,
methanol and butane fuels, benzene (causes
leukemia), cadmium, and formaldehyde (used in
embalming).
● Many of these chemicals have been studied
intensively over the past decades.
● The chemical mixture (i.e. cigarette smoke )
impairs the function of the cardiovascular and
respiratory system.
● It accelerates atherosclerosis (hardening and
narrowing of the arteries -- silently and slowly
blocks arteries, putting blood flow at risk.
● It’s the usual cause of heart attacks, strokes, and
peripheral vascular disease -- what together are
called cardiovascular disease.) and destroys the
cilia in the lungs.
SUBSTANCES FROM TOBACCO THAT ARE HARMFUL-
is a harmful byproduct of smoking
cigarettes.
It also damages the small hairs (cilia)
that help protect your lungs from dirt
Tar and infection.
This can lead to a range of lung
diseases such as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) and
emphysema.
is a toxic chemical compound that
mostly consists nitrogen, which also
makes cigarettes addictive. It makes
Nicotine
the heart beat fast, brings
lightheadedness, and upsets
stomach.
is a poisonous chemical from burnt
cigarette that makes the heart do
more work to supply sufficient oxygen
in the body.
It is harmful when breathed because
Carbon
it displaces oxygen in the blood and
Monoxide
deprives the heart, brain and other
vital organs of oxygen. Large
amounts of CO can overcome you in
minutes without warning — causing
you to lose consciousness and
suffocate.
KINDS OF TOBACCO SMOKE—---------------------------------
Mainstream smoke
Commonly known as “first hand smoke” from lit
cigarette that is both inhaled and exhaled.
Second-hand smoke
is a very dangerous smoke when taken in. It is a
smoke puffed out by smokers called environmental
tobacco or sidestream smoke.
Third-hand smoke
refers to cigarette offshoots, which is attached to
the smokers’ hair and clothing as well as various
surfaces like walls, floors, furniture, chairs, and
toys.
This will remain in the environment even if the
smoke is already gone.
WHY DO PEOPLE START SMOKING?-------------------------
1. Parental model
2. Adolescent experimentation and rebellion
3. Depression
4. Limited education
5. Weight control
6. Aggressive marketing
7. Stress
8. Addiction
WHY DO PEOPLE KEEP SMOKING?---------------------------
1. Pleasure
2. Fear of weight gain
3. Nicotine dependence
4. Use of other substances(many smokers also use
alcohol and drugs.
DIETARY HABITS
DIETARY HABITS—--------------------------------------------------
Are the usual choices of food that people make.
POOR DIETARY HABITS—-----------------------------------------
● It is about not eating enough healthy food.
● It occurs when the person does not follow the
principles of good nutrition.
Adequacy
refers to moderate amounts of nutrients to
maintain normal body function.
Balance ● Eating to cope with feelings may be detrimental
refers to correct combination of nutrients and lead to eating disorder.
Variety
refers to consumption of different types of food
products.​​
PART OF POOR DIETARY HABITS—---------------------------
Underconsumption and overconsumption of:
● unhealthy food and drinks
● intake of low­fiber
● high salt
● high­sugar food
affects the amount of essential nutrients in the body such
as vitamins minerals, protein, fiber, as well as fluid.

Poor Dietary Habits will lead to malnutrition resulting to:

● Stress
● Tiredness
● Sleep deprivation
● Weak brain functions
● Indigestion
● Heart problems
It adds up to risk of:
● Obesity
● Tooth decay
● High blood pressure
● High cholesterol
● Heart disease and stroke
● Type 2 diabetes
● Osteoporosis
● Certain types of cancer
● Depression
● Eating disorders

○ Starting a healthy eating habit begins with knowing

what you eat.
○ Eating should be planned.
○ This includes evaluation of the food intake whether
it provides sufficient nutrients or is harmful to your
body.

WHAT ARE THE USUAL REASONS OF DEVELOPING

UNHEALTHY EATING?----------------------------------------------
● Learning from parents/guardians without eating
habits
● A family not having meals together
● Uninformed about healthy eating
● Busy schedule
● Too much travelling
● Lack of desire to eat healthy
● Poverty
● Extreme emotional conditions
BASIC CALCULUS
PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER

PAGBASA AT PAGSUSURI
PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER
BATAYANG KAALAMAN SA MAPANURING PAGBASA
KAHULUGAN AT KAHALAGAHAN NG PAGBASA—------
Ayon kina Anderson et al. (1985), sa aklat na Becoming a
Nation of Readers, ang pagbasa ay isang proseso ng
pagbuo ng kahuligan mula sa mga nakasulat na teksto.
ANG PROSESO NG PAGBASA—--------------------------------
Ayon kay William S. Gray (1950), ang kinilalang “Ama ng
Pagbasa”
Persepsyon
ito ang pagkilala at pagtukoy sa mga nakalimbag
na simbolo at kakayahan sa pagbigkas ng mga
tunog.
Komprehensyon
Ito ay pag-unawa sa mga nakalimbag na simbolo o
salita.
Reaksyon
Ito ay kaalaman sa pagpasiya o paghatol ng
kawastuhan, kahusayan pagpapahalaga at
pagdama sa teksto.
Integrasyon
ito ay kaalaman sa pagsasanib o pag-uugnay at
paggamit ng mambabasa sa kanyang dati at mga
bagong karanasan sa tunay na buhay
Ayon kina Wixson et al. (1987) sa artikulong " New
Directions in Statewide Reading Assessment" ang
pagbasa ay isang proseso ng pagbuo ng kahuligan sa
pamamagitan ng interaksiyon ng:
1. imbak o umiiral nang kaalaman ng mambabasa;
2. impormasyong ibinibigay ng tekstong binabasa;
3. konteksto ng kalagayan o sitwasyon sa
pagbabasa.
TEORYA SA PAGBASA—------------------------------------------
Itaas - Pababa (Top-down)
Ang teoryang ito ay naniniwalang ang pag- unawa
ay nagmumula sa isipan ng mambabasa mayroon nang
dating kaalaman at karanasan.
Mga Proponent ng Teoryang Itaas- Pababa:
Kenneth S. Goodman (1985) at Frank Smith (1994)
Ibaba-Pataas (bottom-up)
Ito ay pananaw sa pagbasa na naniniwalang ang
pag-unawa sa teksto ay batay sa mga nakikita rito tulad ng
salita, pangungusap, larawan, diyagram o iba pang
simbolo.
Mga Proponent ng Teoryang Ibaba-Pataas: Rudolf
Flesh (1955), Philip B. Gough (1985), at David La Berge at
S. Jay Samuels (1985)
Interaktibo
Ito ang kombinasyon ng teoryang bottom-up at
top- down sapagkat ang proseso ng komprehensyon ay
may dalawang direksyon (McCormick, 1998). Sa paggamit
ng dalawang paraasn (bottom-up at top- down, nagaganap
ang interaksyon sa pagitan ng teksto at ng mambabasa sa
pag-unawa sa teksto.
Mga Proponent ng Teoryang Interaktibo David E.
Rumelhart (1985); Rebecca Barr, Marilyn Sadow, Camille
Blachowicz (1990); at Robert Ruddell, Robert Speaker
(1985)
Iskima
Ang lahat ng ating naranasa at natutuhan ay
nakaimbak sa ating isipan o memorya. Ito ay nagiging
dating kaalaman (prior knowledge). Ito'y
nakakaimpluwensiya nang malaki sa pag-unawa kung ano
ang alam na o hindi alam ng mambabasa.
● Iskemata
● Iskema
METAKOGNISYON SA PAGBASA—----------------------------
Ayon kay Flavel (1976), ang metakognisyon ay
tumutukoy sa pagkakaroon ng kamalayan at kasanayan sa
pagkontrol sa sariling proseso ng pag- unawa. Ito rin ang
mataas na kasanayang pampag-iisip na kinapapalooban
ng aktibong pagkontrol sa mga prosesong kognitibo sa
pagkatuto.
PROSESONG METAKOGNISYON—----------------------------
Kaalaman ng mambabasa sa kanyang sariling kahinaan at
kalakasan sa pagbasa
Ayon kay Graves, et al. (2007), ang isang
metakognitibong mambabasa ay itinatanong sa sarili ang
sumusunod: naunawaan ko ba ang sinasabi ng awtor?;
ano ang ginagawa ko kapag hindi ko naunawaan ang
aking binabasa?; ano ang maaari kong gawin upang lalong
maunawaan ko ang sinasabi ng awtor? may magagawa ba
ako upang mas lalong maalala ang binasang teskto?;
anong mga estratehiya sa pagbasa ang aking kailangang
gamitin kaugnay ng teksto?
MGA KASANAYAN SA PAGBASA—----------------------------
Ang mga kasanayan sa pagbasa ay nahahati sa dalawang
malawak na pangkat o uri:
A. Kasanayan sa Bilis
B. Kasanayan sa Pang-unawa
DALAWANG KATEGORYA NG MAPANURING Mapagsiyasat na Antas (Inspectional)
PAGBASA—------------------------------------------------------------ Sa antas na ito, nauunawaan na ang mambabasa
Intensibong Pagbasa ang kauuang teksto at nakapagbibigay ng mga hinuha o
DOUGLAS BROWN 1994 Teaching by Principles: An impresyon tungkol dito.
Interactive Approach to Langugae Pedagogy Analitikal na Antas (Analytical)
● pagsusuri sa kaanyuang gramatikal, panandang Ginagamit ang mapanuri o kritikal na pag-iisip
diskurso at iba pang detalye sa estruktura upang upang malalimang maunawaan ang kahulugan ng teksto at
maunawaan ang literal na kahulugan, implikasyon ang layunin o pananaw ng manunulat. Bahagi ng antas na
at retorikal na ugnayan ng isang akda ito ang;
LONG AT RICHARDS 1987: Methodology in TESOL: A 1. Pagtatasa sa katumpakan
book of Readings 2. Kaangkupan
● Detalyadong pagsusuri ng isang teksto sa 3. Kung katotothanan o opinyon ang nilalaman ng
pamamagitan ng pagbibigay ng gabay ng isang teksto
guro kung paano ito susuriin. Upang makamit ito, kailangang isagawa ng
Ekstensibong Pagbasa mambabasa ang sumusunod;
Brown (1994) ● Tukuyin kung saang larangan nakapaloob ang
● ang ekstensibong pagbasa ay isinasagawa upang teksto.
makuha ang pangkalahatang pag-unawa sa ● Ibabalangkas ang teksto batay sa kabuuang
maraming bilang ng teksto. estruktura o kung paano ito inayos ng may akda.
Long at Richards (1987) ● Tukuyin ang suliranin na tinatangkang
● naganap ang ekstensibong pagbasa kapag ang bigyang-linaw ng may-akda.
isang mambabasa ay nagbabasa ng maramihang ● Unawain ang mahahalagang terminong ginagamit
babasahin na ayon sa kaniyang interes, mga ng may akda tungo sa pag-unawa ng kabuuang
babasahin na yon sa kaniyang interes, mga teksto.
babasahing kadalasang hindi kahingian sa loob ng ● Sapulin ang mahahalagang proposisyon ng
klase o itinakda sa anomang asignatura may-akda.
DALAWANG URI NG PAGBASA—------------------------------- ● Alamin ang argumento ng may-akda
Scanning ● Tukuyin ang bandang huli kung nasolusyonan o
Mabilisang pagbasa ng isang teksto na ang pokus nasagot ba ng may-akda ang suliranin ng teksto
ay hanapin ang ispesipikong impormasyon na itinakda ● Tukuyiin kung saang bahagi ng teksto nagkulang,
bago bumasa. nagkamali, o naging ilohikal ang pagpapaliwanag
● Tiyak na impormasyon ng may akda.
Skimming Sintopikal na Antas (Syntopical)
Mabilisang pagbasa na ang layunin ay alamin ang Ang salitang syntopical ay binuo ni Mortimer Adler mula sa
kahulugan ng kabuuang teksto, kung paano inorganisa salitang syntopicon na inimbento at ginamit niya sa aklat
ang mga ideya o kabuuang diskurso ng teksto at kung ano na A syntopicon: An Index to the Great Ideas (1952) na
ang pananaw at layunin ng manunulat. nangangahulugang " koleksiyon ng mga paksa."
● Pangkalahatang impormasyon Tumutukoy sa uri ng pagsusuri na
ANTAS NG PAGBASA—-------------------------------------------- kinapapalooban ng paghahambing sa iba't ibang teksto at
Tinutukoy nina Mortimer Adler at Charles Van Doren akda na kadalasang magkaugnay.
(1973) sa kanilang aklat na How to Read a Book ang apat
Sintopikal Analitikal
na antas na pagbasa, ito ay ang sumusunod:
Primaryang Antas (Elementarya) Nakabubuo ng sariling Mula sa analitikal na
Ito ang pinakamababang antas ng pagbasa at perspektiba o pananaw sa pagbasa ng limang aklat ay
pantulong upang makamit ang literasi sa pagbasa. isang tiyak na larangan maari ka nang maging
mula sa paghahambing ng eksperto sa isang tiyak na
Kinapapalooban ng pagtukoy sa tiyak na datos at
mga akdang inunawa. paksa kbatay sa kung ano
ispesipikong impormasyon gaya ng: ang sinasabi ng manunulat.
1. Petsa
2. Setting
3. Lugar
4. Mga tauhan
LIMANG HAKBANG SA SINTOPIKAL NA PAGBASA—-- pananaliksik, tesis, o kaya ay tala ng isang komperesiya o
● Pagsisiyasat anumang pag- aaral sa isang tiyak na disiplina o larangan.
● Asimilasyon Rebyu
● Mga tanong Ang rebyu naman ay isang uri ng pampanitikang
● Mga Isyu kritisismo na ang layunin ay suriin ang isang aklat batay sa
● Kumbersasyon nilalaman, estilo, at anyo ng pagkakasulat nito.
MGA KASANAYAN SA MAPANURING PAGBASA TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO
TATLONG BAHAGI NG MAPANURING PAGBASA—------ TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO—------------------------------------
Bago Magbasa Ang tekstong impormatibo, na kung minsan ay tinatawag
● Sinisimulan ang pagbasa sa pagsisiyasat ng ding ekspositori, ay isang anyo ng pagpapahayag na
tekstong babasahin naglalayong maglahad at magbigay ng impormasyon.
Habang Nagbabasa KAHALAGAHAN NG TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO—------
● Nangyayari ang pinakamalaking bahagi ng Mahalaga ang pagbasa ng mga tekstong nagbibigay ng
kognisyon habang nagbabasa impormasyon sapagkat napauunlad nito ang iba pang
Pagkatapos Magbasa kasanayang pangwika gaya ng pagbasa, pagtatala,
● Pagtatasa ng komprehensiyon pagtukoy ng mahahalagang detalye, pakikipagtalakayan,
● Pagbubuod pagsusuri, ay pagpapakuahulugan ng impormasyon.
● Pagbubuo ng sintesis IBA’T IBANG ESTRUKTUR—--------------------------------------
● Ebalwasyon Sanhi at Bunga
PAGKILALA SA OPINYON AT KATOTOHANAN—--------- Ay estruktura ng paglalahad na nagpapakita ng
Katotohanan pagkakaugnay ng mga pangyayari at kung paanong ang
Ang katotohanan ay mga pahayag na maaaring kinalabasan ay naging resulta ng mga naunang panyayari.
mapatunayan o masubalian sa pamamagitan ng empirikal Paghahambing
na karanasan, pananaliksik, o pangkalahatang kaalaman o Ang mga tekstong nasa ganitong estuktura ay
impormasyon. kadalasang nagpapakita ng mga pagkakaiba at
Opinyon pagkakatulad sa pagitan ng anomang bagay, konsepto, o
Ang opinyon naman ay mga pahayag na pangyayari.
nagpapakita ng preperensiya o ideya batay sa personal na Pagbibigay-depinisyon
paniniwala at iniisip ng isang tao. maaaring kakitaan ito ng Ipinaliliwanag ng ganitong uri ang kahulugan ng
mga panandang diskurso tulad ng "sa opinyon ko," "para isang salita, termino, o konsepto. Maaring ang paksa ay
sa akin" "gusto ko," o "sa tingin ko" tungkol sa isang konkretong bagay gaya ng uri ng isang
PAGTUKOY SA LAYUNIN, PANANAW AT DAMDAMIN hayop, puno, o kaya naman ay mas abstraktong mga
NG TEKSTO—---------------------------------------------------------- bagay gaya ng katarungan, pagkakapantay-pantay, o
Layunin pag-ibig.
Ang layunin ay tumutukoy sa nais iparating at Plaglilista ng Klasipikasyon
motibo ng manunulat sa teksto. Mahihinuha ito sa Ito naman ay kadalsanag naghahati-hati ng isang
pamamagitan ng uri ng diskursong ginamit sa malaking paksa o ideya sa iba’t ibang kategorya o grupo
pagpapahayag. upang magkaroon ng sistema ang pagtatalakay.
Pananaw MGA KAKAYAHAN SA PAGBASA—----------------------------
Ang pananaw ay pagtukoy kung ano ang Ayon kay Yuko Iwai (2007) sa artikulong “Developing
preperensiya ng manunulat sa teksto. ESL/EFL Learner’s Reading Crisis: Why poor Children Fall
Damdamin Behind” Mhalagang hasain ng isang mahusay na
Ang damdamin ay ang ipinahihiwatig na mambabasa ang tatlong kakayahan upang unawain ang
pakiramdam ng manunulat sa teksto. mga tekstong impormatibo
PAGBUO NG PARAPHRASE, ABSTRAK, AT REBYU—-- Imbak na kaalaman
Paraphrase Ang pagpapagan ng imbak na kaalaman ay may
Ang paraphrase ay tumutukoy sa muling kinalaman sa pag-alala ng mga salita at konsepting dato
pagpapahayag ng ideya ng may-akda sa ibang nang alam na ginamit sa teksto upang ipaunawa ang mga
pamamaraan at pananalita upang padaliin at palinawin ito bagong impormasyon sa mambabasa.
para sa mambabasa Pagbuo ng hinuha
Abstrak Ang pagbuo ng hinuha naman ay may kinalaman
Ang abstrak naman ay isang buod ng sa pagbasa ng mga bahagi ng teksto na hindi gaanong
malinaw sa pamamagitan ng pag-uugnay nito sa iba pang
bahagi na malinaw
Mayamang Karanasan
Mahalaga rin ang pagkakaroon ng mayamang
karanasan sa oagbasa ng iba’t ibang teksto at pagdanas
sa mga ito.

PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER
DOMAINS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT—----------------------------------------------------
the qualitative and progressive changes in the
organism as a whole
DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGISTS—--------------------------
● study the human growth and development that
occurs throughout the entire lifespan
● dentified the three domains of human development
● hey identified the three domains of human
development
THREE DOMAINS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT—---------
Physical Development
● covers the growth of the body and brain, motor
and sensory skills and physical health
Cognitive Development
● our capacity to learn, understand, reason, and
create
Psychosocial Development
● includes the social interactions with other people,
emotions, attitudes, self-identity, personality,
beliefs, and values
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT—----------------------------------------
covers the whole lifespan of human existence
Heredity
Heredity is the sum of all biological processes by
which particular characteristics are transmitted from
parents to their offspring
Examples: intelligence, body structure, height, weight
Environment
Environment is the world outside of ourselves and
the experiences that result from our contact and interaction
with this external world.
Examples: family, religion, climate, nutrition
Maturation
Maturation refers to physical growth and
development of the body - especially the nervous system.
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT—-----------------------------------
● one’s own development and growth the process of
striving to be the best that you can be to reach and
realize your full potential
● a journey of self-discovery, improvement, and
self-realization
Personality
● The qualities, traits, and characteristics of a person
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT—------------------------------
● focused on polishing, defining, and refining the
attributes that people look for
● noticeable transformation and improvement in
one’s personality
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
PSYCHOLOGY—------------------------------------------------------
The study of human behavior and thinking
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY—----------------------------------
● a psychological perspective that emphasizes the
study of the whole person
● study how people are influenced by their
self-perceptions and the personal meanings
attached to their experiences
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGISTS—------------------------------
Abraham Maslow
● Father of Humanistic Psychology
● he proposed that human motivation is founded on
a hierarchy of needs
● Fundamental Principle:
People are born with certain needs, the fulfillment
of which allows us to move forward and fulfill other
complex needs.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS—------------------------
Physiological Needs
● food, water, oxygen, shelter, rest/sleep
● found in the lowest layer of the hierarchy of needs
● the highest priority needs
● should first be met before people can even
consider otherhigher-level needs
Safety Needs
● the need to feel safe and protected with other
people in an environment that is feel from harm
● security, protection, and stability
● manifested by settling down in a safe
neighborhood, striving for job security, keeping a
sizeable bank account, planning for retirement
Love and Belongingness
● the need to be loved and accepted and the need to
belong
● seeking out friendship and groups to experience a
sense of belongingness
● striving for membership in clubs or fraternities, find
partners, cultivate loving relationships, raise
children, and assume active roles in the
community, church, or in a civic organization
Esteem
● needs for achievement, education, respect, and
competence
● people dedicate their efforts to adding to Their
accomplishments and gaining the respect,
admiration, and appreciation of others
● climbing the professional ladder, gaining more
knowledge and experience, and working toward
achieving a solid sense of self-worth
Self-Actualization COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT
● at the top of the pyramid SELF-CONCEPT—----------------------------------------------------
● extensive understanding of the self and the ● general term used to refer to how someone thinks,
actualization of one’s full potential evaluates, or perceives themselves
● at this stage, people know who they truly are and ● tends to be malleable when you are younger
feel comfortable and content in the stature and ● become much more detailed and organized as you
place they have established for themselves age
● very few people ever reach this stage Rene Descartes
DIMENSIONS OF SELF ● Father of modern philosophy
ADOLESENCE—------------------------------------------------------ ● Proposed a theory”
● the phase of life between childhood and adulthood, “The mind is the seed of our consciousness.”
from ages 10 to 19 ● Everything that we are comes from the mind.
● the time when young people start to ask questions Carl Rogers
about themselves, their future, and even about ● suggested the three components concept:
their religious and political beliefs ○ Actual self
“Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom” ○ Ideal self
-Aristotle ○ Self-esteem
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT—----------------------------------- COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT—------------------------
● the process of striving to be the best that you can Actual Self
be to reach and realize your full potential ● the way we see ourselves
● starts with knowing yourSELF ● has characteristics that you were nurtured or born
SELF—------------------------------------------------------------------- to have
● is what an individual sees, perceives, and defines ● includes what we know about ourselves
oneself apart from others ○ physically (e.g. brown hair, blue eyes, tall)
THREE KNOWN DIMENSIONS OF SELF—------------------- ○ social roles (e.g. wife, brother, gardener)
Physical Dimension ○ personality traits (e.g. outgoing, serious,
● revolves around the physical body of a human kind)
being ● built on self-knowledge
○ Processes ○ derived from social interactions that
○ Functions provide insight into how others react to
○ Mechanisms you
○ Chemistry ● can be seen by others
● refers to the individual as an organism under the ● our self-image
species of Homo sapiens Ideal Self
● a person will view oneself based on his or her ● the self we would like to be
physical traits ● developed over time, based on what we have
● could be observed directly learned and experienced
● can be measured ● include components
Psychological Dimension ○ What our parents have taught us
● contains the concepts of cognition, behavior, ○ What we admire in others
attitude, emotion, and personality ○ What our society promotes
● has both internal and external factors that can or ○ What we think is in our best interest
cannot be measured, observed, and calculated
Spiritual Dimensions Actual Self and Ideal Self if aligned or congruent can result
● allows us to view ourselves as a spiritual beings in:
● involves exploring the key principles, beliefs, and ● Sense of mental well-being
values that give meaning and purpose to your life ● Peace of mind
● cannot be observed but can be subjectively altered Actual self and Ideal self if not aligned or incongruent can
and perceived by the person result in:
● Mental distress or anxiety
● Can negatively impact one’s self-esteem
Incongruence has its earliest roots in childhood.
Self-esteem
● Our attitude towards ourselves
● how we like, accept and value ourselves, given the
Negative Or Positive feedback we receive
● emotionally inclined
● describes a person's overall sense of self-worth or
personal value
● Michael Argyle
English social psychologist of the twentieth century
● Four major factors influence self-esteem:
○ Reaction of others
○ Comparison with others
○ Social roles
○ Identification
 SELF-EFFICACY Experience
SELF-EFFICACY—--------------------------------------------------- ● includes knowledge and skills that we acquire in
● the belief we have in our abilities the process of cognitive and practical activities.
● “…those beliefs are determinants of how people Knowledge
think, behave, and feel” -Albert Bandura ● is required for setting goals, defining an action to
● means making use of all the personal resources achieve them, and risk assessment.
● focused on “doing” Skills
● can contribute to one’s sense of overall value or ● The ability to use one’s knowledge effectively and
worth readily in execution or performance
● begin to form in early childhood Failures
● continues to evolve throughout life ● emanate from weaknesses that are not recognized
People with a strong sense of self-efficacy: or probably recognized but not given appropriate
● Develop deeper interest in the activities in which attention or remedy.
they participate. THREE KIND SOF PEOPLE IN THIS WORLD—-------------
● Form a stronger sense of commitment to their Moviegoer
interests and activities. ● This person watches the movie of their life,
● Recover quickly from setbacks and admires some parts, and criticizes others. Aside
disappointments. from that, they do nothing else. All she says the
● View challenging problems as tasks to be whole day is, "I like this thing and but I don't like
mastered. that thing." The Moviegoer feels she has no control
People with a weak sense of self-efficacy: of their lives - except to comment about it.
● Avoid challenging tasks. Moviegoers are the most pathetic, miserable
● Believe that difficult tasks and situations are people in the world.
beyond their capabilities. Actor
● Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes. ● This person does not only watch the movie of her
● Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities. life. She realizes she's the Actor - and can control
PERSONAL EFFECTIVENESS a big part of her life. She can make or break the
BUILDING SELF-EFFICACY—------------------------------------ movie - by how well she delivers her lines and how
1. Celebrate Your Success she portrays her character. The actors are a happy
2. Observe Others bunch, realizing they are at the start of the show
3. Seek Positive Affirmations and enjoy some level of control. But many times,
4. Pay Attention to Your Thoughts and Emotions they wish the movie would end in another way -
PERSONAL EFFECTIVENESS—--------------------------------- but realize that they have no say in such things.
● means making use of all the personal resources Scriptwriter
–talent, skills, energy, and time, to enable you to ● This person does not only watch, and she doesn't
achieve your goals. only act, but she creates the entire movie from her
● Self-knowledge mind. She determines what she will say, what she
● Self-management will do, and how the movie will end. She realizes
● Being self-aware, making the most of your she has enormous control over her life and sees to
strengths, learning new skills and techniques, and it that the movie of her life will turn out beautiful.
behavioral flexibility are all keys to improving your
performance.
● effectiveness depends on our innate
characteristics – talent and experience
accumulated in the process of personal
development.
Talents
● Natural ability to be good at something
● needed to be identified and then developed to be
used in a particular subject area
 ● oxidation
GENERAL CHEMISTRY I ● flammability
PRELIMS - SECOND SEMESTER ● heat of combustion
PROPERTIES OF MATTER ● enthalpy of formation
CHEMISTRY—---------------------------------------------------------- ● chemical stability under specific conditions
Study of matter- all things that occupy space and ● Radioactivity
have mass. It deals with the study of composition, STATES OF MATTER—----------------------------------------------
properties and structure & changes and energy involved in ● Solid
theses changes. ● Liquid
Building blocks of matter ● Gas
Atoms ● Plasma
Smallest particles of a substance ● Bose-einstein Condensate
consist of two or more atoms joined CHANGES OF MATTER—------------------------------------------
Molecules Physical Change
together and recognized as a unit.
Ions Charged particles ● A change that affects one or more physical
properties of a substance but not the composition.
Anything that has mass and takes up
Matter ● Do not form new substances. It could change in
space
state only
The amount of matter in an object ● Solid to liquid
Mass
● Liquid to gas
Measured with a balance
Chemical Change
The amount of space an object takes up ● A change that occurs when one or more
Volume substances are changed into entirely new
Measured with ruler or graduated
cylinder substances with different properties.
● Can not change back under normal conditions
A measure of the force of gravity on an
Weight (some can be changed back by other chemical
object
means)
PROPERTIES OF MATTER—--------------------------------------
● Any change that causes new matter to be formed
Physical Properties
● Burning, rusting, cooking, carbonization
characteristics or features that describe matter,
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
that be observed and measured w/o changing the identity
PURE SUBSTANCE—-----------------------------------------------
and composition of the substance
have a specific composition with distinct
● Boiling point
properties. It cannot be separated into their components
● Melting point
via simple physical means.
● Solubility
CLASSIFICATION OF PURE SUBSTANCE—-----------------
● Conductivity
Element
● Hardness
is made up of only one kind of atom, the building
● pH
block of matter. An element can be chemically broken into
● Flammability
a simpler substance.
● Density
Kinds of Elements
Two kinds of Physical Properties:
● Metals are called electron donor.
1. Extensive/Extrinsic Properties
● Non-metal are electron acceptors.
Properties that depend on the amount of
● Metalloids are elements that have both the
substances.
property of metal and non-metal.
★ Mass, length, size, volume
Compound
2. Intensive/Intrinsic Properties
atoms of different elements are combined in a
Properties that depend on the type/quality of
definite ratio
matter
★ Taste. Color, hardness, density Elements Compounds
Chemical Properties Pure substance Impure substance
Refers to the ability of a substance to undergo Has only one kind of atoms Has two or more kinds of
changes to transform into a different substance. atoms
● toxicity
Represented by symbol Represented by chemical Centrifugation
formula ● is the separation process that relies on the action
Smallest particle is atom Smallest particle is of centrifugal force to separate particles in a
molecule solid–liquid mixture into two distinct phases
MIXTURE—-------------------------------------------------------------- consisting of the sediment and centrifugate.
is made up of two or more different pure ● It uses centrifuge machine.
substances. Their component can have varying MEASUREMENT—----------------------------------------------------
proportions and can be separated using simple physical is the process of associating numbers with physical
means. quantities and phenomena.
CLASSIFICATION OF MIXTURE—------------------------------- ● Qualitative Observation
● Quantitative observation
Homogeneous Mixture Heterogenous Mixture
Accuracy
It has a uniform composition It has a non-uniform of a data set is dependent on the closeness to a
composition true value.
It has only one phase There are two or more Precision
phases of a data set is dependent on the closeness of the
It can’t be separated out It can be separated out measured values to each other.
physically physically TYPES OF ERROR—-------------------------------------------------
“Homo” means the same ‘Hetero’ means different Systematic error
(also called systematic bias) is consistent,
A mixture of alcohol and A mixture of sodium
water chloride and sand repeatable error associated with faulty equipment or a
flawed experiment design. These errors are usually caused
WAYS OF SEPARATING MIXTURE & MEASUREMENTS
by measuring instruments that are incorrectly calibrated or
TECHNIQUES OF SEPARATING MIXTURES—--------------
are used incorrectly.
Filtration
Random errors
● is a technique used to separate undissolved solid
in experimental measurements are caused by
components from the liquid in a mixture.
unknown and unpredictable changes in the experiment.
● It makes use of a filter paper whose pores can
These changes may occur in the measuring instruments or
separate components based on particle size.
in environmental conditions.
Evaporation
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS—------------------------------------------
● the liquid component is evaporated away by
applying heat until only the solid components
remain.
● In this technique, however, the liquid component
can no longer be recovered.
Distillation
● this technique is used in the mixture to be
separated is composed of two or more liquids with
different boiling points.
● An elaborate set-up that involves the process of COMMON CONVERSION FACTORS—-------------------------
evaporation and condensation.
Chromatography
● is used to separate and identify components of a
mixture based on selective affinity.
Electrophoresis
● a widely used separation technique, which can be
used to separate fragments of DNA and is used in
Genetic mapping.
Physical Manipulation
● separation technique which used tools such as
forceps, spoon, and the likes to separate
components from a mixture.
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
RULES:-------------------------------------------------------------------
1. All non-zero numbers ARE significant.
2. Zeros between two non-zero digits ARE
significant.
3. Leading zeros are NOT significant. They're nothing
more than "place holders."
4. Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal ARE
significant.
5. Trailing zeros in a whole number with the decimal
shown ARE significant.
6. Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal
shown are NOT significant.